NDT Handbook

Non-Destructive Testing Inspectors Handbook
Visual Inspection (VT) Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT) Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Radiographic Inspection (RT)
Inspectors Handbook
ii
Preface
This reference book was designed for use in the field and to support on-the-job training. It should not be used as a standard or referred to as a stand-alone document. This book covers basic formulas, charts, and other NDT related information.
Dedication
To all the people who have influenced my naval career and where I am today in the Non-Destructive field. Thank you. I originally started this project as a self-knowledge application and began receiving comments from my fellow colleagues requesting a copy. I soon realized that this would prove to be an invaluable tool for general information in our field. I have received support from both military and civilian personnel and have taken a sample of their suggestions and compiled them for you, the end user. I wanted to take personal credit for this project and realized it would not benefit the NDT field as a whole. Instead, I encourage you, the end user, to change, manipulate, or configure this book for yourself. In closing, Share the Wealth with Others.
Last Revision Date

02 April 2002
Contact Information
Keoke526@hotmail.com ndthandbook.zapto.org
Disclaimer
This book is not intended for sale or any monetary benefit to the editor.
Inspectors Handbook
Table of Contents
Scope of Standards..............................................................................................................................................iv
Chapter 1 - General Information.....................................................................1

Schedule Designations of Pipe Sizes................................................................................................................1 Copper Tubing Wall Thickness ...............................................................................................................2 Decimal to Inches.............................................................................................................................................2 Temperature Conversions.................................................................................................................................2 .....................................................................................................................................................................2 Fraction to Decimal Equivalent........................................................................................................................3 Decimal to Second Conversion........................................................................................................................3 Numerical Place Value Chart...........................................................................................................................3 Elements of a Nondestructive Examination Symbol........................................................................................4 Elements of a Welding Symbol........................................................................................................................4 Examples of Grooves........................................................................................................................................5 Basic Joints (Welding)......................................................................................................................................5 Order of Performing Arithmetic Operations.....................................................................................................6 Ratio And Proportion........................................................................................................................................7 Calculation of Area...........................................................................................................................................8 Weld Area Calculation...................................................................................................................................8 Common Symbols and Terms........................................................................................................................8 Solution of Right-angled Triangles................................................................................................................10 Basic Illustration of a Weld ...........................................................................................................................11 Welding Processes..........................................................................................................................................12 Backing Ring Common Defect Locations......................................................................................................13 Consumable Insert Common Defect Locations..............................................................................................13 Primary Processing Discontinuities................................................................................................................14 Finish Processing Discontinuities...................................................................................................................15 Dial Indicating Calipers..................................................................................................................................16 Micrometer.....................................................................................................................................................16 Thread Terminology (fasteners).....................................................................................................................17 Tap and Drill Size Chart.................................................................................................................................17 Julian Date Calendar (Perpetual)....................................................................................................................19 Julian Date Calendar (Leap Year)..................................................................................................................20 Flow Chart For A Discontinuity.....................................................................................................................20
Chapter 2 - Visual Inspection.........................................................................1

Common Definitions and Examples.................................................................................................................1
Chapter 3 - Liquid Penetrant Testing..............................................................1

Common Terms and Definitions......................................................................................................................1 Prorated Maximum Number of Indications......................................................................................................6 Areas of Circles................................................................................................................................................6 Penetrant Wetting Characteristics.....................................................................................................................7
Chapter 4 - Magnetic Particle Testing............................................................1

Common Definitions and Examples.................................................................................................................1 Longitudinal Magnetization Math Formula......................................................................................................7 Prorated Maximum Number of Indications......................................................................................................8 Areas of Circles................................................................................................................................................8 Common Types of Magnetization....................................................................................................................8 ...................................................................................................................................................................9 Inspectors Handbook ii
Theory: RightHand Rule.................................................................................................................9 Hysteresis Curve.............................................................................................................................................10 Magnetic Particle Field Indicator (Pie Gage).................................................................................................11
Chapter 5 - Ultrasonic Testing........................................................................1

Common Terms and Definitions......................................................................................................................1 Common Math Formulas................................................................................................................................12 Calibration Chart UT Shearwave.................................................................................................................13 FPADSCR D................................................................................................................................................14 .......................................................................................................................................................................14 Velocity Chart.................................................................................................................................................15
Chapter 6 - Eddy Current Testing...................................................................1

Common Terms and Definitions......................................................................................................................1 Two Types of Electrical Current......................................................................................................................6 Conductivity and the IACS...............................................................................................................................7 Right Hand Rule...............................................................................................................................................7 Magnetic Domains............................................................................................................................................9 Depth of Penetration.......................................................................................................................................13 Limitations of Eddy Current Testing..............................................................................................................20 Advantages of Eddy Current Testing.............................................................................................................20 Summary of Properties of Eddy Currents.......................................................................................................20 Eddy Current Relationship of Properties........................................................................................................20
Chapter 7 - Radiographic Inspection..............................................................1

Common Definitions and Examples.................................................................................................................1 Structure of the Atom and an Element.............................................................................................................8 Components of an Isotope................................................................................................................................8 Characteristics of A Radioactive Element........................................................................................................8 Two Types of Radiation...................................................................................................................................8 History of Radiography....................................................................................................................................9 60 Coverage for Pipes and Location Marker Measurements.........................................................................11 Common Math Formulas................................................................................................................................12 Magic Circles..................................................................................................................................................15
A.................................................................................................................15
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Plate..................................................................................15 Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Pipe...................................................................................16 Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (superimposed)........................................................................16 Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (offset)......................................................................................17 Double Wall Exposure / Single Wall View....................................................................................................17 KILLER CARL..............................................................................................................................................18 Penetrameter Material and Group Numbers...................................................................................................18 Penny T-Hole Maximum Density ................................................................................................................19 2% Penetrameter Quality Conversion Chart (X-RAY ONLY)......................................................................20 Basic Components of an X-ray Tube..............................................................................................................25 Types of Scatter Radiation..............................................................................................................................25 Radiographic Film Interpretation...................................................................................................................26 Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Automatic Film Processing.......................................................50 Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Processed Radiographic Film...................................................51
iii
Inspectors Handbook
Scope of Standards
NSTP 271 REQUIREMENTS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS This document covers the requirements for conducting nondestructive tests (NDT) used in determining the presence of surface and internal discontinuities in metals. It also contains the minimum requirements necessary to qualify nondestructive test and inspection personnel, procedures, and nondestructive equipment. This document does not contain acceptance criteria for nondestructive test. This document does not cover all of the requirements for performing nondestructive tests in an underwater environment. Nondestructive tests in an underwater environment shall be performed as specified in NAVSEA S0600-AA-PRO-070. NSTP 248 REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING AND BRAZING PROCEDURE AND PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION This document contains the requirements for the qualification of welding and brazing procedures, welders, welding operators, brazers and brazing operators that must be met prior to any production fabrication. It includes manual, semiautomatic, automatic and machine welding and brazing of ferrous, nonferrous, and dissimilar metals. The qualification tests required by this document are devised to demonstrate the adequacy of the welding or brazing procedures and to demonstrate the ability of welders, brazers, welding operators and brazing operators to produce sound welds or brazes. NSTP 278 REQUIREMENTS FOR FABRICATION WELDING AND INSPECTION, AND CASTING INSPECTION AND REPAIR FOR MACHINERY, PIPING, AND PRESSURE VESSELS This document contains the welding and allied processes (except brazing) and casting requirements including inspection for the fabrication, alteration, or repair of any item or component of machinery, piping, and pressure vessels in ships of the United States Navy. MIL-STD 2035 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA The acceptance criteria contained herein are for use in determining the acceptability of nondestructive test (NDT) discontinuities in castings, welds, forgings, extrusions, cladding, and other products when specified by the applicable Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) drawing, specification, contract, order, or directive. NSTP 1688 FABRICATION, WELDING AND INSPECTION SUBMARINE APPLICATIONS This document contains minimum requirements for fabrication and inspection of submarine and noncombatant submersible structures, including shipbuilding practices, specifications for materials, weld joint design, workmanship, welding, inspection, and record requirements. MIL-STD 1689 FABRICATION, WELDING, AND INSPECTION OF SHIPS STRUCTURE This standard contains the minimum requirements for the fabrication and inspection of the hull and associated structures of combatant surface ships. The requirements for shipbuilding, materials, welding, welding design, mechanical fasteners, workmanship, inspection, forming, castings and records are included. It also applies to those submarine structures which are not high-yield strength steels. MIL-STD 22D WELDED JOINT DESIGN This standard covers welded joint designs for manual, semi-automatic, and automatic arc and gas welding processes for use on metals and weldments, as applicable, when invoked by a fabrication document. The welded joint designs shown herein represent standard joint designs used in welded fabrication and are not intended to be all inclusive.
Inspectors Handbook
iv
NSTP CHAPTER 074 VOLUME 1 WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES This chapter furnishes both the minimum mandatory requirements (indicated by the word shall) and guidance information (indicated by the words should or may) necessary for welding, brazing, inspection, and safety when used for ship maintenance, repair, and alteration. NSTP CHAPTER 074 VOLUME 2 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF METALS QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR NAVAL PERSONNEL (NON-NUCLEAR) This chapter is furnished to ensure achievement of uniform and reliable nondestructive tests on naval materials and components, implementation of the training, qualification, and certification programs described in this chapter should be followed precisely.
Inspectors Handbook
Chapter 1 - General Information

Schedule Designations of Pipe Sizes
DIA. 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 4 4-1/2 5 6 8
SCHEDULE 40 O.D. I.D. .405 .269 .540 .364 .675 .493 .840 .622 1.050 .824 1.315 1.049 1.660 1.380 1.900 1.610 2.375 2.067 2.875 2.469 3.500 3.068 4.000 3.548 4.500 4.026 5.000 4.506 5.563 5.047 6.625 6.065 8.625 7.981
WALL .068 .088 .091 .109 .113 .133 .140 .145 .154 .203 .216 .226 .237 .247 .258 .280 .322
O.D. .405 .540 .675 .840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 5.563 6.625 8.625
SCHEDULE 80 I.D. WALL .215 .095 .302 .119 .423 .126 .546 .147 .742 .154 .957 .179 1.278 .191 1.500 .200 1.939 .218 2.323 .276 2.900 .300 3.364 .318 3.826 .337 4.290 .355 4.813 .375 5.761 .432 7.625 .500
DIA. 4 5 6 8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 4 5 6 8
SCHEDULE 120 O.D. I.D. 4.500 3.624 5.563 4.563 6.625 5.501 8.625 7.189 SCHEDULE 160 .840 .466 1.050 .614 1.315 .815 1.660 1.160 1.900 1.338 2.375 1.689 2.875 2.125 3.500 2.624 4.500 3.438 5.563 4.313 6.625 5.189 8.625 6.813
WALL .438 .500 .562 .718 .187 .218 .250 .250 .281 .343 .375 .438 .531 .625 .718 ..906
Copper Tubing Wall Thickness Decimal to Inches

Decimal 0.0833 0.1250 0.1667 0.2083 0.2500 0.2917 0.3333 0.3750 0.4167 0.4583 0.5000 0.5417 Inches Decimal Inches 1" 0.5833 7" 1 1/2 " 0.6250 7 1/2 " 2" 0.6667 8" 2 1/2 " 0.7083 8 1/2 " 3" 0.7500 9" 3 1/2 " 0.7917 9 1/2 " 4" 0.8333 10 " 4 1/2 " 0.8750 10 1/2 " 5" 0.9167 11 " 5 1/2 " 0.9583 11 1/2 " 6" 1.0000 12 " 6 1/2 " inches / 12 = decimal decimal * 12 = inches OD 0.125 0.25 0.375 0.405 0.5 0.54 0.675 0.75 0.84 1 1.05 1.25 1.315 1.5 1.66 1.9 2 2.375 2.5 2.875 3.5 4 4.5 5 CL - 200 CL - 700 CL - 1650 CL - 3300 CL - 6000 ------------0.028 0.028 0.035 --------0.035 0.058 ------------0.049 0.083 ------------0.058 0.095 0.035 0.065 0.035 0.072 0.120 0.065 0.065 0.042 0.072 0.120 0.065 0.072 0.049 0.095 0.148 --------0.058 0.109 0.165 0.065 0.072 0.058 0.120 0.203 --------0.072 0.134 0.220 0.065 0.083 0.083 0.148 0.238 --------0.095 0.165 0.284 0.065 0.095 0.095 0.180 0.300 --------0.109 0.203 0.340 0.072 0.095 0.120 0.220 0.380 0.072 0.109 0.134 0.250 0.425 --------0.148 0.284 0.454 0.083 0.120 0.165 0.340 0.520 --------0.180 0.340 0.547 0.083 0.134 0.203 0.380 ----0.095 0.165 0.250 0.457 ----0.095 0.180 0.284 --------0.109 0.203 0.340 --------0.120 0.203 0.380 ---------
Temperature Conversions Fahrenheit = (9/5 * C) + 32 Celsius = (F - 32) * 5/9
Fraction to Decimal Equivalent

1/ 1/ 3/ 1/ 5/ 3/ 7/ 1/ 9/ 5/ 11/ 3/ 13/ 7/ 15/ 1/ 17/ 9/ 19/ 5/ 21/ 11/ 23/ 3/ 25/ 13/ 27/ 7/ 29/ 15/ 31/ 1/ 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 8 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 4 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 8 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 2 .015625 .03125 .046875 .0625 .078125 .09375 .109375 .125 .140625 .15625 .171875 .1875 .203125 .21875 .234375 .250 .265625 .28125 .296875 .3125 .328125 .34375 .359375 .375 .390625 .40625 .421875 .4375 .453125 .46875 .484375 .500 33/ 17/ 35/ 9/ 37/ 19/ 39/ 5/ 41/ 21/ 43/ 11/ 45/ 23/ 47/ 3/ 49/ 25/ 51/ 13/ 53/ 27/ 55/ 7/ 57/ 29/ 59/ 15/ 61/ 31/ 63/ 1/ 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 8 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 4 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 8 64 32 64 16 64 32 64 1 .515625 .53125 .546875 .5625 .578125 .59375 .609375 .625 .640625 .65625 .671875 .6875 .703125 .71875 .734375 .750 .765625 .78125 .796875 .8125 .828125 .84375 .859375 .875 .890625 .90625 .921875 .9375 .953125 .96875 .984375 1
Decimal to Second Conversion

DECIMAL .017 .033 .050 .067 .083 .100 .117 .133 .150 .167 .183 .200 .217 .233 .250 .267 .283 .300 .317 .333 .350 .367 .383 .400 .417 .433 .450 .467 .483 .500 SECOND 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 DECIMAL .517 .533 .550 .567 .583 .600 .617 .633 .650 .667 .683 .700 .717 .733 .750 .767 .783 .800 .817 .833 .850 .867 .883 .900 .917 .933 .950 .967 .983 1.00 SECOND 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Numerical Place Value Chart

2 2 MILLIONS 1,000,000 D 6 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 E 1 C 9 I 8 M4 A 4 L
1/60 X SECONDS = DECIMAL (ROUNDED UP TO THE THIRD PLACE)
For Example 2 , 2 6 2 , 3 5 7 . 6 1 9 8 4 4 TENTHS HUNDREDTHS THOUSANDTHS TEN THOUSANDTHS HUNDRED TEN THOUSANDTHS MILLIONTHS 1/10 1/100 1/1,000 1/10,000 1/100,000 1/1,000,000 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001 HUNDRED THOUSANDS TEN 6 THOUSANDS 2 THOUSANDS 3 5 7 HUNDREDS TENS UNITS
Elements of a Nondestructive Examination Symbol

NUM BER OF EX A M INA TIONS REFERENCE LINE SPECIFICA TION OR OTHER REFERENCE LENGTH OF SECTION TO BE EX AM INED ARROW OTHER
(N)
BOTH SIDES
BOTH SIDES
SIDE
FINISH SYM BOL T SYM CONTOUR BOL GROOVE WELD SIZE
ARROW OTHER
TA IL
SIDE
EX A M INE A LL A ROUND SPECIFICATION OR OTHER REFERENCE (OM ITTED WHEN NOT USED)
FIELD EX A M INA TION
S(E)
SIDE
DEPTH OF BEVEL; SIZE OR STRENGTH FOR CERTAIN WELDS TA IL
F A R
EX AM INE IN FIELD GROOVE ANGLE: INCLUDED ANGLE OF L COUNTERSINK FOR PLUG WELDS EX AM INE-A LL-A ROUND ROOT OPENING:DEPTH OF FILLING FOR PLUG AND SLOT WELDS LENGTH OF WELD PITCH OF WELDS A RROW FIELD WELD RA DIATION DIRECTION
SIDE
L- P
WELD-ALL-AROUND
(N)
NUM BER OF SPOT, SEAM , STUD, PLUG, OR PROJECTION WELDS
ARROW
Elements of a Welding Symbol
Examples of Grooves
Square
Single J
Single Bevel
Single Vee
Double Bevel
Single U
Basic Joints (Welding)
Butt
Lap
Corner
Edge
Tee
Order of Performing Arithmetic Operations When several numbers or quantities in a formula are connected by signs indicating that additions, subtractions, multiplications, or divisions are to be made, the multiplications and divisions should be carried out first, in the order in which they appear, before the additions or subtractions are performed. Examples: 10 + 26 X 7 - 2 = 10 +182 - 2 = 190 18 6 + 15 X 3 = 3 + 45 = 48 12 + 14 2 - 4 = 12 + 7 - 4 = 15
When it is required that certain additions and subtractions should precede multiplication's and divisions, use is made of parentheses () and brackets []. These indicate that the calculation inside the parentheses or brackets should be carried out complete by itself before the remaining calculations are commenced. If one bracket is placed inside of another, the one inside is first calculated. Examples: (6 - 2) X 5 + 8 = 4 X 5 + 8 = 20 + 8 = 28 6 X (4 + 7) 22 = 6 X 11 22 = 66 22 = 3 2 + [10 X 6(8 + 2) - 4] X 2 = 2 + [10 X 6 X 10 - 4] X 2 = 2 + [600 - 4] X 2 = 2 + 596 X 2 = 2 + 1192 = 1194
The parentheses are considered as a sign of multiplication; for example, 6(8 + 2) = 6 x (8 + 2). The line or bar between the numerator and denominator in a fractional expression is to be considered as a division sign. For Example, 12 + 16 + 22 --------------- = (12 + 16 + 22) 10 = 50 10 = 5 10 In formulas the multiplication sign (X) is often left out between symbols or letters, the values of which are to be multiplied. Thus ABC AB = A X B, and ------ = (A X B X C) D D
Ratio And Proportion The ratio between two quantities is the quotient obtained by dividing the first quantity by the second. For example, the ration between 3 and 12 is 1/4, and the ratio between 12 and 3 is 4. Ratio is generally indicated by the sign (:); thus 12 : 3 indicates the ratio of 12 to 3. A reciprocal or inverse ratio is the reciprocal or the original ratio. Thus, the inverse ratio 5 : 7 is 7 : 5. In a compound ratio each term is the product of the corresponding terms in two or more simple ratios. Thus when 8 : 2 = 4, 9 : 3 = 3, 10 : 5 = 2, then the compound ratio is: 8 X 9 X 10: 2 X 3 X 5 = 4 X 3 X 2, 720 : 30 = 24 Prop is the equality of ratios. Thus, 6 : 3 = 10 : 5, or 6 : 3 :: 10 : 5 The first and last terms in a proportion are called the extremes; the second and thirds, the means. The product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. Thus, 25 : 2 = 100 : 8 and 25 X 8 = 2 X 100 If third terms in the proportion are known, the remaining term may be found by the following rules: 1) The first term is equal to the product of the second and third terms, divided by the fourth term. 2) The second term is equal to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided by the third. 3) The third term is equal to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided by the second. 4) The fourth term is equal to the product of the second and third terms, divided by the first.
Calculation of Area Square/Rectangle Circles Triangle Sphere = = = = Length * Width
r2
Height * Base * 1/2 4 r2 Weld Area Calculation
Structural Welds Piping Welds Socket Welds
= =
Length * Width
(measured)
Circumference(OD* ) * Width
= L x W L = ((OD at A + OD at B) / 2) * W = Width of the weld is measured. A
Common Symbols and Terms r = = 3.1415 Diameter / 2 Inside Diameter Outside Diameter Less Than (ie 6<9) (ie 9>6) Sq. Area
ID = OD = < > < > + = = = = =
Greater Than
Equal To or Less Than Equal To or Greater Than Plus or Minus
Change percent (%) to decimal (0.0). Move decimal point 2 spaces to the left and drop the percent sign. Example: 2% = 2.0% = .02 Change decimal (0.0) to percent (%). Move decimal point 2 units to the right and add the percent sign. Example: .43 = 43% Change a fraction to a decimal. Divide the numerator by the denominator. Example: 1/2 = 1 divided by 2 = .5 Tm = Material Thickness, thickness of the thinner member excluding reinforcements. Ts = Specimen Thickness, thickness of the thinner member including reinforcements. Minimum Weld Throat Thickness = .7 x Tm Based upon 1T X 1T
Solution of Right-angled Triangles As shown in the illustration, the sides of the rightangled triangle are designated a and b and the hypotenuse, c. The angles opposite each of these sides are designated A and B respectively. Angle C, opposite the hypotenuse c is the right angle, and is therefore always one of the known quantities. 90 C= 909090 b A
B a
Sides and Angles Known Side a, side b..... c = a2 + b2 b=c -a

2 2
Formulas for Sides and Angles to be Found a Tan A =b a Sin A = c b Sin B = c a = c x cos B B = 90 - A B = 90 - A A = 90 - B A = 90 - B B = 90 - A A = 90 - B B = 90 - A A = 90 - B B = 90 - A
Side a, hypotenuse c..
Side b, hypotenuse c..
a=c -b
2
Hypotenuse c; angle B
b = c x sin B
Hypotenuse c; angle A
b = c x cos A b c =Sin B b C =Cos A a C= Cos B a C = Sin A
a = c x sin A
Side b; angle B
a = b x cot B
Side b; angle A
a = b x tan A
Side a; angle B Side a; angle A
b = a x tan B b = a x cot A
Basic Illustration of a Weld WELD REINFORCEMENT ACTUAL THROAT
TOE
FILLET LEG SIZE OF WELD
F U S I O N Z O N E
WELD FACE THEORETICAL THROAT
ROOT PENETRATION ZONE FUSION ZONE FILLET LEG SIZE OF WELD
TOE
Welding Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) An arc welding process, which melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc between a covered metal electrode and the work. Shielding gas is obtained from the electrode outer coating, often called flux. Commonly referred to as stick welding. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) An arc welding process, which joins metals by heating continuously-fed work piece. source of inert the two. Flu
BASE METAL SHIELDING GAS IN SOLID ELECTRODE WIRE WELD METAL CURRENT CONDUCTOR BASE METAL WELD METAL BASE METAL DIRECTION OF WELDING WIRE GUIDE AND CONTACT TUBE GAS NOZZLE GASEOUS SHIELD ELECTRODE COVERING CORE WIRE SHIELDING ATMOSPHERE WELD POOL METAL AND SLAG DROPLETS
SOLIDIFIED SLAG
PENETRATION DEPTH
DIRECTION OF WELDING WELDING ELECTRODE ARC
them with an arc. The arc is between a filler metal (consumable) electrode and the Shielding gas is supplied from an external gas, normally argon, helium, or a mixture of Commonly referred to as MIG welding.
x Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) An arc welding process which melts and WELD joins metals by heating them with an arc METAL between a continuous, consumable electrode wire and the work. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained within the electrode core. Depending upon the type of flux-cored wire, added shielding may or may not be provided from externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
Tungsten Electrode Argon or helium shielding gas Contact tube Wielding direction Power source
welding (Tungsten Inert Gas), it is a welding process metals by heating them with a tungsten electrode, should not become part of the completed weld. Filler normally used when welding. Usually helium or mixture, is used for shielding gas.
Filler rod
Shielding gas Arc
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Normally called TIG that joins which metal is argon, or
Base metal
Weld pool
Weld deposit
Backing Ring Common Defect Locations OVERLAP UNDERCUT CRACKING SLAG/OXIDE INCLUSIONS TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS POROSITY
INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION CRACKING
PIPE WALL
PIPE WALL
CRACKS IN BACKING RING TACK WELDS INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) PENETRATION SLAG OR UNDERCUT AT THE ROOT TOES CRACKING MELT-THROUGH BURN-THROUGH
BAD FITUP SLAG BETWEEN BACKING RING AND PIPE ID
Consumable Insert Common Defect Locations OVERLAP UNDERCUT CRACKING SLAG/OXIDE INCLUSIONS TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS POROSITY
INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION CRACKING
PIPE WALL
PIPE WALL
CONCAVITY MELT-THROUGH BURN-THROUGH INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION UNDERBEAD CRATERS CENTERLINE CREASE OVERLAP CRACKING UNDERCUT AT THE ROOT TOES BACKING GAS LOSS/OXIDATION INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) PENETRATION
Process
Discontinuity Cold Shut Hot Tear Shrinkage Cavity
Primary Processing Discontinuities Caused By Lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces of metal as it flows into the cast Difference in cooling rates between thin sections and thick sections Lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage Improperly designed mold causing premature blockage at the mold gate Inability of external gasses to escape from the mold Entrapped internal gasses Folding of metal in a thin plate on the surface of the forging Forging at improper temperature Flattening and lengthening of discontinuities in parent material Flattening and lengthening of discontinuities found in parent material Lengthening of surface cracks found in parent material Incomplete weld Present in the parent material (sheet or parent material) Present in the parent material (round bar stock) Metal buildup on piercing material Sizing mandrel dragging Present in parent material Present in parent material Improper metal flow through the die
Location Surface Surface Subsurface Subsurface Surface Surface or Subsurface Surface Surface or Subsurface Subsurface Subsurface Surface Surface (inner and outer) Subsurface Outer Surface Inner Surface Inner Surface Surface Surface or Subsurface Surface
Casting Microshrinkage Blow Holes Porosity Lap Forging Burst Laminations (flat plate) Seams Stringers (bar stock) Seams (bar stock) Welded Pipe Lack of Fusion Laminations Seams Seamless Pipes and Tubes Slugs Gouges Seams Extrusions Porosity Galling (cracks)
Process Grinding Heat Treating Explosive Forming
Discontinuity Cracks Stress Cracks Cracks and Tears Crater Cracks (star, transverse, and longitudinal) Stress Cracks Porosity Slag Inclusions
Finish Processing Discontinuities Caused By Excess localized heat created between the grinding wheel and the material Stress built up by improper processing unequal heating and cooling Extreme deformation overstresses the material Improper use of heat source Stresses built up by the weld contraction (if material is restrained) Entrapped gasses Incomplete cleaning of slag from the weld between passes Excessive current used during GTAW Improper welding technique Improper welding technique Improper welding technique Weld overlaps parent material not fused Overstress of material Working with dull tools or cutting too deep Relief of internal stress Relief of internal stress
Location Surface Surface Surface Surface or Subsurface Surface Surface or Subsurface Surface or Subsurface Subsurface Surface or Subsurface Subsurface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface
Welding
Tungsten Inclusions Lack of Penetration Lack of Fusion Undercut Overlapping
Bending Machining Pickling or Etching Electroplating
Cracks Tears Cracks Cracks
Dial Indicating Calipers
1. Verify the calipers calibration date is current, and clean all dirt from measuring faces. Perform user calibration on dial indicator, ensure reading is zero, and tighten the bezel clamp as needed. 2. Adjust measuring faces, contact points, to fit item being measured. 3. Apply firm pressure to fine adjusting roll and ensure measuring contacts are in contact with the material being measured. 4. Apply lock screw and read measurement in place if practical. If not, remove calipers carefully to prevent false measurements. Micrometer
FIXED ANVIL SPINDLE THIMBLE RATCHET LOCK NUT PART TO BE MEASURED
GRADUATIONS SLEEVE FRAME
GRADUATIONS TO BE READ READING LINE
1. Verify that the micrometers calibration date is current, and clean all dirt from measuring contacts. 2. Attach ball if measuring curved surfaces. 3. Adjust micrometer to fit the item being measured, do not spin frame to adjust the micrometer. 4. Slip the micrometer over the area to be measured by placing the anvil firmly against the material and slowly turn the thimble clockwise until spindle is firmly against the material. Then turn the ratchet three clicks to be sure equal pressure is applied. 5. Take reading in place, or set the locking nut and remove from the item. Determine reading on scale and note accordingly. Do not forget to minus the ball measurement if used.
Thread Terminology (fasteners)

FLANKS CREST ROOT HEIGHT OR DEPTH OF THREAD
AXIS
PITCH DIAMETER
MAJOR DIAMETER
MINOR DIAMETER
CREST
ROOT
SCREW
THREAD ANGLE
EXTERNAL THREADS
INTERNAL THREADS
Tap and Drill Size Chart THREAD SIZE 0-80 1-72 2-64 3-56 4-48 5-44 6-40 8-36 10-32 12-28 1/4-28 5/16-24 3/8-24 7/16-20 1/2-20 9/16-18 5/8-18 3/4-16 7/8-14 1"-14 Fine Thread DRILL DIAMETER .0469 .0595 .0700 .0820 .0935 .1040 .1130 .1360 .1590 .1820 .2130 .2720 .3320 .3906 .4531 .5156 .5781 .6875 .8125 .9375 TAP DRILL SIZE 3/64 No. 53 No. 50 No. 45 No. 42 No. 37 No. 33 No. 29 No. 21 No. 14 No. 3 'I' 'Q' 25/64 29/64 33/64 37/64 11/16 13/16 59/64 THREAD SIZE 1-64 2-56 3-48 4-40 5-40 6-32 8-32 10-24 12-24 1/4-20 5/16-18 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 9/16-12 5/8-11 3/4-10 7/8-9 1"-8 Coarse Thread DRILL DIAMETER .0595 .0700 .0785 .0890 .1015 .1065 .1360 .1495 .1770 .2010 .2570 .3125 .3680 .4219 .4844 .5312 .6562 .7656 .8750 TAP DRILL SIZE No. 53 No. 50 No. 47 No. 43 No. 38 No. 36 No. 29 No. 25 No. 16 No. 7 'F' 5/16 'U' 27/64 31/64 17/32 21/32 49/64 7/8
Julian Date Calendar (Perpetual)
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Jan 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 018 019 020 021 022 023 024 025 026 027 028 029 030 031
Feb 032 033 034 035 036 037 038 039 040 041 042 043 044 045 046 047 048 049 050 051 052 053 054 055 056 057 058 059
Mar 060 061 062 063 064 065 066 067 068 069 070 071 072 073 074 075 076 077 078 079 080 081 082 083 084 085 086 087 088 089 090
Apr May 091 121 092 122 093 123 094 124 095 125 096 126 097 127 098 128 099 129 100 130 101 131 102 132 103 133 104 134 105 135 106 136 107 137 108 138 109 139 110 140 111 141 112 142 113 143 114 144 115 145 116 146 117 147 118 148 119 149 120 150 151
June 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181
July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 182 213 244 274 305 335 183 214 245 275 306 336 184 215 246 276 307 337 185 216 247 277 308 338 186 217 248 278 309 339 187 218 249 279 310 340 188 219 250 280 311 341 189 220 251 281 312 342 190 221 252 282 313 343 191 222 253 283 314 344 192 223 254 284 315 345 193 224 255 285 316 346 194 225 256 286 317 347 195 226 257 287 318 348 196 227 258 288 319 349 197 228 259 289 320 350 198 229 260 290 321 351 199 230 261 291 322 352 200 231 262 292 323 353 201 232 263 293 324 354 202 233 264 294 325 355 203 234 265 295 326 356 204 235 266 296 327 357 205 236 267 297 328 358 206 237 268 298 329 359 207 238 269 299 330 360 208 239 270 300 331 361 209 240 271 301 332 362 210 241 272 302 333 363 211 242 273 303 334 364 212 243 304 365
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Julian Date Calendar (Leap Year)
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Jan 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 018 019 020 021 022 023 024 025 026 027 028 029 030 031
Feb 032 033 034 035 036 037 038 039 040 041 042 043 044 045 046 047 048 049 050 051 052 053 054 055 056 057 058 059 060
Mar 061 062 063 064 065 066 067 068 069 070 071 072 073 074 075 076 077 078 079 080 081 082 083 084 085 086 087 088 089 090 091
Apr May 092 122 093 123 094 124 095 125 096 126 097 127 098 128 099 129 100 130 101 131 102 132 103 133 104 134 105 135 106 136 107 137 108 138 109 139 110 140 111 141 112 142 113 143 114 144 115 145 116 146 117 147 118 148 119 149 120 150 121 151 152
June 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182
July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 183 214 245 275 306 336 184 215 246 276 307 337 185 216 247 277 308 338 186 217 248 278 309 339 187 218 249 279 310 340 188 219 250 280 311 341 189 220 251 281 312 342 190 221 252 282 313 343 191 222 253 283 314 344 192 223 254 284 315 345 193 224 255 285 316 346 194 225 256 286 317 347 195 226 257 287 318 348 196 227 258 288 319 349 197 228 259 289 320 350 198 229 260 290 321 351 199 230 261 291 322 352 200 231 262 292 323 353 201 232 263 293 324 354 202 233 264 294 325 355 203 234 265 295 326 356 204 235 266 296 327 357 205 236 267 297 328 358 206 237 268 298 329 359 207 238 269 299 330 360 208 239 270 300 331 361 209 240 271 301 332 362 210 241 272 302 333 363 211 242 273 303 334 364 212 243 274 304 335 365 213 244 305 366
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Flow Chart For A Discontinuity
Discontinuity
Chapter 2 - Visual Inspection

Common Definitions and Examples Aligned rounded indications Four or more indications in a line, where each is separated from the adjacent indication by less then 1/16 inch or D, whichever is greater, where D is the major diameter of the larger of the adjacent indication. Arc strike Any localized heat-effected zone or change in the contour of the surface of the finished weld or adjacent base metal resulting from aligned rounded indications with crack an arc or heat generated by the passage of electrical energy between the surface of the finished weld or base metal and a current source, such as welding electrodes or magnetic particle inspection prods. Burn through A void or open hole that extends through a backing ring, strip, fused root, or adjacent base metal. Burst A rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Bursts may be either internal or external to the surface. Cold shut The result of pouring metal over solidified metal. Crack or tear A linear rupture of metal under stress. Crater pit An approximately circular surface condition exceeding into the weld in an irregular manner caused by insufficient filler metal at the weld stop. Defect One or more flaws whose aggregate; size, shape, orientation, location, or properties do not meet the specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable. crater pit Discontinuity Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, which will cause a detectable indication or signal when nondestructively examined. crack
Evaluation A review, following interpretation of the indications noted, to determine whether they meet specified acceptance criteria.
False indication An indication that is interpreted to be caused by a condition other than a discontinuity or imperfection. Heat checks Fissures or tears in the weld heat affected zone of material containing low melting point. Imperfection A departure of quality characteristic from its intended condition. Indication Evidence of a discontinuity that requires interpretation to determine its significance. Incomplete fusion Lack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a weld joint with adjacent metal. The adjacent metal may be either base metal or previously deposited weld metal, or consumable insert. Incomplete penetration Lack of penetration of the weld through the thickness of the joint, or penetration which is less than specified.
incomplete fusion
Interpretation The determination of whether indications are relevant, nonrelevant, or false. Lap (forgings) Folding of metal on the surface of the forging, usually occurs when some of the forging metal is squeezed out between the two dies. incomplete penetration
Linear indication An indication in which the length is equal to or greater than three times the width. Melt through incomplete penetration A convex or concave irregularity on the surface of a backing ring or strip, fused root, or adjacent base metal resulting from fusion completely through a localized region but without development of a void or open hole. Non-linear rounded indications Indication whose length is less than three times its width. Nonrelevant indications An indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that is not relevant.
Oxidation A condition resulting from partial or complete lack of inert gas shielding of a surface which is heated during welding resulting in formation of oxide on the surface. This condition may range from slight oxidation evidenced by a multicolored or tightly adhering black film to the extreme of a very rough surface having a crystalline appearance. Porosity Gas pockets or voids in weld metal or castings. Quench crack A crack formed as a result of thermal stresses produced by rapid cooling from a high temperature. Root surface concavity A depression on the root surface of a weld which may be due to gravity, internal purge, or shrinkage. porosity
Root surface centerline crease or shrinkage An intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavity formed on the root surface. Root undercut A groove in the internal surface of a base metal or backing ring or strip along the edge of the root of the weld. Shrinkage Void, or voids, that may occur in molten metal due to contraction during solidification. Slag Non-metallic solid material entrapped in the weld metal, between weld metal and base metal, or in a casting. Tungsten inclusion Tungsten entrapped in the weld deposit. slag
Undercut A groove melted into the base metal at the toe of the weld and left unfilled by weld metal. Unfused chaplet A metal support used in the casting process, which has not fused with casting material. Weld spatter Metal particles which deposit on the surface of the weld or adjacent base metal during welding and which do not form a part of the weld. weld spatter
Chapter 3 - Liquid Penetrant Testing

Common Terms and Definitions Alkaline Any soluble mineral salt or mixtures of salt capable of neutralizing acids. Angstrom Unit (A) A unit of length equal to 108 cm and used to express wavelengths of light; i.e., electromagnetic radiation. Background The surface upon which an indication is viewed. It may be the natural surface of the test article or it may be the developer coating on the surface. This background may contain traces of unremoved penetrant (fluorescent or visible), which, if present, can interfere with the visibility of indications. Background Fluorescence Fluorescent residues observed over the general surface of the test article during fluorescent penetrant inspection. Bath Term used colloquially to designate the liquid penetrant inspection materials into which test articles are immersed during inspection process. Black Light Light radiation in the near ultraviolet range of wavelengths (3200 to 4000 A), just shorter than visible light. Black Light Filter A filter that transmits black light while suppressing visible light and hard ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than 3200 angstroms. Bleedout The action of the entrapped Penetrant in spreading out from surface discontinuities to form an indication. Blotting The action of the developer in soaking up the entrapped penetrant from surface discontinuities to form an indication. Capillary Action or Capillarity The tendency of liquids to penetrate or migrate into small openings such as cracks, pits, or fissures. Carrier Fluid (Vehicle or Medium) A fluid in which liquid penetrant inspection materials are dissolved or suspended. Clean Free from interfering solid or liquid contamination on the surface. Comparative Test Block An intentionally cracked metal block having two separate but adjacent areas for the application of different penetrants so that a direct comparison of their relative effectiveness can be obtained. Can also be used to evaluate penetrant test techniques and test conditions.
Contact Emulsifier An emulsifier that begins emulsifying penetrant upon simple contact with the penetrant; usually oil-base (Lipophilic). Contrast The difference in visibility (brightness or coloration) between an indication and the surrounding surface. Dark Adaptation The adjustment of the eyes when one passes from a bright to a darkened area. Detergent Remover A penetrant remover that is a solution of a detergent in water. Also Hydrophilic Emulsifier. Developer A material that is applied to the test article surface after excess penetrant has been removed and that is designed to enhance the penetrant bleedout to form indications. The developer may be a fine powder, a solution that dries to a fine powder, or a suspension (in solvent, water, alcohol, etc.) that dries leaving an absorptive film on the test surface. Developing Time The elapsed time necessary for the applied developer to bring out indications from penetrant entrapments. Also called Development Time. Dragout The carryout or loss of penetrant materials as a result of their adherence to the articles being processed. Drain Time That portion of the penetrant inspection process during which the excess penetrant, emulsifier, detergent remover, or developer is allowed to drain from the test article. Dry Developer A fine, dry powder developer that does not employ a carrier fluid. Drying Oven An oven used for drying test articles. Drying Time A time allotted for a test article to dry. Dual-response Penetrant A penetrant that contains a combination of visible and fluorescent dyes. Dwell Time The total time that the penetrant or emulsifier is in contact with the test surface, including the time required for application and the drain time. Also see Emulsification Time. Electrostatic Spraying A technique of spraying wherein the material being sprayed is given a high electrical charge while the test article is grounded.
Emulsification Time The period of time that an emulsifier is permitted to combine with the penetrant prior to removal. Also called Emulsifier Dwell Time. Emulsifier A liquid that combines with an oily penetrant to make the penetrant water-washable. Also see Hydrophilic Emulsifier and Lipophilic Emulsifier. Flash Point The lowest temperature at which a volatile, flammable liquid will give off enough vapor to make a combustible explosive mixture in the air space surrounding the liquid surface. Fluorescence The emission of visible radiation by a substance as a result of, and only during, the absorption of black light radiation. Fluorescent Dye Penetrant An inspection penetrant that is characterized by its ability to fluoresce when excited by black light. Halogen (Halogenous) Any of four very active nonmetallic elements; chlorine, iodine, fluorine and bromine. Hydrophilic Emulsifier A water-base agent that, when applied to an oily penetrant, renders the penetrant water-washable. Can be used as a Contact Emulsifier, but more often the emulsifier is added to the water rinse and accompanied by some form of mechanical agitation or scrubbing to remove excess penetrant. Sometimes called a Hydrophilic Scrubber. Leak Testing A technique of liquid penetrant testing in which the penetrant is applied to one side of the surface while the other side is inspected for indications that would indicate a through-leak or void. Lipophilic Emulsifier An oil-base agent that, when applied to an oily penetrant, renders the penetrant water-washable. Usually applied as a Contact Emulsifier. Near Surface Discontinuity A discontinuity not open to, but located near, the surface of a test article. Nonaqueous Wet Developer A developer in which the developing powder is applied as a suspension in a quick-drying solvent. Also called Solvent Developer. Penetrability The property of a penetrant that causes it to find its way into very fine openings, such as cracks. Penetrant A liquid (sometimes gas) capable of entering discontinuities open to the surface, and which is adapted to the inspection process by being made highly visible in small traces. Fluorescent penetrants fluoresce brightly under black light while the visible penetrants are intensely colored to be noticeable under visible light.
Post-emulsification Penetrant A penetrant that requires the application of a separate emulsifier to render the surface penetrant waterwashable. Also can be removed by applying a solvent remover. Precleaning The removal of surface contaminants or smeared metal from the test article so that they cannot interfere with the penetrant inspection process. Quenching of Fluorescence The extinction of fluorescence by causes other than removal of black light (the exciting radiation). Resolution The property of a test system that enables the separation of indications of close proximity in a test article.. Rinse The process of removing liquid penetrant inspection materials from the surface of an article by washing or flooding with another liquid-usually water. Also called Wash. See-ability The characteristic of an indication that enables the observer to see it against the conditions of background, outside light, etc. Self-developing Penetrant A penetrant not requiring the use of a developer. Useful for production work in the detection of gross discontinuities. Sensitivity The ability of the penetrant process to detect minute surface discontinuities. Solvent Removed A penetrant-removal technique wherein the excess penetrant is washed or wiped from the test surface with a solvent remover. Solvent Remover A volatile liquid used to remove excess surface penetrant from the test article. Sometimes called Penetrant Remover. Surface Tension That property of liquids which, due to molecular forces, tends to bring the contained volume into a form having the least superficial area. Viscosity The state or degree of being viscous. The resistance of a fluid to the motion of its particles. Visible Dye Penetrant An inspection penetrant that is characterized by its intense visible color-usually red. Also called Color Contrast or Nonfluorescent Penetrant. Water-soluble Developer A developer in which the developer powder is dissolved in a water carrier to form a solution. Not a suspension.
Water-suspended Particle Developer A developer in which the developer particles are mixed with water to form a suspension. Water-wash A penetrant-removal technique wherein excess penetrant is washed or flushed from the test surface with water. Water-washable Penetrant A type of penetrant that contains its own emulsifier, making it water-washable. Water Tolerance The amount of water that a penetrant, emulsifier, or wet developer can absorb before its effectiveness is impaired. Wet Developer A developer in which the developer powder is applied as a suspension or solution in a liquid-usually water or alcohol. Wetting Ability The ability of a liquid to spread out spontaneously and adhere to the test article's surfaces.
Prorated Maximum Number of Indications

MAXIMUM OF 6 INDICATIONS IN A 36 INCH SQUARE AREA Actual Area Prorated Indications 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6
(MAX # OF INDICATIONS/36) X ACTUAL AREA = NEW MAX # OF INDICATIONS
Areas of Circles
Diameter (inches) Area (square inches) Diameter (inches) Area (square inches) 1/32 .0008 .0195 .0003 3/64 .0017 .020 .0003 1/16 .0031 .024 .0005 5/64 .0048 .025 .0005 3/32 .0069 .0275 .0006 7/64 .0094 .031 .0008 1/8 .0123 .034 .0009 9/64 .0155 .037 .0011 5/32 .0192 .039 .0012 11/64 .0232 .048 .0018 3/16 .0276 .049 .0019 13/64 .0324 .050 .0020 7/32 .0376 .055 .0024 15/64 .0431 .075 .0044 1/4 .0491 .078 .0048 ----.100 .0079 Area = r
Penetrant Wetting Characteristics

Droplet Droplet Droplet
Good Wetting
Poor Wetting
Chapter 4 - Magnetic Particle Testing

Common Definitions and Examples Air gap When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the magnetic flux must cross, the space is referred to as an air gap. Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of an article. Alternating current Electric current periodically reversing in polarity or direction of flow. Ampere The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current that flows through a conductor having a resistance of one ohm at a potential of one volt. Ampere turns The product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes flowing through it. A measure of the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil. Bath The suspension of iron oxide particles in a liquid vehicle (light oil or water). Black light Radiant energy in the near ultraviolet range. This light has a wavelength of 3200 to 4000 angstrom units (A), peaking at 3650 A, on the spectrum. This between visible light and ultraviolet light. Black light filter A filter that transmits black light while surprising the transmission of visible light and harmful ultraviolet radiation. Carbon steel Steel that does not contain significant amounts of alloying elements other than carbon and maganese. Carrier fluid The fluid in which fluorescent and non-fluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their application in the wet method. Central conductor An electrical conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in an article, for the purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around the hole. Circular field See Field, Circular Magnetic. Circular magnetization A method of inducing a magnetic field in an article so that the magnetic lines of force take the form of concentric rings about the axis of the current. This is accomplished by passing the current directly through the article or through a conductor which passes into or through a hole in the article. The circular method is applicable for the detection of discontinuities with axes approximately parallel to the axis of current through the article.
Coercive force The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove residual magnetism in demagnetizing an article. Coil shot A pulse of magnetizing current passed through a coil surrounding an article for the purpose of longitudinal magnetization. Contact headshot The electrode, fixed to the magnetic particle testing unit, through which the magnetizing current is drawn. Contact pads Replaceable metal pads, usually of copper braid, placed on contact heads to give good electrical contact thereby preventing damage to the article under test. Continuous method An inspection method in which ample amounts of magnetic particles are applied, or are present on the piece, during the time the magnetizing current is applied. Core That part of the magnetic circuit that is within the electrical winding. Curie point The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can no longer be magnetized by outside forces, and at which they lose their residual magnetism: approximately 1200 to 1600 F (646 to 871 C) for many metals. Current Flow Technique A technique of circular magnetization in which current is passed through an article via prods or contact heads. The current may be alternating, half-wave rectified, rectified alternating, or direct. Current Induction Technique A technique of magnetization in which a circulating current is induced in a ring-shaped component by a fluctuating magnetic field. Demagnetization The reduction in the degree of residual magnetism to an acceptable level. Diamagnetic Materials whose atomic structure won't permit any real magnetization. Materials such as bismuth and copper are diamagnetic. Diffused Indications Indications that are not clearly defined, such as indications of subsurface defects. Direct Contact Magnetization A magnetic particle testing technique in which current is passed through the test article. These include headshots and prod shots. Direct Current An electrical current, which flows steadily in one direction
Distorted Field A field that does not follow a straight path or have a uniform distribution. This occurs in irregularly shaped objects. Dry Medium Magnetic particle inspection in which the particles employed are in the dry powder form. Dry Powder Finely divided ferromagnetic particles suitably selected and prepared for magnetic particle inspection. Electromagnet A magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core within or near a magnetizing field formed by passing electric current through a coil of insulated wire. Etching The process of exposing subsurface conditions of metal articles by removal of the outside surface through the use of chemical agents. Due to the action of the chemicals in eating away the surface, various surface or subsurface conditions are exposed or exaggerated and made visible to the eye. Ferromagnetic A term applied to materials that can be magnetized and strongly attracted by a magnetic field. Field, Circular Magnetic Generally the magnetic field in and surrounding any electrical conductor or article resulting from a current being passed through the conductor or article or from prods. Field, Longitudinal Magnetic A magnetic field wherein the flux lines traverse the component in a direction essentially parallel with the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles at the magnetizing yoke. Field, Magnetic The space within and surrounding a magnetized article, or a conductor carrying current in which the magnetic force is present. Field, Magnetic Leakage The magnetic field that leaves or enters the surface of an article at a magnetic pole. Field, Multidirectional A magnetic field that is the result of two magnetic forces impressed upon the same area of a magnetizable object at the sametime-sometimes called a "vector field." Field, Residual Magnetic The field that remains in magnetizable material after the magnetizing force has been removed Flash Magnetization Magnetization by a current flow of very brief duration. Fluorescence The emission of visible radiation by a substance as the result of and only during the absorption of black light radiation.
Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Inspection The magnetic particle inspection process employing a finely divided fluorescent ferromagnetic inspection medium that fluoresces when activated by black light. Flux Density The normal magnetic flux per unit area. It is designated by the letter "B" and is expressed in telsa (SI units) or gauss (cgs units). Flux Leakage Magnetic lines of force which leave and enter an article at poles on the surface. Flux Lines Imaginary magnetic lines used as a means of explaining the behavior of magnetic fields. Their conception is based on the pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled over a piece of paper laid over a permanent magnet. Also called Lines of Force. Flux Penetration, Magnetic The depth to which a magnetic flux is present in an article. Furring Buildup or bristling of magnetic particles due to excessive magnetization of the article. Gauss The unit of flux density. Numerically, one gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter of area and is designated by the letter "B." Head Shot A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through an article or a central conductor while clamped between the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit for the purpose of circularly magnetizing the article. Heads The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit. Horseshoe Magnet A bar magnet bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Usually the term applies to a permanent magnet. Hysteresis The lagging of the magnetic effect when the magnetic force acting upon a ferromagnetic body is changed; the phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic system wherein its state is influenced by its previous magnetic history. Hysteresis Loop A curve showing the flux density, "B," plotted as a function of magnetizing force, "H." As the magnetizing force is increased to the saturation point in the positive, negative, and positive direction sequentially, the curve forms a characteristic S-shaped loop. Intercepts of the loop with the "B" and "H" axes and the points of maximum and minimum magnetizing force define important magnetic characteristics of the material. Inductance The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside magnetizing force. The magnetism is not the result of passing current through the article.
Leakage Field The magnetic field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within an article. Light Intensity The light energy reaching a unit of surface area per of time. Longitudinal Magnetization The process of inducing a magnetic field into the article such that the magnetic lines of force extending through the article are approximately parallel to the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles when yokes (electromagnets) are used. Magnet, Permanent A highly-retentive metal that has been strongly magnetized; i.e., the alloy Alnico. Magnetic Field Indicator An instrument designed to detect and/or measure the flux density and polarity of magnetic fields. Magnetic Field Strength The measured intensity. of a magnetic field at a point always external to the magnet or conductor; usually expressed in amperes per meter or oersted (Oe). Magnetic Material Those materials that are attracted by magnetism. Magnetic Particles Finely divided ferromagnetic material. Magnetic Particle Inspection A nondestructive inspection method for locating discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic Poles Concentration of flux leakage in areas of discontinuities, shape changes, permeability variations, etc. Magnetic Writing A form of nonrelevant indications caused when the surface of a magnetized part comes in contact with another piece of ferromagnetic material that is magnetized to a different value. Magnetizing Current The flow of either alternating, rectified alternating, or direct current used to induce magnetism into the article being inspected. Magnetizing Force The magnetizing field applied to a ferromagnetic material to induce magnetization. Medium The fluid in which fluorescent and nonfluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their application in the wet method. Near Surface Discontinuity A discontinuity not open to, but located near, the surface of a test article.
Oersted A unit of field strength, which produces magnetic induction and is designated by the letter "H." Paramagnetic Materials which are slightly affected by a magnetic field. Examples are chromium, manganese, aluminum and platinum. A small group of these materials are classified as ferromagnetic. Permeability The ease with which the lines of force are able to pass through an article. Pole The area on a magnetized article from which the magnetic field is leaving or returning to the article. Prods Hand-held electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the magnetizing current from the source to the article under inspection. Rectified Alternating Current Alternating current, which has been converted into direct current. Reluctance The resistance of a magnetic material to changes in magnetic field strength. Residual Magnetism The amount of magnetism that a magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is removed. Also called "residual field" or "remanence." Residual Technique A procedure in which the indicating material is applied after the magnetizing force has been discontinued. Retentivity The ability of a material to retain a certain portion of residual magnetization. Also known as remanence. Saturation The point at which increasing the magnetizing force produces no further magnetism in a material. Sensitivity The capacity or degree of responsiveness to magnetic particle inspection. Settling Test A procedure used to determine the concentration of magnetic particles in a medium or vehicle. Skin Effect The description given to alternating current magnetization due to its containment to the surface of a test article. Solenoid (Coil) An electric conductor formed into a coil often wrapped around a central core of highly permeable material.
Suspension The correct term applied to the liquid bath in which the ferromagnetic particles used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method are suspended. Test Article An article containing known artificial or natural defects used for checking the efficiency of magnetic particle flaw detection processes. Wet Medium An inspection employing ferromagnetic particles suspended in a liquid (oil or water) as a vehicle. Yoke A U-shaped or C-shaped piece of highly permeable magnetic material, either solid or laminated, sometimes with adjustable pole pieces (legs) around which is wound a coil carrying the magnetizing current. Yoke Magnetization A longitudinal magnetic field induced in an article or in an area of an article by means of an external electromagnet shaped like a yoke.
Longitudinal Magnetization Math Formula AT = 45,000 (+/- 10%) (L/D)
A=
( (
45,000 (+/- 10%) (L/D) T
) )
L=
45,000 (+/- 10%) AT
xD
T=
45,000 (+/- 10%) (L/D) A
D=
L(AT) 45,000 (+/- 10%)
A = ampere T = turns of the coil L = length of the item D = diameter or cross section of the item The minimum L/D ratio is 2 The maximum L used in calculations is 20 inches
Prorated Maximum Number of Indications

(MAX # OF INDICATIONS/36) X ACTUAL AREA = NEW MAX # OF INDICATIONS
Areas of Circles
Diameter (inches) Area (square inches) Diameter (inches) Area (square inches) 1/32 .0008 .0195 .0003 3/64 .0017 .020 .0003 1/16 .0031 .024 .0005 5/64 .0048 .025 .0005 3/32 .0069 .0275 .0006 7/64 .0094 .031 .0008 1/8 .0123 .034 .0009 9/64 .0155 .037 .0011 5/32 .0192 .039 .0012 11/64 .0232 .048 .0018 3/16 .0276 .049 .0019 13/64 .0324 .050 .0020 7/32 .0376 .055 .0024 15/64 .0431 .075 .0044 1/4 .0491 .078 .0048 ----.100 .0079 Area = r
Common Types of Magnetization
Central Conductor (circular)
Horse shoe (longitudinal)

Horseshoe Magnet
Coil Shot (longitudinal)

N S
Yoke (longitudinal) Prods (circular)

Electromagnetic Yoke
Magnetic field
Weld
Workpiece
Theory: RightHand Rule
Discontinuities
(-)
CURRENT FLOW (+)
Hysteresis Curve B+ (FLUX DENSITY) OA= A= B= OC= D= E= OF= Referred to as the virgin curve Saturation point Residual field Coercive force Reverse saturation point Reverse residual field Reverse coercive force A
H- (MAGNETIZING FORCE OF OPPOSITE POLARITY TO H+)
H= (MAGNETIZING FORCE)
D B- (FLUX DENSITY OF OPPOSITE POLARITY TO B+)
SLENDER LOOP
HIGH PERMEABILITY LOW RENTENTIVITY LOW COERCIVE FORCE LOW RELUCTANCE LOW RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
WIDE LOOP
LOW PERMEABILITY HIGH RENTENTIVITY HIGH COERCIVE FORCE HIGH RELUCTANCE HIGH RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
Magnetic Particle Field Indicator (Pie Gage) Eight low carbon steel pie sections, furnace brazed together 1 in. 1/32 in max Artificial flaw (all segment interfaces)
Nonferrous handle of any Convenient length Copper plate 0.010 in + 0.001 in thick Braze weld or mechanically attach nonferrous trunnions
1/8
Chapter 5 - Ultrasonic Testing

Common Terms and Definitions A-scan Display A display in which the received signal is displayed as a vertical displacement from the horizontal sweep time trace, while the horizontal distance between any two signals represents the sound path distance (or time of travel) between the two. Absorption Coefficient, Linear The fractional decrease in transmitted intensity per unit of absorber thickness. It is usually designated by the symbol and expressed in units of cm-1. Acceptance Standard A control specimen containing natural or artificial discontinuities that are well defined and, in size or extent, similar to the maximum acceptable in the product. Also may refer to the document defining acceptable discontinuity size limits. Acoustic Impedance The factor which controls the propagation of an ultrasonic wave at a boundary interface. It is the product of the material density and the acoustic wave velocity within that material. Amplifier A device to increase or amplify electrical impulses. Amplitude, Indication The vertical height of a received indication, measured from base-to-peak or peak-to-peak. Angle Beam Testing A testing method in which transmission is at an angle to the sound entry surface. Angle of Incidence The angle between the incident (transmitted) beam and a normal to the boundary interface. Angle of Reflection The angle between the reflected beam and a normal to the boundary interface. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Angle of Refraction The angle between the refracted rays of an ultrasonic beam and the normal (or perpendicular line) to the refracting surface. Angle Transducer A transducer that transmits or receives the acoustic energy at an acute angle to the surface to achieve a specific effect such up the setting up of shear or surface waves in the part being inspected. Anisotropic A condition in which properties of a medium (velocity, for example) vary according to the direction in which they are measured.
Array Transducer A transducer made up of several piezoelectric elements individually connected so that the signals they transmit or receive nay be treated separately or combined as desired. Attenuation Coefficient A factor which is determined by the degree of scatter or absorption of ultrasound energy per unit distance traveled. Attenuator A device for measuring attenuation, usually calibrated in decibels (dB). B-scan Display A cathode-ray tube display in which the received signal is displayed as an illuminated spot. The face of the CRT represents the area of a vertical plane through the material. The display shows the location of a discontinuity, as it would appear in a vertical section view through the thickness direction of the material. Back Reflection The signal received from the back surface of a test object. Back Scatter Scattered signals that are directed back to the transmitter/receiver. Background Noise Extraneous signals caused by signal sources within the ultrasonic testing system, including the material in test. Barium Titanate (Polycrystalline Barium Titanate - BaTiO3) A ceramic transducer material composed of many individual crystals fired together and polarized by the application of a dc field. Baseline The horizontal line across the bottom of the CRT created by the sweep circuit. Basic Calibration The procedure of standardizing an instrument using calibration reflectors described in an application document. Bi-modal The propagation of sound in a test article where at least a shear wave and a longitudinal wave exists. The operation of angle beam testing at less than first critical angle. Boundary Indication A reflection of an ultrasonic beam from an interface. Broad Banded Having a relatively wide frequency bandwidth. Used to describe pulses which display a wide frequency spectrum and receivers capable of amplifying them.
C-scan A data presentation method yielding a plan (top) view through the scanned surface of the part. Through gating, only indications arising from the interior of the test object are indicated. Calibration To determine or mark the graduations of the ultrasonic system's display relative to a known standard or reference. Calibration Reflector A reflector with a known dimensioned surface established to provide an accurately reproducible reference. Collimator An attachment designed to reduce the ultrasonic beam spread. Compensator An electrical matching network to compensate for circuit impedance differences. Compressional Wave A wave in which the particle motion or vibration is in the same direction as the propagated wave (longitudinal wave). Contact Testing A technique of testing in which the transducer contacts the test surface, either directly or through a thin layer of couplant. Contact Transducer A transducer which is coupled to a test surface either directly or through a thin film of couplant. Continuous Wave A wave that continues without interruption. Contracted Sweep A contraction of the horizontal sweep on the viewing screen of the ultrasonic instrument. Contraction of this sweep permits viewing reflections occurring over a greater sound-path distance or duration of time. Corner Effect The strong reflection obtained when an ultrasonic beam is directed toward the inner section of two or three mutually perpendicular surfaces. Couplant A substance used between the face of the transducer and test surface to permit or improve transmission of ultrasonic energy across this boundary or interface. Primarily used to remove the air in the interface. Critical Angle The incident angle of the sound beam beyond which a specific refracted mode of vibration no longer exists. Cross Talk An unwanted condition in which acoustic energy is coupled from the transmitting crystal to the receiving crystal without propagating along the intended path through the material.
Damping (transducer) Limiting the duration of vibration in the search unit by either electrical or mechanical means. Dead Zone The distance in a material from the sound entry surface to the nearest inspectable sound path. Decibel (dB) The logarithmic expression of a ratio of two amplitudes or intensities of acoustic energy Delamination A laminar discontinuity, generally an area of unbonded materials. Delay Line A material (liquid or solid) placed in front of a transducer to use a time delay between the initial pulse and the front surface reflection. Delayed Sweep A means of delaying the start of horizontal sweep, hereby eliminating the presentation of early response data. Delta Effect Acoustic energy re-radiated by a discontinuity. Detectability The ability of the ultrasonic system to locate a discontinuity. Diffraction The deflection, or "bending," of a wave front when passing the edge or edges of a discontinuity. Diffuse Reflection Scattered, incoherent reflections caused by rough surfaces or associate interface reflection of ultrasonic waves from irregularities of the same order of magnitude or greater than the wavelength. Discontinuity An interruption or change in the physical structure or characteristics of a material. Dispersion, Sound Scattering of an ultrasonic beam as a result of diffuse reflection from a highly-irregular surface. Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) Compensation of gain as a function of time for difference in amplitude of reflections from equal reflectors at different sound travel distances. Also referred to as time corrected gain (TCG), time variable gain (TVG) and sensitivity time control (STC). Divergence Spreading of ultrasonic waves after leaving search unit, and is a function of diameter and frequency. Dual-Element Technique The technique of ultrasonic testing using two transducers with one acting as the transmitter and one as the receiver.
Dual-Element Transducer A single transducer housing containing two piezoelectric elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving. Effective Penetration The maximum depth in a material at which the ultrasonic transmission is sufficient for proper detection of discontinuities. Electrical Noise Extraneous signals caused by externally radiated electrical signals or from electrical interferences within the ultrasonic instrumentation. Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) A device using the magneto effect to generate and receive acoustic signals for ultrasonic nondestructive tests. Far Field The region beyond the near field in which areas of high and low acoustic intensity cease to occur. First Leg The sound path beginning at the exit point of the probe and extending to the point of contact opposite the examination surface when performing angle beam testing. Focused Transducer A transducer with a concave face which converges the acoustic beam to a focal point or line at a defined distance from the race. Focusing Concentration or convergence of energy into a smaller beam. Frequency Number of complete cycles of a wave motion passing a given point in a unit time (1 second); number of times a vibration is repeated at the same point in the same direction per unit time (usually per second). Gate An electronic means to monitor an associated segment of time, distance, or impulse. Ghost An indication which has no direct relation to reflected pulses from discontinuities in the materials being tested. Hertz (Hz) One cycle per second. Horizontal Linearity A measure of the proportionality between the positions of the indications appearing on the baseline and the positions of their sources. Immersion Testing A technique of testing, using a liquid as an ultrasonic couplant, in which the test part and at least the transducer face is immersed in the couplant and the transducer is not in contact with the test part.
Impedance (acoustic) A material characteristic defined as a product of particle velocity and material density. Indication (ultrasonics) The signal displayed or read on the ultrasonic systems display. Initial Pulse The first indication which may appear on the screen. This indication represents the emission of ultrasonic energy from the crystal face (main bang). Interface The physical boundary between two adjacent acoustic mediums. Insonification Irradiation with sound. Isotropy A condition in which significant medium properties (velocity, for example) are the same in all directions. Lamb Wave A type of ultrasonic vibration guided by parallel surfaces of thin mediums capable of propagation in different modes. Linearity (area) A system response in which a linear relationship exists between amplitude of response and the discontinuity sizes being evaluated necessarily limited by the size of the ultrasonic beam. Linearity (depth) A system response where a linear relationship exists with varying depth for a constant size discontinuity. Longitudinal Wave Velocity The unit speed of propagation of a longitudinal (compressional) wave through a material. Loss of Back Reflection Absence of or a significant reduction of an indication from the back surface of the article being inspected. Major Screen Divisions The vertical graticule used to divide the CRT into 10 equal horizontal segments. Manipulator A device used to orient the transducer assembly. As applied to immersion techniques, it provides either angular or normal incidence and fixes the transducer-to-part distance. Material Noise Extraneous signals caused by the structure of the material being tested. Miniature Angle Beam Block A specific type of reference standard used primarily for the angle beam method, but also used for straight beam and surface wave tests.
Minor Screen Divisions The vertical graticule used to divide the CRT into fifty equal segments. Each major screen division is divided into five equal segments or minor divisions. Mode Conversion The change of ultrasonic wave propagation upon reflection or refraction at acute angles at an interface. Mode The manner in which acoustic energy is propagated through a material as characterized by the particle motion of the wave. Multiple Back Reflections Repetitive indications from the back surface of the material being examined. Nanosecond One billionth of a second. Narrow Banded A relative term denoting a restricted range of frequency response. Near Field A distance immediately in front of a transducer composed of complex and changing wave front characteristics. Also known as the Fresnel field. Node The point on the examination surface where the V-path begins or ends. Noise Any undesired indications that tend to interfere with the interpretation or processing of the ultrasonic information; also referred to as "grass." Normal Incidence A condition where the angle of incidence is zero. Orientation The angular relationship of a surface, plane, defect axis, etc., to a reference plane or sound entry surface. Penetration (ultrasonic) Propagation of ultrasonic energy through an article. Phased Array A mosaic of probe elements in which the timing of the element's excitation can be individually controlled to produce certain desired effects, such as steering the beam axis or focusing the beam. Piezoelectric Effect The characteristic of certain materials to generate electrical charges when subjected to mechanical vibrations and, conversely to generate mechanical vibrations when subjected to electrical pulses.
Polarized Ceramics Ceramic materials that are sintered (pressed), created (approximately 10000C), and polarized by applying a direct voltage of a few thousand volts per centimeter of thickness. The polarization is the process that makes these ceramics piezoelectric. Includes sodium bismuth titanate, lead metaniobate, and several materials based on lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Presentation The method used to show ultrasonic information. This may include (among others) A-, B-, or C-scans displayed on various types of recorders, CRTs, LCDs or computerized displays. Probe Transducer or search unit. Propagation Advancement of a wave through a medium. Pulse Echo Technique An ultrasonic test technique using equipment which transmits a series of pulses separated by a constant period of time; e., energy is not sent out continuously. Pulse Length Time duration of the pulse from the search unit. Pulse Rate For the pulse echo technique, the number of pulses transmitted in a unit of time (also called pulse repetition rate). Radio Frequency Display (RF) The presentation of unrectified signals in a display. Range The maximum ultrasonic path length that is displayed. Rarefaction The thinning out or moving apart of the consistent particles in the propagating medium due to the relaxation phase of an ultrasonic cycle. Opposite in its effect to compression. The sound wave is composed of alternate compressions and refractions of the particles in a material. Rayleigh Wave/Surface Wave A wave that travels on or close to the surface and readily follows the curvature of the part being examined. Reflections occur only at sharp changes of direction of the surface. Receiver The section of the ultrasonic instrument that amplifies the electronic signals returning from the test specimen. Also, the probe that receives the reflected signals. Reference Blocks A block or series of blocks of material containing artificial or actual discontinuities of one or more reflecting areas at one or more distances from the sound entry surface. These are used for calibrating instruments and in defining the size and distance of discontinuous areas in materials.
Reflection The characteristic of a surface to change the direction of propagating acoustic energy; the return of sound waves from surfaces. Refraction A change in the direction and velocity of acoustic energy after it has passed at an acute angle through an interface between two different mediums. Refractive Index The ratio of the velocity of a incident wave to the velocity of the refracted wave. It is a measure of the amount a wave will be refracted when it enters the second medium after leaving the first. Reject/Suppression An instrument function or control used for reducing low amplitude signals. Use of this control may affect vertical linearity. Repetition Rate The rate at which the individual pulses of acoustic energy are generated; also Pulse Rate. Resolving Power The capability measurement of an ultrasonic system to separate in time two closely spaced discontinuities or to separate closely spaced multiple reflections. Resonance Technique A technique using the resonance principle for determining velocity, thickness or presence of laminar discontinuities. Resonance The condition in which the frequency of a forcing vibration (ultrasonic wave) is the same as the natural vibration frequency of the propagation body (test object), resulting in large amplitude vibrations. Saturation (scope) A term used to describe an indication of such a size as to exceed full screen height (100%). Scanning (manual and automatic) The moving of the search unit or units along a test surface to obtain complete testing of a material. Scattering Dispersion of ultrasonic waves in a medium due to causes other than absorption Second Leg The sound path beginning at the point of contact on the opposite surface and extending to the point of contact on the examination surface when performing angle beam testing. Sensitivity The ability to detect small discontinuities at given distances. The level of amplification at which the receiving circuit in an ultrasonic instrument is set. Shear Wave The wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) The ratio of amplitudes of indications from he smallest discontinuity considered significant and those caused by random factors, such as heterogeneity in grain size, etc. Skip Distance In angle beam tests of plate, pipe, or welds, the linear or surface distance from the sound entry point to the first reflection point on the same surface. Snell's Law The law that defines the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction across an interface, based on a range in ultrasonic velocity. Specific Acoustic Impedance A characteristic which acts to determine the amount of reflection which occurs at an interface and represents the wave velocity and the product of the density of the medium in which the wave is propagating. Straight Beam An ultrasonic wave traveling normal to the test surface. Sweep The uniform and repeated movement of a spot across the screen of a CRT to form the baseline. Through-Transmission A test technique using two transducers in which the ultrasonic vibrations are emitted by one and received by the other, usually on the opposite side of the part. The ratio of the magnitudes of vibrations transmitted and received is used as the criterion of soundness. Tip Diffraction The process by which a signal is generated from the tip (i.e., top of a fatigue crack) of a discontinuity through the interruption of an incident sound beam propagating through a material. Transducer (search unit) An assembly consisting basically of a housing, piezoelectric element, backing material, wear plate (optional) and electrical leads for converting electrical impulses into mechanical energy and vice versa. Transmission Angle The incident angle of the transmitted ultrasonic beam. It is zero degrees when the ultrasonic beam is perpendicular to the test surface. Transmitter The electrical circuit of an ultrasonic instrument that generates the pulses emitted to the search unit. Also the probe that emits ultrasonic signals. Two Probe Method Use of two transducers for sending and receiving. May be either send-receive or through transmission. Ultrasonic Absorption A damping of ultrasonic vibrations that occurs when the wave transverses a medium.
Ultrasonic Spectrum The frequency span of elastic waves greater than the highest audible frequency, generally regarded as being higher than 20,000 hertz, to approximately 1000 megahertz. Ultrasonic System The totality of components utilized to perform an ultrasonic test on a test article. V-path The path of the ultrasonic beam in the test object from the point of entry on the examination surface to the back surface and reflecting to the front surface again. Velocity The speed at which sound travels through a medium. Video Presentation A CRT presentation in which radio frequency signals nave been rectified and usually filtered. Water Path The distance from the face of the search unit to the entry surface of the material under test in immersion testing. Wavelength The distance in the direction of propagation for a wave to go through one complete cycle. Wedge/Shoe A device used to adapt a straight beam probe for use in a specific type of testing, including angle beam or surface wave tests and tests on curved surfaces. Wraparound Nonrelevant indications that appear on the CRT as a result of a short pulse repetition rate in the pulser circuit of the test instrument.
Common Math Formulas Wavelength
A M P L I T U D E +
V F
= Wavelength
V = F = Veloocity Frequency
Crystal Thickness CT =
2 CT = Crystal thickness = Wavelength
Acoustic Impedance
Z = P(V) Z = Acoustic impedance P = Materials density V = Acoustic v elocity
Reflected Acoustic Energy

ER = 100 ( Z1-Z2 ) Z1+Z2
2
Use .23 if material is unknown Energy Transmitted Half Angle Beam Spread
SIN ET = EI - ER ET = Energy transmitted EI = Energy intiated ER = Energy reflected K= V= D= F= 1.22 Velocity of the material Diameter of the transducer Frequency of the transducer
ER = Energy reflected Z1 = Acoustic impedance material #1 Z2 = Acoustic impedance material #2
Nearfield (nearzone)
N= N= D= F= V= D 2 (F) 4 (V) Length of the near field Diameter of the transducer Transducer frequency Materials velocity
= K (
V D*F
Times 2 for full angle beam spread Decibel Difference

Db = 20 [LOG ( Db = LOG = A1 = A2 = A1 )] A2
SIN
1 =
Snells Law & Angle of Reflection SIN 2 * V1

V2 * 1st critical angle V2 is long = 90 2nd critical angle V2 is shear = 90
Decibel difference Natural logrithm Amplitude number one Amplitude number two
Angle of incidence Critical angle* Wedge angle SIN SIN 1 * V2 2 = V1
Rule thumb: every 6 Db doubles the size of the indication height (pip)
of
Half / Full Sound Path & Skip / Setback Distance

HSP = T COS 2T COS HALF SKIP = T * TAN
FULL SKIP = 2T * TAN
FSP =
T =Member thickness
Surface Distance to Defect / Depth of Defect

SDD = Sound Path * SIN #DD = Sound Path * COS ##DD = (Sound Path * COS ) - 2T SDD = Surface distance to defect #DD = Depth of defect during half sound path ##DD =Depth of d efect during full sound path T =Member thickness
Calibration Chart UT Shearwave

PLATE THICKNESS 1" 1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/2" 2"
1/2" 1/2" 3/4" 1"
*HALF SKIP 3/4" 1" 3/4" 1" 1" 1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/2"
1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/2" 1 - 3/4"
2"
PLATE THICKNESS 1" 1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/2" 2"
1 - 1/2" 1 - 3/4" 2 - 1/4" 2 - 3/4"
1 - 3/4" 2" 2 - 1/2" 3 - 1/4"
FULL SKIP 2" 2 - 1/4" 2 - 3/4" 3 - 1/2"
2 - 1/2" 3 - 1/4" 3 - 3/4"
4"
* Applicable holes in the M.I. block for calibration
FPADSCR D
F
r e q u e n c y
P
e n e t r a t i o n r e p. r a t e
A
t t e n u a t i o n
D
i v e r g e n c e
S
e n s i t i v i t y
C
r y s t a l t h i c k n e s s
R
e s o l u t i o n
w a v e l e n g t h
D
n e a r i a m e t e r of c r y s t a l t h i c k n e s s
p u l s e
Velocity Chart
DENSITY P=gm/cm Air Aluminum Aluminum Oxide Bertilium Bororn Carbie Brass Cadium Copper Crown Glass Glycerin Gold Ice Inconel Iron Cast Iron Lead Magnesium Mercury Molybdenum Monel Neoprene Nickel Nylon, 6-6 Oil (SAE 30) Platinum Plexiglass Polyethylene Polystyrene Polyurethane Quartz Rubber, Butyl Silver Steel, Mild Steel, Stainless Teflon Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Water Zinc .001 2.7 ---1.82 ---8.1 8.6 8.9 2.5 1.261 19.3 1.00 ------7.22 11.4 1.7 ---10.09 ------8.3 ---0.95 21.4 1.18 ---1.06 ---2.20 0.9 10.5 7.7 8.03 ---7.3 4.54 19.25 ---1.00 7.1
2
MATERIAL
LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN 6 X 10 SEC .013 .25 .39 .51 .43 .17 .11 .18 .21 .075 .13 .16 .22 .23 .18 .085 .23 .057 .25 .21 .063 .22 .10 .067 .13 .11 .07 .093 .07 .23 .07 .14 .23 .23 .06 .13 .24 .20 .13 .0584 .17
SHEAR VELOCITY IN X 10 SEC ---.12 .23 .35 ---.080 .059 .089 .12 ---.047 .08 .12 .13 .10 .03 .12 ---.13 .11 ---.12 .043 ---.067 .043 .02 .04 ---.087 ---.06 .13 .12 ---.07 .12 .11 .008 ---.09
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE gm X 10 cm 2 SEC .0004 17 32 23 26.4 36.7 24 41.6 18.9 2.42 62.6 3.5 47.2 45.4 33.2 24.6 10 19.6 64.2 47.6 2.1 49.5 2.9 1.5 69.8 3.1 1.7 2.5 1.9 15.2 2 38 46 45.4 3 24.2 27.3 101 63 1.48 29.6
Chapter 6 - Eddy Current Testing

Common Terms and Definitions Absolute Coil A test arrangement which tests the specimen without any comparison to either another portion of the test specimen or to a known reference. Alternating A voltage, current or magnetic field that reverses direction at regularly recurring intervals. Bobbin Coil A coil or coil assembly used for eddy current testing by insertion into the test piece; e.g., an inside probe for tubing. Also referred to as Inside Coil or IP Coil. Coil Conductor wound in one or more loops to produce an axial magnetic field when current is passed through it. Coil Spacing The axial distance between two encircling coils of a differential system. Conductivity The willingness of a test circuit or test specimen to conduct current. Coupling A measure of the degree to which the magnetic field of the coil passes through the test specimen and is affected by the magnetic field created by the flow of eddy currents. Defect Resolution A property of a test system which enables the separation of signals due to defects in the test specimen that are located in close proximity to each other. Diamagnetic A material having a permeability less than that of a vacuum. Differential Coil A test arrangement which tests the specimen by comparing the portion being tested with either another portion of the same specimen or to a known reference specimen. Discontinuity, Artificial Reference discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or notches, which are introduced into a reference standard to provide accurately reproducible sensitivity levels for electromagnetic test equipment. Double Coil A test arrangement where the alternating current is supplied through one coil while the change in material condition is measured from a second coil. Eddy Current A circulating electrical current induced in a conductive material by an alternating magnetic field.
Edge or End Effect The disturbance of the magnetic field and eddy currents due to the proximity of an abrupt change in geometry (edge, end). The effect generally results in the masking of discontinuities within the affected region. Effective Depth of Penetration The depth in a material beyond which a test system can no longer detect a change in material properties. Effective Permeability A hypothetical quantity which is used to describe the magnetic field distribution within a cylindrical conductor in an encircling coil. The field strength of the applied magnetic field is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross section of the test specimen with the effective permeability, which is characterized by the conductivity and diameter of the test specimen and test frequency, assuming values between zero and one, such that its associated amplitude is always less than one within the specimen. Electromagnetic Induction The process by which a varying or alternating current (eddy current) is induced into an electrically conductive test object by a varying electromagnetic field. Electromagnetic Testing That nondestructive test method for engineering materials, including magnetic materials, which uses electromagnetic energy having frequencies less than those of visible light to yield information regarding the quality of the tested material. Encircling Coil A coil, coils, or coil assembly that surrounds the part to be tested. Coils of this type are also referred to as circumferential, OD or feed-through coils. External Reference Differential A differential test arrangement that compares a portion of the test specimen to a known reference standard. Ferromagnetic A material which, in general, exhibits hysteresis phenomena, and whose permeability is dependent on the magnetizing force. Fill Factor For an inside coil, it is the ratio of the outside diameter of the coil squared to the inside diameter of the specimen squared. For an encircling coil, it is the ratio of the outside diameter of the specimen squared to the inside diameter of the coil squared. Flux Density A measure of the strength of a magnetic field expressed as a number of flux lines passing through a given area. Henry The unit of inductance. More precisely, a circuit in which an electromotive force of one volt is induced when the current is changing at a rate of one ampere per second will have an inductance of one henry. (Symbol: H) Hertz The unit of frequency (one cycle per second). (Symbol: Hz)
High Pass Filter An electronic circuit designed to block signals of low frequency while passing high frequency signals. IACS The International Annealed Copper Standard. A value of conductivity established as a standard against which other conductivity values are referred to in percent IACS. Impedance The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or a coil due to the resistance of that circuit or coil, plus the electrical properties of the coil as affected by the coil's magnetic field. Impedance Analysis An analytical method which consists of correlating changes in the amplitude, phase, or quadrature components (or all of these) of a complex test signal voltage to the electromagnetic conditions within the specimen. Impedance-plane Diagram A graphical representation of the locus of points indicating the variations in the impedance of a test coil as a function of basic test parameters. Inductance The inertial element of the electric circuit. An inductor resists any sudden change in the current flowing through it. Inductive Reactance The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or coil when an alternating voltage source is applied and due solely to the electrical properties of the coil as affected by the magnetic field. Inertia The property of matter which manifests itself as a resistance to any change in the momentum of a body. Lift-off The distance between a surface probe coil and the specimen. Lift-off Effect The effect observed due to a change in magnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coil whenever the distance between them is varied. Low Pass Filter An electronic circuit designed to block signals of high frequency while passing low frequency signals. Magnetic Field A condition of space near a magnet or current-carrying wire in which forces can be detected. Magnetic Flux Lines A closed curve in a magnetic field through points having equal magnetic force and direction. Noise Any undesired signal that tends to interfere with the normal reception or processing of a desired signal.. In flaw detection, undesired response to dimensional and physical variables (other than flaws) in the test part is called "part noise.
Nonferromagnetic A material that is not magnetizable and hence, essentially not affected by magnetic fields. This would include paramagnetic materials having a magnetic permeability slightly greater than that of a vacuum and approximately independent bf the magnetizing force and diamagnetic materials having a permeability less than that of a vacuum. Paramagnetic A material having a permeability which is slightly greater than that of a vacuum, and which is approximately independent of the magnetizing force. Permeability A measure of the ease with which the magnetic domains of a material align themselves with an externally applied magnetic field. Permeability Variations Magnetic inhomogeneities of a material. Phase Analysis An instrumentation technique which discriminates between variables in the test part by the different phase angle changes which these conditions produce in the test signal. Phase Angle The angle measured in degrees that the current in the test circuit leads or lags the voltage. One complete cycle is equal to 360. Phase Shift A change in the phase relationship between two alternating quantities of the same frequency. Probe Coil A small coil or coil assembly normally used for surface inspections. Reference Standard A test specimen used as a basis for calibrating test equipment or as a comparison when evaluating test results. Rejection Level The setting of the signal level above or below which all parts are rejectable or in an automatic system at which objectional parts will actuate the reject mechanism of the system. Resistance The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or coil based on specific material properties and crosssectional area and length of a conductor. Response Amplitude The property of the test system whereby the amplitude of the detected signal is measured without regard to phase. Saturation The degree of magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic material for which the incremental permeability has decreased substantially to unity.
Self-comparison Differential A differential test arrangement that compares two portions of the same test specimen. Signal-to-noise Ratio The ratio of response or amplitude of signals of interest to the response or amplitude of signals containing no useful information. Single Coil A test arrangement where the alternating current is supplied through the same coil from which the indication is taken. Skin Effect A phenomenon where, at high frequencies, the eddy current flow is restricted to a thin layer of the test specimen close to the coil. Standard A reference used as a basis for comparison or calibration; a concept that has been established by authority, custom, or agreement to serve as a model or rule in the measurement of quantity or the establishment of a practice or a procedure. Standard Depth of Penetration The depth in a test specimen where the magnitude of eddy current flow is equal to 37 percent of the eddy current flow at the surface.
Two Types of Electrical Current Direct Current (DC) Current flow is constant over time Current is distributed uniformly over the cross-section of the conductor Example: battery
Current strength and direction remain constant over time
Time
Alternating Current (AC) Current flow varies over time Current flows at or near the surface of the conductor - this phenomenon is called the skin effect Example: 60 cycle ac in wall sockets
Current strength varies over time; current direction reverses every 1/2 cycle
Time
Conductivity and the IACS Conductivity of a metal is usually expressed as a percentage (%) and is based on the international annealed copper standard (IACS). A specific grade of high purity copper was designated as 100 % conductivity. All other metals (except silver) are designated some % less then 100 %. These percentages indicate the relative efficiencies of the various metals for carrying electric current.
Right Hand Rule An easy method for finding the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field is to imagine grasping the conductor in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow. The fingers will then point in the direction of the lines of force. This is the right hand rule and is shown below. From this figure it can be seen that the current flow in the conductor creates circular lines of force.
(-)
CURRENT FLOW (+)
The coil's magnetic field intensity (strength) decreases with increasing distance away from the outside of the coil. The field intensity at point C is less than at point B, and point B's intensity is less than point A's
AC
B A
The coil's field intensity (strength) is assumed to be constant across the inside diameter of the coil. This assumption is based on the use of AC and small diameter coils, and for all practical purposes the assumption is valid.
AC
Lines of Force The coil's magnetic field can be viewed as a distribution of lines of force around the coil. These lines of force are call magnetic flux, and represent the coil's magnetic force (symbol 'H'). AC Current in Current out
When a metal rod is placed rod. The number of lines of area of the rod equals the flux density in the rod depends on flux. The metal's willingness permeability. The symbol for
inside the coil, the coil flux passes through the force in the rod divided by the cross-sectional density (symbol 'B') in the rod. The flux the metal's willingness to carry the magnetic to carry these magnetic flux lines is called permeability is ' ' (mu).
Mathematically, permeability is expressed as the flux density in the material (B) divided by the magnetizing force (H) that caused it. B
B or Permeability = H =
Flux density Magnetizing force
Like conductivity, permeability is a material property that is the same for all samples of a particular material (assume same chemistry, etc.). example: for air = 1 for copper alloys = 1 for steels = several thousand
The permeability value of 1 for air and copper alloys (and all other non-magnetic materials) means that the magnetic flux in the material is exactly equal to the flux coming from the coil. stated another way: b/h = 1 only when b = h
The high permeability value of steels (and all other ferromagnetic metals) means that the magnetic flux in the metal is thousands of times greater than the applied flux from the coil. stated another way: b/h = 2000 means bflux = 2000 x hflux
Randomly Oriented Domains
Magnetic Domains Obviously, something is happening in the ferromagnetic metals to create all this additional flux that is not happening in the non-magnetic materials. Magnetic domains are groups of atoms within a ferromagnetic metal which behave like tiny permanent magnets.
Partially Oriented Domains
Completely Oriented Domains (saturation)
In unmagnetized magnetic materials, the domains are randomly oriented and neutralize each other, producing no observable magnetic flux in the metal.
When the magnetizing force from the coil, is applied, the domains begin to align in the direction of the applied flux. Their combined individual magnetism starts to produce an observable increase in the flux in the metal, over and above the applied flux (H).
When the domains are completely aligned, the metal is said to be saturated, and the flux 'B' is many thousands of times greater than the applied flux 'H'. This domain behavior is responsible for the non-linear relationship between (B) and (H) in ferromagnetic metals and for the hysteresis effect.
When a coil of wire carrying alternating current is brought into proximity to a conducting article. The alternating magnetic field that surrounds the coil will penetrate the article, generating small circulating electrical currents, called eddy currents, in an article. Note: When a generators electrical current reverses it direction, the direction of the eddy currents will also reverse.
Generator Electrical current Test coil
Eddy currents Article being tested
Eddy currents are circulating electrical currents induced in an isolated conductor by an alternating magnetic field. Note that there is no direct electrical contact between the coil and the test article - eddy currents are generated by electromagnetic induction.
The "primary" magnetic field surrounding the ac coil will penetrate the test articles and induce eddy currents in the article. The circulating eddy currents possess their own "secondary" magnetic field. This secondary field will oppose the coils and reduce the size and strength of the coils field.
Direction of coils field
AC
Indicator
Eddy current field opposes coils field
Changes in the strength or shape of the secondary field will affect the primary field, which will affect the AC flowing in the coil, where it will be sensed. In this way, variations of the test article that disturb or alter the flow of the eddy currents will disturb the electromagnetic coupling between the two fields and cause indications on the test instrument
Test circuit Changes in conductivity
Change in coils impedance Change in coils magnetic field Characteristics of Eddy Current
Change in meter reading Material
1) Can only be induced in conductors Coated (i.e. painted) articles may be tested, since the coils field will pass through the nonconducting coating and generate eddy currents in the metal beneath. Plated articles should not be tested, since the coil's field will generate eddy currents in both the metallic plating and the base material. Consequently, ET indications could originate from either the base metal or the plating, confusing the inspection.
Nonconductive material
Conductive material
Conductive material
Conductive material
2) Can be generated only by an alternating magnetic field - there must be relative motion between the field and the test article. A DC field will not generate eddy currents. The moving AC field which builds up, then breaks down and reverses direction every 1/2 cycle, is essential to the production of eddy currents. 3) Eddy currents flow circular paths, parallel the coil windings. in to
Depth of Penetration Eddy currents are strongest at the surface nearest the coil (due to skin effect) and weaken with depth. The depth of eddy current penetration below the surface is directly affected by the nearness of the coil to the test article, the operating frequency, and the test article conductivity and permeability. (A) Coil position - since the coil's field is limited in size and decreases in strength with increasing distance away from the coil, maximum field penetration into the article and, therefore, maximum depth of eddy current penetration is achieved by moving the coil as close as practical to the test article surface.
Coil far away from article being tested
Coil as close as possible to the article being tested
(B) Operating frequency - a relationship also exists between the frequency of the ac applies to the test coil and the eddy current depth of penetration. As the frequency is increased, eddy current distribution concentrates near the surface and decreases deep with the test article. The reverse is also true. As the frequency is lowered, the eddy current distribution extends deeper into the article. Frequency Coil Frequency Coil
Depth of Eddy Current Penetration View A
Depth of Eddy Current Penetration View B
In both view A and B above, the material and the test coil are the same. Since view a shows deeper eddy current penetration into the material, this means that a lower frequency was used. View B shows shallower penetration, so a high frequency was used. Keep in mind that a high frequency causes the eddy currents to accumulate near the surface closest to the test coil.
c) Conductivity - the figure below illustrates that the depth of eddy current penetration also varies with metal's electrical conductivity. As conductivity increases, the depth of eddy currents decreases. Indicator Coil Depth of Eddy Current Penetration Lead Depth of Eddy Current Penetration Tin Indicator Coil Depth of Eddy Current Penetration Copper Indicator Coil
In the figure, the coil and test frequency are the same in each view. Only the material type is different. You can verify that tin is more conductive the lead, and that copper is much more conductive than either, by referring to the % IACS conductivity chart shown earlier. As the figure shows, the less conductive metals achieve deeper eddy current penetration than the more conductive metals. d) Magnetic permeability - finally, a metal's magnetic permeability ( ) affects the depth of eddy current penetration. The depth of penetration decrease as the permeability increases. There are 3 basic types of eddy current test: surface , encircling , and inside. A surface coil is designed to be used on localized areas on a surface, and is usually contained in a hand-held probe.
An encircling coil, on the other hand, is large enough to surround an object about one of its axes and is designed to test an entire segment of the object at one time.
An inside coil is designed to be placed inside a hole or cavity in the object, and is especially suited for testing thin wall tubing.
Note that with each of the coil types: - The eddy currents circulate parallel to the coil windings - The eddy currents hug the surface that is nearest the coil
Each of these 3 coil types may be used in either the differential or absolute test mode. In the differential coil arrangement, two side-by-side coils are wound and connected so that the output of on cancels the output of the other as long as the test object properties are the same under both coils. This mode is most sensitive to small defects and is relatively insensitive to material variations such as hardness, gross surface irregularities, etc.
In the absolute mode, a single coil tests the area of the test object beneath it without comparison to a reference area. This mode is most sensitive to large defects longer than the coil, and to material variations such as hardness, gross surface irregularities, etc.
The 3 general material variables (properties) that affect the flow of eddy currents in the material are: 1) Changes in conductivity - conductivity changes may be caused by variations in alloy chemistry or heat treatment, or may be due to the presence of defects. Since cracks or other discontinuities force the eddy currents to take a longer path by flowing around them, the overall effect of the discontinuity is to reduce the conductivity of the metal.
As the figure illustrates, the eddy currents must flow around the crack, effectively reducing the conductivity of the metal. 2) The second material variable affecting eddy current flow is magnetic permeability. Eddy currents are induced by flux changes in the metal and are directly related to the density or amount of flux. Since changes in permeability cause changes in the amount of flux in the metal, they also cause a pronounced (and detectable) change in the eddy current flow. 3) Changes in the physical dimensions, or size and shape of the test object also affect the eddy current flow. Although the figure below is a gross example, it clearly illustrates how a change in physical dimension can alter the electromagnetic coupling between the coil and the object.
Two more dimensional of eddy current testing is edge effect and lift-off. Edge effect is the false indication caused by disruption of by disruption of the eddy current path when the coil approaches an end or edge of the material. The effect is strong enough to "mask' any changes due to other factors. In effect, the edge of the material looks like a very large crack to the eddy current instrument. On the other hand, the false indication caused by changing the spacing between the test coil and the material surface is called lift-off.
Lift-off has a very large effect on the ET output display due to the decrease in primary field flux in the material as the coil distance from the materials surface is increased.
The lift-off effect can be used to measure the thickness of non-conducting coatings, such as paint, on a conducting object.
Since eddy currents cannot be generated in the non-conductor, a coil placed in contact with the painted surface "sees" the paint thickness simply as lift-off distance. Another important relationship between eddy current flow and the presence of discontinuities is that the discontinuity must lie perpendicular to the direction of eddy current flow to be detected.
In the situation above, a surface coil passes over a surface crack and a subsurface lamination in the metal. It is easy to see that the crack will force the eddy currents to take a longer path around it, causing a detectable disruption in their flow. The lamination on the other hand, will not cause much disruption of the eddy current path since the metal separation lies parallel to the direction of current flow.
Limitations of Eddy Current Testing 1. Inspect only conducting articles (i.e. metals). 2. Can locate only surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities; inspection depth is limited to less then 1 inch. 3. Separation of the effects of conductivity, permeability, and dimension variables is difficult and often not possible. 4. ET is an indirect inspection requiring the use of calibration standards; you must know what you are looking for in order to find it. Advantages of Eddy Current Testing 1. Able to inspect through non-conductive coatings (i.e. paint). 2. Fast, real-time inspection. 3. Totally nondestructive; no interference with the test item. Summary of Properties of Eddy Currents 1. Generated by an alternating magnetic field. 2. Flow only in conductors. 3. Circulates parallel to coil windings. 4. Eddy current flow is affected by changes in the material's conductivity, dimension, magnetic permeability. 5. Limited to surface/shallow subsurface testing. 6. Depth of penetration is affected by conductivity and permeability of test object, by test frequency, and by nearness of the coil to the test object. 7. Able to test through surface coatings (nonconducting) but not through plating (metal).
Eddy Current Relationship of Properties Penetration Decrease Increase Frequency Increase Decrease Conductivity Increase Decrease Permeability Increase Decrease
Chapter 7 - Radiographic Inspection

Common Definitions and Examples Absorbed dose The amount of energy imparted to matter by an ionizing particle per unit mass of irradiated material at the place of interest. It is expressed in rads. Accelerator A device that accelerates charged atomic particles to high energies. An x-ray machine is an accelerator. Activity A measure of how radioactive a particular radioisotope is. The number of atoms decaying per unit of time calculates activation. Its unit of measurement is the curie. Alpha particle A positively charged particle emitted by certain radioactive materials. It is made up of two neutrons and two protons; hence it is identical with the nucleus of a helium atom. Alpha ray A stream of fast-moving helium nuclei (alpha particles). This radiation is strongly ionizing with very weak penetration. Angstrom A unit of length used to express wavelength. One angstrom equals 10-8 centimeters. Anode (target side) The positive terminal of an x-ray tube. It is a high melting point element that receives the electron bombardment from the cathode (filament). Atom The smallest part of an element. The atom consists of a nucleus composed, with the exception of hydrogen, of a number of protons and neutrons. Included in the atom is an extranuclear portion composed of electrons equal in number to the protons in the nucleus. The hydrogen atom includes a nucleus of one proton and extranuclear portion of one electron. Autotransformer A special type of transformer in which the output voltage can be easily varied. The autotransformer is employed to adjust the primary voltage applied to the step-up transformer that produces the high voltage applied to the x-ray tube. Background radiation The radiation of mans radiation natural environment, consisting of radiation that comes from cosmic rays and from the naturally radioactive elements of the earth, including radiation from within mans body. The term may also mean radiation extraneous to an experiment. Backscatter Radiation scattered from the floor, walls, equipment, and other items in the area of a radiation source. Backscatter includes secondary radiation resulting from the interaction between the primary radiation from the source and the material being radiated.
Beta particle An electron or position emitted from a nucleus during radioactive decay. Bremsstrahlung Electromagnetic radiation (photon) emitted by charged particles when they are slowed down by electric fields in their passage through matter. Literally means, braking radiation in German. 200 Kev Electron Leaving
400 Kev Electron 200 Kev X-Ray Cassette A lightproof container, which may or may not contain intensifying and/or filter screens, that is used for holding the radiographic films in position during the radiographic exposure. Cathode (filament side) The negatively-biased electrode of the x-ray tube. Collimator A device used to surround a radiation source and so constructed as to both minimize the scattered radiation and to direct the primary or useful radiation into a more or less parallel beam onto a localized area. Compton Effect The glancing collision of an x-ray or gamma ray with an electron to an orbital electron in matter with a lower energy in matter with a lower energy photon scattered at an angle to the original photon path. The electron does not absorb all of the energy. Ejected electron High energy Photon Photon continues with less energy
Contrast (film) The change in density recorded on the film that results from a given change in radiation input. Contrast is determined from the slope of the characteristic curve. Contrast (radiographic) The measure of difference in the film blackening resulting from various x-ray intensities transmitted through the object and recorded as density differences in the image. Thus, difference in film blackening from one area to another is contrast. Contrast (subject) The ratio of radiation intensities passing through selected portions of a specimen. Definition The measure of sharpness in the outline of the image of an object recorded on film; the sharpness is the function of the types of screens, exposure geometry, radiation energy and film characteristic. Densitometer An instrument utilizing the photoelectric principle to determine the degree of darkening of developed photographic film. Developer A chemical solution that reduces exposed silver halide crystals to metallic silver. Dose The amount of ionizing radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at a specific location, such as a part of the human body. Dose rate The radiation dose delivered per unit time and measured, for instance, in rems per hour. Dosimeter A device that measures radiation dose, such as a film badge or ionization chamber. Duty cycle Usually expressed in a percentage to represent the time used versus the time not used. Electromagnetic Spectrum Represents the electromagnetic waves of different wave lengths. The lines are not definite boundaries but rather phase into one another. X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS ULTRAVIOLET RAYS LIGHT RAYS INFRARED RAYS RADAR WAVES SHORT WAVE RADIO LONG WAVE RADIO
DECREASING INCREASING INCREASING
WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY ENERGY
INCREASING DECREASING DECREASING
Electron volt Is an amount of energy equal to the energy gained by one electron when it is accelerated by one volt. Emulsion A gelatin and silver bromide crystal mixture coated onto a transparent film base. Encapsulation The process of sealing radioactive materials to prevent contamination. Filament A piece of wire in the cathode side, negative side, of the x-ray tube used to produce electrons when heated. Film Specialized film used for radiographic purposes. The components of the film are two protective layers, two emulsion layers, and one acetate base layer. emulsion (image layer) acetate base protective layers
Film badge A package of photographic film worn as a badge by workers in the nuclear industry to measure exposure to ionization radiation. The absorbed dose can be calculated by the degree of film darkening caused by the irradiation. Filter A layer of absorptive material that is placed in the beam of radiation for the purpose of absorbing rays of certain wavelengths and thus controlling the quality of the radiograph. Fixer A chemical solution that dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from developed film emulsions. Fog A darkening of the film resulting from chemical action of the developer, aging, scattered or secondary radiation, pre-exposure to radiation, or exposure to visible light. Geiger counter A radiation detection and measuring instrument. It contains a gas-filled tube that discharges electrically when ionizing radiation passes through it. Discharges are counted to measure the radiations intensity. Graininess A film characteristic that consists of the grouping or clumping together of the countless small silver grains into relatively large masses visible to the naked eye or with slight magnification. Half-life The time in which half the atoms in a radioactive substance decay. Time is dependant upon the element. Half-life (biological) The time required for a biological system, such as a man or an animal, to eliminate, by natural processes, half the amount of a substance that has entered it.
Half-value layer The thickness of a material required to absorb one half of the impinging radiation. Intensifying screen A layer of material placed in contact with the film to increase the effect of the radiation, thereby shortening the exposure. Interlock A device for precluding access to an area of radiation hazard either by preventing entry or by automatically removing the hazard. Ion A charged atom or molecularly-bound group of atoms; sometimes also a free electron or other charged subatomic particles. Ion pairs A positive ion and a negative ion, or electron, having charges of the same magnitude and formed from a neutral atom or molecule by the action of radiation or by any other agency that supplies energy. Ionization The process of adding electrons to, or knocking electrons from, atoms or molecules thereby creating ions. High temperatures, electrical discharges, and nuclear radiation can cause ionization. Ionization chamber An instrument that detects and measures ionizing radiation by observing the electrical current created when radiation ionizes gas in the chamber making the gas a conductor of electricity. Ionizing radiation Any radiation that directly or indirectly displaces electrons from the orbital shells of atoms. Kev The energy of X-rays or gamma rays measured in thousand electron volts. Latent image The potential image that is stored in the form of chemical changes in the film emulsion and is brought out by development of the film. Latitude Latitude most closely aligned with contrast is commonly called the scale of the film. Latitude is the range of thickness of material that can be transferred or recorded on the radiograph within the useful reading range of film density. A high contrast film has little latitude and conversely a low contrast film has great latitude. Leak test A test on sealed sources to assure that radioactive material is not being released. Licensed material Source material, special nuclear material, or by-product material received, possessed, used, or transferred under a general or special license issued by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Mev The energy of X-rays or gamma rays measured in million electron volts. Microshrinkage Cracks that appear as dark feathery streaks, or irregular patches, that indicate cavities in the grain boundaries. Monochromatic radiation A rare condition, hypothetical, in which all gamma rays or x-rays produced are of the same wavelength. Pair production The transformation of a high-energy ray into pair of particles (an electron and a positron) during its passage through matter. Particle A minute constituent of matter with a measurable mass, such as a neutron, proton, or meson. Penetrameter A small strip of material of the same composition as the specimen being tested. Its thickness represents a percentage of the specimen thickness. When placed in the path of the rays, its image on the radiograph provides a check on the radiographic technique employed. T = thickness 4T DIA T DIA T 2T DIA
Penumbra The shadow cast when the incident radiation is partly, but not wholly, cut off by an intervening body; the space of partial illumination between the umbra, or perfect shadow, on all sides and the full light. Photoelectric effect This process involves the complete absorption of the photon during the process of knocking an electron out of orbit. It occurs primarily with lower energy X-rays photons of 10 Kev to 500 Kev. Approaching Photon Photon absorbed Ejected electron (negative ion)
Charged atom (positive atom) Photon A discrete quantity of electromagnetic energy. Photons have no momentum but no mass or electrical charge.
Positron A fundamental atomic particle having a mass equal to that of the electron and possessing a positive charge equal to the negative charge of the electron. Roentgen A unit of exposure dose of ionizing radiation. It is that amount of gamma or x-rays required to produce ions carrying 1 electrostatic unit of electrical charge in one cubic centimeter of dry air under standard conditions. Safelight A special lamp used in the darkroom to provide working visibility without affecting the photosensitive emulsion of the radiographic film. Scatter Secondary radiation that is emitted in all directions. Screens Metallic or fluorescent sheets used to intensify the radiation effects on films. Sensitivity A term usually referring to the ability of the radiographic procedure to detect discontinuities. Specific activity Total radioactivity of a given isotope per gram of element. Source-film-distance The distance between the focal spot of an x-ray tube or radiation source and the film; generally expressed in inches. Target The piece of material, usually tungsten, embedded in the anode side, positive side, of the x-ray tube. A effective and efficient target has the following four properties high atomic number, high melting point, high thermal conductivity, and low vapor pressure. Two-film technique A procedure wherein two films of different relative speeds are used simultaneously to radiograph both the thick and the thin sections of an item.
Structure of the Atom and an Element Proton A heavy atomic particle with a positive charge. Neutron Close to the same weight and size of the proton with a neutral charge. Electron A negative charged particle weighing about 1/1840th of a proton or a neutron. Nucleus The proton(s) and neutron(s) are group here in the center of the atom. Atomic number Z This number represents the number of protons in the atom. Mass number A This number represent the number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
Helium Atom
EA
E = element symbol Z = atomic number A = mass number
Components of an Isotope Isotope One or more of the same element having the same number of protons but not the same number of neutrons. Natural isotopes Those that occur naturally. Artificial isotope Those elements that are created by bombarding with swarms of neutrons. Activation This is the process of creating artificial isotopes. Stable isotopes Atoms that are not radioactive. Unstable isotopes Atoms that are radioactive. Characteristics of A Radioactive Element During the decay or disintegration process tiny particles of energy are emitted in the form of particles and waves from the nucleus. Alpha particles () The biggest and heaviest of the radiation particles and is composed of two protons and two neutrons. Beta particles () A very light particle, actually a high-speed electron. Gamma rays () A form of energy that is a wave not a particle. Two Types of Radiation Gamma radiation A product of nuclear disintegration or decay of radioactive elements. X-rays An artificial produced wave from a high voltage electron tube. 1) Soft x-rays low energy. 2) Hard x-rays high energy.
History of Radiography X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) who was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Working with a cathoderay tube in his laboratory, Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a table near his tube. The tube that Roentgen was working with consisted of a glass envelope (bulb) with electrically positive and negative electrodes encapsulated in it. The tube was evacuated of air, and when a high voltage was applied to it, the tube would produce a fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen from a screen setting a few feet away from the tube. He concluded that a new type of ray emitted from the tube. This ray was capable of passing through the heavy paper covering. He also found that the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows of solid objects. In his discovery, Roentgen found that the ray would pass through the tissue of humans leaving the bones and metals visible. One of Roentgen's first experiments late in 1895 was a film of his wife, Bertha's hand with a ring on. However, it can be argued that the first use of X-rays was for an industrial (not medical) application as Roentgen produced a radiograph of a set of weights in a box to show his colleagues. Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received with extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. Scientists everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube was very well known during this period. Many scientist dropped other lines of research to pursue the mysterious rays, and the newspapers and magazines of the day provided the public with numerous stories, some true, others fanciful, about the properties of the newly discovered rays. The public fancy was caught by the invisible ray with the ability to pass through solid matter, and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture, albeit a shadowy diffuse one, of the bones and interior of the body. Scientific fancy was captured by an extraordinary new radiation, of shorter wavelength than light, that presaged new and great vistas in physics, and the structure of matter. Both the scientist and the public were enthusiastic about potential applications of the newly discovered rays as an aid in medicine and surgery. Thus, within a month after the announcement of the discovery, several medical radiographs had been made in Europe and the United States that were used by surgeons to guide them in their work. In June 1896, only 6 months after Roentgen announced his discovery, X-rays were being used by battlefield physicians to locate bullets in wounded soldiers. Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms of medicine, and dentistry, though some X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The main reason that were not used in industrial application before this date was because the X-ray tubes (the source of the X-rays) of that period broke down under the voltages required to produce rays of satisfactory penetrating power for industrial purpose. However, that changed in 1913 when the high vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge became available. The high vacuum tubes were an intense and reliable X-ray sources, operating at energies up to 100,000 volts. In 1922, industrial radiography took another step forward with the advent of the 200,000-volt X-ray tube that allowed radiographs of three inches thick steel parts to be produced in a reasonable amount of time. In 1931, General Electric Company developed 1000, 000 volt X-ray generators. That same year, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) permitted X-ray approval of fusion welded pressure vessels.
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was discovered. In 1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity somewhat by accident, like many other great scientific discoveries. Many of the scientists of the period were working with cathode rays, and other scientists were gathering evidence on the theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some of this new evidence showed that certain types of atoms disintegrate by themselves. It was Henri Becquerel who discovered this phenomenon while investigating the properties of fluorescent minerals. Becquerel was working on the principles of fluorescence, certain minerals glow (fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He utilized photographic plates to record this fluorescence. One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day when it was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored some of the compound in a drawer with photographic plates. When he developed these plates a couple of days later, he discovered that they were fogged. Becquerel questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due to stray light. In addition, he noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a type of radiation that could penetrate heavy paper and affect photographic film. Becquerel continued to test many samples of uranium compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the element uranium. At this time, enough information was gathered to determine that an element, which gives off radiation, is said to be radioactive, and possesses the property of radioactivity. Becquerel's discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually unnoted by the layman and scientist alike. Only a relatively few scientist were interested in Becquerel's findings, and it was not until the discovery of radium by the Curies two years later that interest in radioactivity became wide spread. While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie Curie became very interested in his work. She too, suspected that a uranium ore known as pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband, a French scientist, Pierre Curie started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende; they named it `polonium' in honor of Marie Curie's native homeland. Later that same year, the Curie's discovered another radioactive element for which they named `radium', or shining element. Both polonium and radium are more radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or produced. The initial gamma ray source was radium, which allows radiography of castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick. During World War II, industrial radiography grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding program. Shortly after the war, manmade gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available in 1946. These new sources were far stronger than radium sources and were less expensive. Thus the manmade sources rapidly replaced radium, and the use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial radiography.
60 Coverage for Pipes and Location Marker Measurements
General Information NPS 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 3-1/2" 4" 5" 6" 8" NPS 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 3-1/2" 4" 5" 6" 8" Outside Circumference Diameter (OD times pi) 0.840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.563 6.625 8.625 2.638 3.299 4.131 5.215 5.969 7.461 9.032 10.996 12.566 14.137 17.477 20.813 27.096 60 Coverage 0.440 0.550 0.689 0.869 0.995 1.244 1.505 1.833 2.094 2.356 2.913 3.469 4.516 60 Coverage 0.440 0.550 0.689 0.869 0.995 1.244 1.505 1.833 2.094 2.356 2.913 3.469 4.516
Distance Between Location Markers (centerline) 5 0.528 0.660 0.826 1.043 1.194 1.492 1.806 2.199 2.513 2.827 3.495 4.163 5.419 13 0.203 0.254 0.318 0.401 0.459 0.574 0.695 0.846 0.967 1.087 1.344 1.601 2.084 6 0.440 0.550 0.689 0.869 0.995 1.244 1.505 1.833 2.094 2.356 2.913 3.469 4.516 14 0.188 0.236 0.295 0.373 0.426 0.533 0.645 0.785 0.898 1.010 1.248 1.487 1.935 7 0.377 0.471 0.590 0.745 0.853 1.066 1.290 1.571 1.795 2.020 2.497 2.973 3.871 15 0.176 0.220 0.275 0.348 0.398 0.497 0.602 0.733 0.838 0.942 1.165 1.388 1.806 8 0.330 0.412 0.516 0.652 0.746 0.933 1.129 1.374 1.571 1.767 2.185 2.602 3.387 16 0.165 0.206 0.258 0.326 0.373 0.466 0.565 0.687 0.785 0.884 1.092 1.301 1.694 9 0.293 0.367 0.459 0.579 0.663 0.829 1.004 1.222 1.396 1.571 1.942 2.313 3.011 17 0.155 0.194 0.243 0.307 0.351 0.439 0.531 0.647 0.739 0.832 1.028 1.224 1.594 10 0.264 0.330 0.413 0.522 0.597 0.746 0.903 1.100 1.257 1.414 1.748 2.081 2.710 18 0.147 0.183 0.230 0.290 0.332 0.415 0.502 0.611 0.698 0.785 0.971 1.156 1.505 11 0.240 0.300 0.376 0.474 0.543 0.678 0.821 1.000 1.142 1.285 1.589 1.892 2.463 19 0.139 0.174 0.217 0.274 0.314 0.393 0.475 0.579 0.661 0.744 0.920 1.095 1.426 12 0.220 0.275 0.344 0.435 0.497 0.622 0.753 0.916 1.047 1.178 1.456 1.734 2.258 20 0.132 0.165 0.207 0.261 0.298 0.373 0.452 0.550 0.628 0.707 0.874 1.041 1.355
Outside Circumference Diameter (OD times pi) 0.840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.563 6.625 8.625 2.638 3.299 4.131 5.215 5.969 7.461 9.032 10.996 12.566 14.137 17.477 20.813 27.096
Common Math Formulas

I1(D1)
2
2
= I2(D2)
I D
1
(D
1
I I
1
(D )
2 2
(D I I
2
I D
2
(D
2
(D )
1 2
(D I=Intensity D=Distance
Ma 1(SFD 2)
2
= Ma 2(SFD 1)
Ma SFD
2
(SFD
1
Ma Ma
1
(SFD )
1 2
Ma
(SFD Ma Ma
2
Ma SFD
1
(SFD
2
(SFD )
2 2
Ma
(SFD Ma=Milliamperage SFD=Source to film distance
Ci 1(SFD 2)
2
= Ci 2(SFD 1)
Ci SFD
2
(SFD
1
Ci Ci
1
(SFD )
1 2
Ci
(SFD Ci Ci
2
Ci SFD
1
(SFD
2
(SFD )
2 2
Ci
(SFD Ci=Curie SFD=Source to film distance
Ef 1(SFD 2)
2
= Ef 2(SFD 1)
Ef SFD
2
(SFD
1
Ef Ef
1
(SFD )
1 2
Ef
(SFD Ef Ef
2
Ef SFD
1
(SFD
2
(SFD )
2 2
Ef
(SFD Ef=Exposure factor SFD=Source to film distance
T1(SFD 2)
2
T2(SFD 1)
T SFD
2
(SFD
1
T T
1
(SFD )
1 2
(SFD T T
2
T SFD
1
(SFD
2
(SFD )
2 2
(SFD T=Time SFD=Source to film distance
OF 1(SFD 2)
2
= OF 2(SFD 1)
OF SFD
2
(SFD
1
OF OF
1
(SFD )
1 2
OF
(SFD OF OF
2
OF SFD
1
(SFD
2
(SFD )
2 2
OF
(SFD OF=Offset SFD=Source to film distance
(TS + GAP) X old SFD = new SFD TS TS=Depends on technique used SFD=Source to film distance GAP=Film to specimen distance Ma1( T1) = Ma2 ( T2) Ma=Milliamperage T=Time Ci1( T1) = Ci2 ( T2) Ci=Curie T=Time Dn1( Ef2) = Dn2 ( Ef1) Dn=Density Ef=Exposure factor
(TM or TS) X DS MS TS(TM)=Thickness (TM if location marker is on TM) DS=Defect shift MS=Marker shift Dn1( Ma2) = Dn2 ( Ma1) Dn=Density Ma=Milliamperage Dn1( Ci2) = Dn2 ( Ci1) Dn=Density Ci=Curie Dn1( T2) = Dn2 ( T1) Dn=Density T=Time
FSS = IS - (2 X PHS) FSS=Focal spot size IS=Image size PHS=Pin hole size
Adding / Removing Shielding

I = I 2
o HVL
I = Io(2 HVL )
I = Intensity after adding shielding Io = Original intensity HVL = # of Half-value layers added
I = Intensity after removing shielding Io = Original intensity HVL = # of Half-value layers added
Determining Shielding Required

ln ( HVL = Io ) I .693
Common Half-Value Layers for IR192 Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten 1.75 .500 .190 .130 Kodak Radiographic Films Type Speed Ultra fine Extra fine Extra fine Fine
HVL = # of HVL's required to reduce intensity ln = Natural logrithm Io = Original intensity I = Desired intensity
Grain Decay Formula

A = Ao 2 n
R M T AA
8 4 2 1
A = New activity Ao = Original known activity n = T/HL T = Time passed since known activity passed HL = Half-life of the isotope
Gamma Radiation Exposure Calculator Experienced Based Roentgen Factors (Steel) D E N S I T F 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 I AA .652 .730 1.0 1.25 1.55 L T 1.3 1.46 2.0 2.5 3.1 M M 2.6 2.92 4.0 5.5 6.2
Y 4.0 2.4 4.8 9.6
Magic Circles A B C
D DR T
Ef Ma T
A=BXC B= A / C C= A / B D=Dose DR=Dose rate T=Time Ef=Exposure factor Ma=Milliamperage T=Time
Ef Ci T
Ef=Exposure factor Ci=Curie T=Time
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Plate

SWE / SWV (PLAT E)
Source P enny Backing Strap Ts W eld Film P b "B" Shim Tm
T M = DESIGN MAT ERIAL T HICKNESS PENNY = BASED ON T m SHIM = BASED ON (1) WELD AND (1) ROOT REINFORCEMENT SFD = BASED ON T s ENERGY = BASED ON T s
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Pipe

SW E / SW V (PIPE)
S ource P enny W eld Ts B acking R ing/C onsum able Insert F ilm P b "B " B acking R ing/C onsum able Insert W eld S him Tm
T M= PEN N Y= SH IM = SFD = EN ER G Y=
D ESIG NM AT ER IAL T H IC KN ESS BASED O NT m BASED O N (1) W ELD AN D (1) R O O T R EIN FO R C EM EN T BASED O NT s BASED O NT s
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (superimposed)

D WE / D W V
S ource P enny W eld Tm Backing R ing/C onsum able Insert T Backing R ing/C onsum able Insert Ts1 W eld
s
Shim
F ilm P b "B"
T M= D ESIG NM AT ER IAL T H IC KN ESS PEN N Y= BASED O N (2) T m SH IM = BASED O N (2) WELD AN D (2) R O O T R EIN FO R C EM EN T SFD = BASED O NO U T SID EO D EN ER G Y= BASED O N (2) T m, (2) WELD AN D (2) R O OT R EIN FO R C EMEN T S
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (offset)

DWE / DWV
Source 1/2 Location W eld Tm C onsum able Insert T C onsum able Insert Ts1 1/2 Location m arkers Film P b "B" W eld
s
P enny Shim
m arkers
T M = DESIGN MAT ERIAL T HICKNESS PENNY = BASED ON (2) T m SHIM = BASED ON (1) WELD AND (1) ROOT REINFORCEMENT SFD = BASED ON OUT SIDE OD ENERGY = BASED ON (2) T m, (1) WELD AND (1) ROOT REINFORCEMENT
Double Wall Exposure / Single Wall View

DWE / SWV
Source 1/2 Location m arkers W eld C onsum able Insert
C onsum able Insert Tm W eld F ilm P b "B" 1/2 Location m arkers Shim P enny T
s
TM = DESIGN MAT ER IAL T H ICKN ESS PENNY = BASED ON (1) T m FILM SID E PEN N Y CHART SHIM = BASED ON (1) WELD AND (1) ROOT REINFOR CEMENT SFD = BASED ON (1) T s EN ERGY = BASED ON (2) T m, (1) WELD AND (1) R OOT REIN FORC EMEN T
KILLER CARL
K
i l o v o l t a g e
C
o n t r a s t
L
a t i t u d e
Q
u a l i t y
G
r a i n i n e s s
S
e n s i t i v i t y
P
e n e t r a t i o n
W
a v e l e n g t h
Penetrameter Material and Group Numbers
Magnesium
X X X X X X
GROUP 03
Aluminum
GROUP 02
S-21, S-22, S-25, S-26
Titianium
GROUP 01
S-51, S-52, S-53
X Carbon steel Alloy steel X Stainless steel Manganesse-nickel-aluminum bronze

Aluminum bronze Nickel-aluminum-bronze Nickel-chromiumiron alloy
GROUP 1
S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4, S-5, S-6, S-7, S-8, S-10H, S-11A, S-11B, S-11C, S-11D, S-36B, S-37A, S-37B S-35, S-36
X X X X X X X X
GROUP 2
GROUP 3
S-42, S-43, S-44
Nickel-copper alloys Copper-nickel alloys Tin bronze Gun metals Valve bronze
GROUP 4
S-34
GROUP 5
S-38
Penny T-Hole Maximum Density

LAI 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57 1.58 1.59 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.70 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.79 1.80 1.81 1.82 1.83 1.84 1.85 1.86 1.87 1.88 1.89 1.90 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 1.99 2.00 MAX T-HOLE DENSITY 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.77 1.78 1.79 1.80 1.81 1.82 1.84 1.85 1.86 1.87 1.88 1.89 1.90 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.30 LAI 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 2.40 2.41 2.42 2.43 2.44 2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 MAX MAX MAX T-HOLE LAI T-HOLE LAI T-HOLE DENSITY DENSITY DENSITY 2.30 2.50 2.87 3.00 3.45 2.31 2.51 2.88 3.01 3.46 2.32 2.52 2.89 3.02 3.47 2.33 2.53 2.90 3.03 3.48 2.34 2.54 2.92 3.04 3.49 2.35 2.55 2.93 3.05 3.50 2.36 2.56 2.94 3.06 3.51 2.38 2.57 2.95 3.07 3.53 2.39 2.58 2.96 3.08 3.54 2.40 2.59 2.97 3.09 3.55 2.41 2.60 2.99 3.10 3.56 2.42 2.61 3.00 3.11 3.57 2.43 2.62 3.01 3.12 3.58 2.44 2.63 3.02 3.13 3.59 2.46 2.64 3.03 3.14 3.61 2.47 2.65 3.04 3.15 3.62 2.48 2.66 3.05 3.16 3.63 2.49 2.67 3.07 3.17 3.64 2.50 2.68 3.08 3.18 3.65 2.51 2.69 3.09 3.19 3.66 2.53 2.70 3.10 3.20 3.68 2.54 2.71 3.11 3.21 3.69 2.55 2.72 3.12 3.22 3.70 2.56 2.73 3.13 3.23 3.71 2.57 2.74 3.15 3.24 3.72 2.58 2.75 3.16 3.25 3.73 2.59 2.76 3.17 3.26 3.74 2.61 2.77 3.18 3.27 3.76 2.62 2.78 3.19 3.28 3.77 2.63 2.79 3.20 3.29 3.78 2.64 2.80 3.22 3.30 3.79 2.65 2.81 3.23 3.31 3.80 2.66 2.82 3.24 3.32 3.81 2.67 2.83 3.25 3.33 3.82 2.69 2.84 3.26 3.34 3.84 2.7 2.85 3.27 3.35 3.85 2.71 2.86 3.28 3.36 3.86 2.72 2.87 3.30 3.37 3.87 2.73 2.88 3.31 3.38 3.88 2.74 2.89 3.32 3.39 3.89 2.76 2.90 3.33 3.40 3.91 2.77 2.91 3.34 3.41 3.92 2.78 2.92 3.35 3.42 3.93 2.79 2.93 3.36 3.43 3.94 2.80 2.94 3.38 3.44 3.95 2.81 2.95 3.39 3.45 3.96 2.82 2.96 3.40 3.46 3.97 2.84 2.97 3.41 3.47 3.99 2.85 2.98 3.42 3.48 4.00 2.86 2.99 3.43 3.49 4.00 2.87 3.00 3.45 3.50 4.00 LAI x 1.15 = MAX PENNY DENSITY LAI 3.50 3.51 3.52 3.53 3.54 3.55 3.56 3.57 3.58 3.59 3.60 3.61 3.62 3.63 3.64 3.65 3.66 3.67 3.68 3.69 3.70 3.71 3.72 3.73 3.74 3.75 3.76 3.77 3.78 3.79 3.80 3.81 3.82 3.83 3.84 3.85 3.86 3.87 3.88 3.89 3.90 3.91 3.92 3.93 3.94 3.95 3.96 3.97 3.98 3.99 4.00 MAX T-HOLE DENSITY 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
2% Penetrameter Quality Conversion Chart (X-RAY ONLY)

THICKNESS 2THICKNESS THICKNESS 2PENNY @ 1% @ 2% PENNY EQV 1/ 64 .015625 .00015625 .25 .0003125 .25 1/ 32 .03125 3/ 64 .046875 1/ 16 .0625 5/ 64 .078125 3/ 32 .09375 7/ 64 .109375 1/ 8 .125 9/ 64 .140625 5/ 32 .15625 11/ 64 .171875 3/ 16 .1875 13/ 64 .203125 7/ 32 .21875 15/ 64 .234375 1/ 4 .250 17/ 64 .265625 9/ 32 .28125 19/ 64 .296875 5/ 16 .3125 .0003125 .00046875 .000625 .00078125 .0009375 .00109375 .00125 .00140625 .0015625 .00171875 .001875 .00203125 .0021875 .00234375 .0025 .00265625 .0028125 .00296875 .003125 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .000625 .0009375 .00125 .0015625 .001875 .0021875 .0025 .0028125 .003125 .0034375 .00375 .0040625 .004375 .0046875 .005 .0053125 .005625 .0059375 .00625 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .26 .28 .29 .31 THICKNESS 2-PENNY @ 4% EQV .000625 .00125 .001875 .0025 .003125 .00375 .004375 .005 .005625 .00625 .006875 .0075 .008125 .00875 .009375 .01 .010625 .01125 .011875 .0125 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .28 .31 .34 .37 .40 .43 .46 .50 .53 .56 .59 .62
21/ 64 .328125 11/ 32 .34375 23/ 64 .359375 3/ 8 .375 25/ 64 .390625 13/ 32 .40625 27/ 64 .421875 7/ 16 .4375 29/ 64 .453125 15/ 32 .46875 31/ 64 .484375 1/ 2 .500 33/ 64 .515625 17/ 32 .53125 35/ 64 .546875 9/ 16 .5625 37/ 64 .578125 19/ 32 .59375 39/ 64 .609375 5/ 8 .625
.00328125 .0034375 .00359375 .00375 .00390625 .0040625 .00421875 .004375 .00453125 .0046875 .00484375 .005 .00515625 .0053125 .00546875 .005625 .00578125 .0059375 .00609375 .00625
.25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .26 .27 .28 .28 .29 .30 .31
.0065625 .006875 .0071875 .0075 .0078125 .008125 .0084375 .00875 .0090625 .009375 .0096875 .01 .0103125 .010625 .0109375 .01125 .0115625 .011875 .0121875 .0125
.32 .34 .35 .37 .39 .40 .42 .43 .45 .46 .48 .50 .51 .53 .54 .56 .57 .59 .60 .62
.013125 .01375 .014375 .015 .015625 .01625 .016875 .0175 .018125 .01875 .019375 .02 .020625 .02125 .021875 .0225 .023125 .02375 .024375 .025
.65 .68 .71 .75 .78 .81 .84 .87 .90 .93 .96 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2

THICKNESS 41/ 64 .640625 21/ 32 11/ 16 23/ 32 3/ 4 25/ 32 13/ 16 27/ 32 7/ 8 29/ 32 15/ 16 31/ 32 .65625 .6875 .71875 .750 .78125 .8125 .84375 .875 .90625 .9375 .96875 43/ 64 .671875 45/ 64 .703125 47/ 64 .734375 49/ 64 .765625 51/ 64 .796875 53/ 64 .828125 55/ 64 .859375 57/ 64 .890625 59/ 64 .921875 61/ 64 .953125 22THICKNESS THICKNESS 2THICKNESS PENNY PENNY @ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4% EQV EQV .00640625 .32 .0128125 .64 .025625 1.2 .0065625 .00671875 .006875 .00703125 .0071875 .00734375 .0075 .00765625 .0078125 .00796875 .008125 .00828125 .0084375 .00859375 .00875 .00890625 .0090625 .00921875 .009375 .00953125 .0096875 .32 .33 .34 .35 .35 .36 .37 .38 .39 .39 .40 .41 .42 .42 .43 .44 .45 .46 .46 .47 .48 .013125 .0134375 .01375 .0140625 .014375 .0146875 .015 .0153125 .015625 .0159375 .01625 .0165625 .016875 .0171875 .0175 .0178125 .018125 .0184375 .01875 .0190625 .019375 .65 .67 .68 .70 .71 .73 .75 .76 .78 .79 .81 .82 .84 .85 .87 .89 .90 .92 .93 .95 .96 .02625 .026875 .0275 .028125 .02875 .029375 .03 .030625 .03125 .031875 .0325 .033125 .03375 .034375 .035 .035625 .03625 .036875 .0375 .038125 .03875 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9
63/ 64 .984375 1 11111111111111 1/ 64 1.015625 1/ 32 1.03125 3/ 64 1.046875 1/ 16 1.0625 5/ 64 1.078125 3/ 32 1.09375 7/ 64 1.109375 1/ 8 1.125 9/ 64 1.140625 5/ 32 1.15625 3/ 16 1.1875
.00984375 .01 .01015625 .0103125 .01046875 .010625 .01078125 .0109375 .01109375 .01125 .01140625 .0115625 .01171875 .011875 .01203125 .0121875 .01234375 .0125
.49 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .55 .55 .55 .55 .55 .55 .60 .60 .60 .60
.0196875 .02 .0203125 .020625 .0209375 .02125 .0215625 .021875 .0221875 .0225 .0228125 .023125 .0234375 .02375 .0240625 .024375 .0246875 .025
.98 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
.039375 .04 .040625 .04125 .041875 .0425 .043125 .04375 .044375 .045 .045625 .04625 .046875 .0475 .048125 .04875 .049375 .05
1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5
1- 11/ 64 1.171875 1- 13/ 64 1.203125 7/ 32 1.21875 1/ 4 1.25 1- 15/ 64 1.234375

22THICKNESS THICKNESS 2THICKNESS PENNY PENNY @ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4% EQV EQV 1- 17/ 64 1.265625 .01265625 .60 .0253125 1.2 .050625 2.5 MATERIAL THICKNESS 119/ 32 1.28125 5/ 16 1.3125 .0128125 .01296875 .013125 .01328125 .0134375 .01359375 .01375 .01390625 .0140625 .01421875 .014375 .01453125 .0146875 .01484375 .015 .01515625 .0153125 .01546875 .015625 .01578125 .0159375 .01609375 .60 .60 .65 .65 .65 .65 .65 .65 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 .80 .025625 .0259375 .02625 .0265625 .026875 .0271875 .0275 .0278125 .028125 .0284375 .02875 .0290625 .029375 .0296875 .03 .0303125 .030625 .0309375 .03125 .0315625 .031875 .0321875 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 .05125 .051875 .0525 .053125 .05375 .054375 .055 .055625 .05625 .056875 .0575 .058125 .05875 .059375 .06 .060625 .06125 .061875 .0625 .063125 .06375 .064375 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 1- 19/ 64 1.296875 1- 21/ 64 1.328125 1- 11/ 32 1.34375 1- 23/ 64 1.359375 13/ 8 1.375 1- 25/ 64 1.390625 1- 13/ 32 1.40625 1- 27/ 64 1.421875 17/ 16 1.4375 1- 29/ 64 1.453125 1- 15/ 32 1.46875 1- 31/ 64 1.484375 11/ 2 1.5 1- 33/ 64 1.515625 1- 17/ 32 1.53125 1- 35/ 64 1.546875 19/ 16 1.5625 1- 37/ 64 1.578125 1- 19/ 32 1.59375 1- 39/ 64 1.609375
1-
5/ 8
1.625
.01625 .01640625 .0165625 .01671875 .016875 .01703125 .0171875 .01734375 .0175 .01765625 .0178125 .01796875 .018125 .01828125 .0184375 .01859375
.80 .80 .80 .80 .80 .85 .85 .85 .85 .85 .85 .85 .90 .90 .90 .90
.0325 .0328125 .033125 .0334375 .03375 .0340625 .034375 .0346875 .035 .0353125 .035625 .0359375 .03625 .0365625 .036875 .0371875
1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
.065 .065625 .06625 .066875 .0675 .068125 .06875 .069375 .07 .070625 .07125 .071875 .0725 .073125 .07375 .074375
3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.7
1- 41/ 64 1.640625 1- 21/ 32 1.65625 1- 43/ 64 1.671875 1- 11/ 16 1.6875 1- 45/ 64 1.703125 1- 23/ 32 1.71875 1- 47/ 64 1.734375 13/ 4 1.75 1- 49/ 64 1.765625 1- 25/ 32 1.78125 1- 51/ 64 1.796875 1- 13/ 16 1.8125 1- 53/ 64 1.828125 1- 27/ 32 1.84375 1- 55/ 64 1.859375

MATERIAL THICKNESS 17/ 8 1.875 22THICKNESS THICKNESS 2THICKNESS PENNY PENNY @ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4% EQV EQV .01875 .01890625 .0190625 .01921875 .019375 .01953125 .0196875 .01984375 .02 .02015625 .0203125 .02046875 .020625 .02078125 .0209375 .02109375 .02125 .02140625 .0215625 .02171875 .021875 .02203125 .0221875 .02234375 .0225 .02265625 .90 .90 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 .0375 .0378125 .038125 .0384375 .03875 .0390625 .039375 .0396875 .04 .0403125 .040625 .0409375 .04125 .0415625 .041875 .0421875 .0425 .0428125 .043125 .0434375 .04375 .0440625 .044375 .0446875 .045 .0453125 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 .075 .075625 .07625 .076875 .0775 .078125 .07875 .079375 .08 .080625 .08125 .081875 .0825 .083125 .08375 .084375 .085 .085625 .08625 .086875 .0875 .088125 .08875 .089375 .09 .090625 3.7 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.5
1- 57/ 64 1.890625 1- 29/ 32 1.90625 1- 59/ 64 1.921875 1- 15/ 16 1.9375 1- 61/ 64 1.953125 1- 31/ 32 1.96875 1- 63/ 64 1.984375 2 22222222222222 1/ 64 2.015625 1/ 32 2.03125 3/ 64 2.046875 1/ 16 2.0625 5/ 64 2.078125 3/ 32 2.09375 7/ 64 2.109375 1/ 8 2.125 9/ 64 2.140625 5/ 32 2.15625 3/ 16 2.1875
2- 11/ 64 2.171875 2- 13/ 64 2.203125 7/ 32 2.21875 1/ 4 2.25 2- 15/ 64 2.234375 2- 17/ 64 2.265625
22-
9/ 32 2.28125 5/ 16 2.3125
.0228125 .02296875 .023125 .02328125 .0234375 .02359375 .02375 .02390625 .0240625 .02421875 .024375 .02453125 .0246875 .02484375
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
.045625 .0459375 .04625 .0465625 .046875 .0471875 .0475 .0478125 .048125 .0484375 .04875 .0490625 .049375 .0496875
2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
.09125 .091875 .0925 .093125 .09375 .094375 .095 .095625 .09625 .096875 .0975 .098125 .09875 .099375
4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.9
2- 19/ 64 2.296875 2- 21/ 64 2.328125 2- 11/ 32 2.34375 2- 23/ 64 2.359375 23/ 8 2.375 2- 25/ 64 2.390625 2- 13/ 32 2.40625 2- 27/ 64 2.421875 27/ 16 2.4375 2- 29/ 64 2.453125 2- 15/ 32 2.46875 2- 31/ 64 2.484375

MATERIAL THICKNESS 21/ 2 2.5 22THICKNESS THICKNESS 2THICKNESS PENNY PENNY @ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4% EQV EQV .025 .02515625 .0253125 .02546875 .025625 .02578125 .0259375 .02609375 .02625 .02640625 .0265625 .02671875 .026875 .02703125 .0271875 .02734375 .0275 .02765625 .0278125 .02796875 .028125 .02828125 .0284375 .02859375 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 .05 .0503125 .050625 .0509375 .05125 .0515625 .051875 .0521875 .0525 .0528125 .053125 .0534375 .05375 .0540625 .054375 .0546875 .055 .0553125 .055625 .0559375 .05625 .0565625 .056875 .0571875 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 .1 .100625 .10125 .101875 .1025 .103125 .10375 .104375 .105 .105625 .10625 .106875 .1075 .108125 .10875 .109375 .11 .110625 .11125 .111875 .1125 .113125 .11375 .114375 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.7
2- 33/ 64 2.515625 2- 17/ 32 2.53125 2- 35/ 64 2.546875 29/ 16 2.5625 2- 37/ 64 2.578125 2- 19/ 32 2.59375 2- 39/ 64 2.609375 25/ 8 2.625 2- 41/ 64 2.640625 2- 21/ 32 2.65625 2- 43/ 64 2.671875 2- 11/ 16 2.6875 2- 45/ 64 2.703125 2- 23/ 32 2.71875 2- 47/ 64 2.734375 23/ 4 2.75 2- 49/ 64 2.765625 2- 25/ 32 2.78125 2- 51/ 64 2.796875 2- 13/ 16 2.8125 2- 53/ 64 2.828125 2- 27/ 32 2.84375 2- 55/ 64 2.859375
2-
7/ 8
2.875
.02875 .02890625 .0290625 .02921875 .029375 .02953125 .0296875 .02984375 .03
1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5
.0575 .0578125 .058125 .0584375 .05875 .0590625 .059375 .0596875 .06
2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.0
.115 .115625 .11625 .116875 .1175 .118125 .11875 .119375 .12
5.7 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.80 5.9 5.9 5.9 6.0
2- 57/ 64 2.890625 2- 29/ 32 2.90625 2- 59/ 64 2.921875 2- 15/ 16 2.9375 2- 61/ 64 2.953125 2- 31/ 32 2.96875 2- 63/ 64 2.984375 3 3
Basic Components of an X-ray Tube High-voltage Power supply Filament Electron beam Target
Cathode Structure Low-voltage power supply
Focusing cup
Focal spot
Anode structure Tube envelope
X-ray beam
Types of Scatter Radiation
Test piece
(a) Internal scatter
(b) Side scatter
(c) Back scatter
Radiographic Film Interpretation Arc strikes DEFINITION: Any localized heat-affected zone or change in the contour of the surface of the finished weld or adjacent base metal resulting from an arc or heat generated by the passage of electrical energy between the surface of the finished weld, base material and a current source, such as welding electrodes or magnetic particle inspection electrodes. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: A localized area, rounded or irregular, and generally found adjacent to the edge of the weld image on the base metal. The density of the indication appears lighter when the discontinuity is convex from the addition of filler metal with arc strikes resulting from SMAW process. The density of the indication appears darker when the discontinuity is concave resulting from a gouging of the material with arc strikes resulting from the GTAW or SMAW processes. CAUSES: Not initiating the arc as required by the welding procedure. Accidentally striking an arc on the completed weld or base material. Engaging the magnetizing current prior to establishing firm contact with the test surface when using prods. Moving or removing the prods from the test surface without disengaging the magnetizing current. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Arc strikes from welding and MT are generally revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance Visual inspection. However, welding arc strikes may occur from another welding operation in the area after the VT/PT inspections and prior to the RT. Arc strikes occurring in this sequence have a random location and can be found on the weld as well as on the base metal. Arc strikes from MT will be difficult to detect by RT. Visual inspection should always be performed to confirm arc strikes.
Burn through DEFINITION: A void or open hole extending into a backing ring or strip, fused root or adjacent base metal. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: An irregular localized area of darker density, often rounded, generally found at the center of the weld image. If excessive globules of the weld puddle resulting from the burn through, are present on the inside of the weld joint, their appearance will have a lighter density due to the additional weld metal. The nature of burn through is such that the outline or edges of the indication may or may not be sharply defined. CAUSES: Using a weld current higher than allowed by the welding procedure. Improperly preparing the tungsten electrode tip. Using too slow a welding speed of travel will cause overheating of the weld puddle. Improper fit up of the weld joint (unacceptable root gap). REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: The distinguishing feature between a burn through and a melt through is that a burn through results in an open hole on the ID of the pipe. Burn through most often occur during the welding of the root pass, although it is possible for this discontinuity to be introduced during the welding of the second layer. Burn through frequently occur during weld repairs, especially when the repair cavity is at the root depth. Visual inspection should always be performed, if possible, to confirm bum through.
Concavity DEFINITION: RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: CAUSES: REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS:
Crack, crater DEFINITION: A linear rupture of metal under stress. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Generally a star shaped indication with irregular, feathery, twisting lines of darker density oriented within a weld crater. The discontinuity is usually shallow, therefore, the indication may not be as pronounced as indications produced from other types of cracking. CAUSES: Improper termination of the welding arc by abruptly removing the arc. Not adhering to the parameters of the welding procedure. Incomplete filling of the weld crater. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: It is to be emphasized that although the discontinuity and resulting radiographic indication is generally star shaped, crater cracking does not always take this shape. Random radiographic indications from crater cracking may be oriented in any direction to the weld axis.
Crack, longitudinal (shown in the root) DEFINITION: A linear rupture of metal under stress. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Irregularly shaped, feathery, twisting lines of darker density oriented along the axis of the weld. CAUSES: Improper fit-up of joint. Contamination of base material. Violation of the welding procedures. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Longitudinal cracks can occur throughout the weld; in the centerline, fusion lines and in the root. Cracking can, at times, be difficult to detect due to the geometric principles of the radiographic technique.
Crack, transverse DEFINITION: A linear rupture of metal under stress. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Irregularly shaped, feathery, twisting lines of darker density oriented perpendicular to the axis of the weld. Transverse cracks are generally tight discontinuities, therefore producing subtle indications on the radiograph. CAUSES: Transverse cracks are generally the result of longitudinal shrinkage strains acting on weld metal of low ductility. Most commonly found in weld joints having a high degree of restraint. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Cracks may be limited in size and completely within the weld metal, but may also propagate from the weld metal into the adjacent heat affected zone. Orientation and subtleness of the discontinuity can, at times, be difficult to detect due to the geometric principles of the radiographic technique. Cracking indications can be masked in the as-welded condition.
Crater pits DEFINITION: An approximately circular surface condition extending into the weld in an irregular manner. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: The indication will appear as a circular dot with darker density, similar to porosity, in the root area of consumable insert welds. However, due to the irregular nature of discontinuity, the edge of the indication is usually not as defined as porosity. The irregularity of the discontintinuity can produce a "halo" effect on the edge of the indication, distinguishing a crater pit from porosity. The radiographic indication from crater pits can range from subtle to pronounced, depending on the severity of the pit. CAUSES: Improper termination of the welding arc. Not adhering to the parameters of the welding procedure. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: The indications from crater pits can be misinterpreted as porosity. Porosity can occur anywhere in the weld, while crater pits occur in the weld root area. Visual inspection should always performed, if possible to confirm crater pits. Additional radiography, e.g. putting the indication in the sidewall or profile view, may be employed to assist in confirmation of the discontinuity.
Incomplete fusion of a consumable insert DEFINITION: Incomplete melting of the consumable insert without fusion and bonding to the base metal along one or both sides of the consumable insert. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: A uniform elongated band or localized bad of lighter density in the center of the weld image, oriented along the axis of the weld. The width of the band appears approximately equal to the diameter of the consumable insert. The indication may appear in the following ways The indication may appear with both edges straight with abrupt density transitions from the insert area to the base material area. This indicates lack of filling or blending to the base metal, with both sides of the insert not fused. The indication may appear with one edge having a smooth, gradual density transition from the insert area to the base material area and the other edge straight with an abrupt density transition from the insert area to the base material area. This indicates the former edge is blended with fusion into the adjacent base metal and the latter edge is not fused. CAUSES: Improper fit up of the weld joint. Using too low a welding current. Using too fast of a travel speed. An incorrect torch angle. An improper motion or weaving technique of the torch. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Visual inspection should always be performed, where possible, to confirm incomplete fusion of the insert, when viewed on radiographs.
Lack of fusion DEFINITION: Lack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a weld joint with the adjacent metal. The adjacent metal may be either base metal or previously deposited weld metal. When the discontinuity occurs between a weld bead and the adjacent base metal, the term "lack of sidewall fusion" is often used, does not occur in the root. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Irregularly edged, or straight and irregularly edged lines of darker density oriented along the axis of the weld. If lack 6f fusion occurs between weld beads, both edges of the indication may be irregular as they indicate the weld puddle not fusing to the contour of the previously deposited weld beads. If the lack of fusion occurs between a weld bead and base metal, one edge of the indication will be straight, as it indicates the weld puddle not fusing to the prepared base meal. Sometimes the lines are interspersed with darker density spots, of varying shapes, indicating voids resulting from the lack of fusion. CAUSES: Insufficient welding current to melt the adjacent metal. Too fast a welding speed of travel will not allow for fusion to the adjacent metal. Too fast a welding current to melt the adjacent metal. Improper torch or electrode angle may prohibit melting of the adjacent metal. Improper placement of weld passes may cause a sharp valley to form. Lack of proper access to the face of weld joint. Tightly adhering oxides resulting from improper cleaning of items to be welded. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Lack of fusion on the under bead side of the weld, lying in a horizontal plane, tends to be undetectable but often the sides of lack of fusion lines tend to curl out of the horizontal plane and are recorded on the radiograph. A distinguishing characteristic between lack of fusion and incomplete penetration is that lack of fusion can occur anywhere in the weld and incomplete penetration occurs at the weld root.
Lack of penetration (left normal fit-up, right mismatch) DEFINITION: Lack of penetration of the weld through the thickness of the joint or penetration which is less than specified. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Straight, fine edged lines of darker density oriented along the axis of the weld in the area of the root. The straightness of both edges of the indication's image and location in the center of the weld image help to distinguish incomplete penetration from lack of fusion. CAUSES: Insufficient welding current or to fast travel speed. Improper torch or electrode angle to melt the root land. In both backing ring joints and joints to be welded from both sides, improper placement of initial weld pass may cause a sharp valley to form at the root weld. Joints welded from both sides, insufficient removal of the backside prior to welding. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Occurs at the weld root and is always straight, as it is a RT indication of the actual weld joint preparation. The indication can be prominent or subtle depending on the severity of the discontinuity.
Melt through DEFINITION: A convex or concave irregularity on the surface of a backing ring or strip, fused root or adjacent base metal resulting from fusing completely through a localized region but without development of a void or open hole. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: A localized area, usually rounded, and generally found at the center of the weld image. The density of the indication appears lighter when the discontinuity is convex and darker when the discontinuity is concave. CAUSES: Using a weld current higher than allowed by the welding procedure. Improperly preparing the tungsten electrode tip. Using too slow a welding speed of travel will cause overheating. Improper fit up of the weld joint (unacceptable root gap). REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: The entire thickness of metal is melted or re-melted and deforms, no hole or void develops as with a burn through. Melt through most often occurs during the welding of the root pass, although it is possible for this discontinuity to be introduced during the welding of the second layer. Visual inspection should always be performed, if possible, to confirm melt through.
Offset (misalignment/mismatch, shown with LOP) DEFINITION: Lateral misalignment of two butt joint members of equal thickness. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Offset on piping weld joints can appear on the film in different ways. The radiographic image is dependent upon the orientation of the offset to the beam of radiation. When the offset condition is parallel to the beam of radiation, the offset image may appear as an abrupt density change, generally half way across the width of the weld image. When the offset condition is perpendicular to the beam of radiation, and the entire image of the item is on the film, the offset image will appear in the sidewall or profile view, as lateral misalignment of the members with a high-low effect of the pipes' ID and OD. CAUSES: Improper fit-up or fixturing may cause the members to be offset. Improper welding block sequencing on the root pass. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Visual inspection should always be performed to confirm questionable offset conditions when viewed on radiographs.
Oxidation DEFINITION: A condition resulting from partial or complete lack of purge of a surface which is heated during welding resulting in formation of oxide on the surface. This condition may range from slight oxidation through the formation of heavy black scale to the extreme of a very rough surface having a rough crystalline appearance. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Highly irregular, low density area, with a wrinkled or sugared appearance in the center of the weld image. The condition may extend for the entire circumference of the weld when there is a complete loss of purge. The condition may only be localized, in one or more areas of the weld, occurring whenever the purge is partially interrupted. CAUSES: Loss of internal purge gas resulting in an unshielded molten weld puddle on the ID. High oxygen content in purge gas or path. Moisture in the area of the weld, due to inadequate drying of the purge path, leakage, etc... REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: A visual inspection should always be performed, if possible, to confirm oxidation. Oxidation generally occurs during the flowing of the weld root. However, this condition may occur during welding if there is a degree of root reflow, loss of purge, or moisture present. Oxidation frequently occurs during weld repairs.
Overlap (re-entrant angle) DEFINITION: The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toes or weld root. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Overlap conditions on the OD of piping butt weld joints should be an extremely rare occurrence in as much as a satisfactory VT and other surface inspections, such as PT or MT are required prior to RT. However, overlap on the internal weld surface consumable insert piping weld butt joints can appear on the film in different ways. The radiographic image is dependent upon the orientation of the overlap to the beam of radiation. When the overlap condition is not located in the sidewall or profile view, the overlap image will appear consistent with that of convexity with an abrupt density change at the fusion line of the weld root image. When the offset image is in the sidewall or profile view, it will appear as roll over of the weld root reinforcement with an unsatisfactory blending at the fusion line of the weld root image. CAUSES: Too slow of a welding speed. Too low or too high of a welding current. Incorrect torch or electrode angle. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Visual inspection should always be performed, where possible, to confirm questionable root surface conditions when viewed on radiographs.
Porosity (right clustered porosity, bottom left distributed porosity, bottom right - aligned porosity in the root) DEFINITION: Gas pockets or voids in weld metal. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Usually spherically shaped areas of darker density and may be scattered throughout single pass welds or throughout several passes of multiple pass welds. Although usually spherical in shape, porosity may also occur as nonspherical pockets and appear on the radiograph as elongated voids, sometimes referred to as "piping or wormhole porosity". The density of the indication varies directly with the diameter or magnitude of the pore. CAUSES: Faulty welding techniques such as using too long an arc with the SMAW process. Improper cleaning of the weld joint. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: None.
Root razorback condition DEFINITION: An oxide membrane, gray in color, with a sharp ridge or peak and ribs from the peak to the edge giving it a herringbone effect. Also known as "reverse center line crease." RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: The image of root razorback is consistent with that of convexity with an associated herringbone appearance and sharp peak at the center. The lightest density of the image is in the center and is dependent upon the height of peaked condition. The density of the image gradually increases as the condition blends into the base metal. CAUSES: Moisture in the area of the weld. Moisture in the purge gas. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: This is one of the most common root surface defects encountered when welding Ni-Cu and Ni-C-r-Fe. Visual inspection should always be performed, where possible, to confirm root razorback condition when viewed on radiographs.
Root surface centerline crease DEFINITION: An intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavity formed on the root surface. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: The image of centerline crease is consistent with that of concavity with an associated herringbone appearance. If the crease has a notch or a questionable blending condition at the center, the image will crease oriented along the axis of the weld. CAUSES: Thick cover pass over a consumable insert that had minor concavity. Excessive welding current. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Visual inspection should always be preformed, where possible to confirm questionable centerline crease when viewed on radiograph. Approved workmanship sample radiographs may be employed to evaluate centerline crease when a visual inspection is not possible.
Root surface concavity DEFINITION: A depression on the root surface of the weld, which may be due to gravity, internal purge or shrinkage. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: The image of concavity may appear as intermittent elliptical areas or elongated bands of darker film density oriented along the axis of the weld in the center of the weld image. The width of the image is consistent with the weld root width. The darkest density of the concavity's image is generally in the center and is dependent up6n the depth of the concavity. The density of the image gradually decreases as the concavity blends into the base metal. CAUSES: Improper fit up of the weld joint. Using too high of a welding current, too slow of a travel speed, or extremely high purge gas flow rate. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Visual inspection should always be preformed, where possible to confirm questionable concavity when viewed on radiograph.
Root surface convexity DEFINITION: Reinforcement of the root surface of a butt-fused type weld. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: The image of convexity may appear as intermittent elliptical areas or elongated bands of lighter film density oriented along the axis of the weld in the center of the weld image. The width of the image is consistent with the weld root width. The lightest density of the convexity's image is generally in the center and is dependent upon the height of the convexity blends into the base metal. CAUSES: Using to low or high of a welding current. Using too slow travel speed when welding. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Visual inspection should always be performed, when possible, to confirm questionable convexity when viewed on radiographs.
Slag DEFINITION: Non-metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Well defined, irregularly shaped, uniformly darker density areas usually elongated along the axis of the weld. CAUSES: Improper fit-up, such as inadequate bevel of the joint sides. Using too low a welding current for the size of electrode. Faulty welding techniques such as wrong electrode position or orientation. Improper bead placement causing sharp valleys or undercutting between the beads. Improper interpass cleaning of slag from the surface. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Slag is a by-product of the burning of the flux covering on welding roods. Thus, slag inclusions are associated with the SMAW process. Slag inclusions can occur throughout the weld, in the center of the weld, in fusion lines and in the root.
Tungsten inclusion DEFINITION: Metallic tungsten inclusions in the weld deposit. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Irregularly shaped spots of low film density areas, usually random in size and location. They are solid or liquid bits of tungsten electrode from the TIG welding process that drop or are melted from the electrode and become entrapped in the weld puddle. Tungsten inclusions appear as low or light density areas on the radiograph because of the differences of radiographic absorption between the inclusion and surrounding metal. Tungsten is denser radiographically then the surrounding metal and therefore absorbs more radiation. This, in turn, allows fewer rays to reach the film. CAUSES: Overheating the tungsten electrode due to excessive current for the particular electrode size. Defective tungsten electrode (flaking of particles). Dipping the tungsten into the molten puddle. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: None.
Undercut DEFINITION: An intermittent or continuous groove on the external surface of the base metal along the edge of the weld. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: An irregular, elongated area of darker density oriented along the external fusion line of the weld image to the base metal. CAUSES: Excessive welding current. Using too long an arc length will result in a gouging effect. Using excessive welding speed of travel. When using the GTAW process, adding an insufficient amount of filler metal. An incorrect electrode angle can cause a gouging effect. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: External undercut is readily revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance Visual inspection. Visual inspection should always be performed to confirm questionable external undercut when viewed on radiographs.
Undercut, root DEFINITION: An intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface of the base metal, backing ring/strip along the edge of the root of the weld. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: An irregular, elongated area of darker density oriented along the internal fusion line of the weld image to the base metal. CAUSES: Improper fit up of the weld joint. Excessive current during welding When using the GTAW process, adding an insufficient amount of filler metal. An incorrect electrode angle can cause a gouging effect. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Radiographic evaluation of root undercut in backing ring joints can be based on workmanship sample radiographs as well as the use of slotted shims.
Weld splatter DEFINITION: In arc welding, the metal particles expelled during welding which do not form a part of the weld. RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE: Small, rounded areas of lighter density generally found adjacent to the edge of the weld image on the base metal. CAUSES: There will be some weld spatter when using the SMAW process. However, long arcing is a factor. Lack of concentricity or damage to the electrode flux. REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: Weld splatter is most commonly found when the SMAW welding process is employed. Weld spatter is generally revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance Visual inspection. However, weld spatter may occur from another welding operation in the area after the acceptance VT/PT inspections and prior to the RT.
Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Automatic Film Processing

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A sso cia te d w ith d rye r
Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Processed Radiographic Film

Qua lity or Artifia ctProba ble Ca use Density to high Overexposure Corre ctive Action Qua lity or Artifia ctProba ble Ca use View with higher-intensity Contrast to high High subject contrast light, check exposure (time and radiation intensity); if as High film contrast specified, reduce exposure by 30% or m ore Contrast to low Low subject contrast Reduce development tim e or developer tem perature Check exposure (tim e and radiation intensity); if a sspecified, increase exposure by 40% or m ore Low film contrast Underdevelopm ent Corre ctive Action Increase tube voltage Use a film with lower contrast characteristics Reduce tube voltage Use a film with higher contrast charteristics Increase developm ent tim e or developer temperature. Replace weak (depleted developer) Use fresh film Discard cassette Replace developer solution
Overdevelopm ent Density to low Underexposure
Underdevelopm ent
Increase developm ent tim e developer tem perature. Replace weak developer Material between screen Remove m aterial and film Poor definition
or Finely m ottled fog Stale film Fog on edge or Defective cassette corner Yellow stain Depleted developer
Testpiece-to-film distance If possible, decrease too long testpiece-to-film distance; if not, increase source-to-film distance Source-to-film distance to Increase sourc-to-film short distance Focal spot to large Use sm all focal spot or increase source-to-film distance Screens and film not in Ensure intim ate contact close contact between screens and film Film graininess too coarse Use finer-grain film
Failure to use stop bath or Use stop bath, or rinse rinse throughly between developing and fixing Depleted fixer Dark circular m arks Film splashed with developer prior to im mersion Dark spots or Insufficient fixing m arblelike areas Dark branched lines Static discharge and spots Replace fixer solution Im merse film in developer with care Use fresh fixer solution and proper fixing tim e Unwrap film carefully. Do not rub film togther. Avoid clothing productive of static electricity
Fog
Light leaks in darkroom W ith darkroom unlighted, turn Dark fingerprints on all lights in adjoining room s; seal any light leaks Exposure to safelight Reduce safelight wattage and Light fingerprints check filters
Stored film inadequately Attach strip of lead to loaded Dark spots or protected from radiation film holder and place in film -streaks storage area. Develop test Cresent shaped light Faulty film handling Keep film flat during handling. film after two to three weeks; areas Use only clean, dry film if im age of strip is evident, hangers improve radiation shielding in Light circular Air bubbles on film duringAgitate im m ediately upon storage area patches developm ent im mersion of film in developer Film exposed to heat, hum idity, or gases Overdevelopm ent Store film in cool, dry place Circular or W ater or fixer splashed on Avoid splashing film with not subject to gases or vapors dropshaped light film before development water or fixer solution patches Reduce development tim e or Light spots or sreasDust or lint between Keep screens clean developer tem perature screens and film Sharply outlined light Nonuniform development Agitate film during or dark areas development Reticulation (leatherTemperature gradients in M aintain all solutions at grain appearance) processing solutions uniform, constant temperature
Touching undeveloped film W ash hands throughly and with chem ically dry, or use clean, dry rubber contam inated fingers film gloves Touching undeveloped W ash hands throughly and with oily or greasy fingers dry, or use clean, dry rubber gloves Developer contaminated Replace developer solution with metallic salts
Developer contam inated Replace developer Exposure during processing Frilling (loosening ofFixer solution to warm emulsions from film base)
Do not inspect film during processing until fixing is com pleted M aintain correct tem perature Frilling (loosening ofFixer solution depleted Replace fixer solution of the fixing solution em ulsions from film base)

NDT Handbook

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Non-Destructive Testing Inspectors Handbook

Radiographic Inspection (RT)

Last Revision Date

Chapter 1 - General Information.....................................................................1

Chapter 2 - Visual Inspection.........................................................................1

Chapter 3 - Liquid Penetrant Testing..............................................................1

Chapter 4 - Magnetic Particle Testing............................................................1

Chapter 5 - Ultrasonic Testing........................................................................1

Chapter 6 - Eddy Current Testing...................................................................1

Chapter 7 - Radiographic Inspection..............................................................1

Chapter 1 - General Information

DIA. 4 5 6 8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 4 5 6 8

Copper Tubing Wall Thickness Decimal to Inches

Temperature Conversions Fahrenheit = (9/5 * C) + 32 Celsius = (F - 32) * 5/9

Fraction to Decimal Equivalent

Decimal to Second Conversion

Numerical Place Value Chart

1/60 X SECONDS = DECIMAL (ROUNDED UP TO THE THIRD PLACE)

Elements of a Nondestructive Examination Symbol

FINISH SYM BOL T SYM CONTOUR BOL GROOVE WELD SIZE

FIELD EX A M INA TION

DEPTH OF BEVEL; SIZE OR STRENGTH FOR CERTAIN WELDS TA IL

Elements of a Welding Symbol

Basic Joints (Welding)

Calculation of Area Square/Rectangle Circles Triangle Sphere = = = = Length * Width

Structural Welds Piping Welds Socket Welds

= L x W L = ((OD at A + OD at B) / 2) * W = Width of the weld is measured. A

ID = OD = < > < > + = = = = =

Equal To or Less Than Equal To or Greater Than Plus or Minus

Sides and Angles Known Side a, side b..... c = a2 + b2 b=c -a

Side a, hypotenuse c..

Side b, hypotenuse c..

b = c x cos A b c =Sin B b C =Cos A a C= Cos B a C = Sin A

Side a; angle B Side a; angle A

Basic Illustration of a Weld WELD REINFORCEMENT ACTUAL THROAT

FILLET LEG SIZE OF WELD

WELD FACE THEORETICAL THROAT

ROOT PENETRATION ZONE FUSION ZONE FILLET LEG SIZE OF WELD

DIRECTION OF WELDING WELDING ELECTRODE ARC

Shielding gas Arc

INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION CRACKING

BAD FITUP SLAG BETWEEN BACKING RING AND PIPE ID

INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION CRACKING

Discontinuity Cold Shut Hot Tear Shrinkage Cavity

Process Grinding Heat Treating Explosive Forming

Tungsten Inclusions Lack of Penetration Lack of Fusion Undercut Overlapping

Bending Machining Pickling or Etching Electroplating

Cracks Tears Cracks Cracks

Dial Indicating Calipers

GRADUATIONS SLEEVE FRAME

GRADUATIONS TO BE READ READING LINE

Thread Terminology (fasteners)

Julian Date Calendar (Perpetual)

Julian Date Calendar (Leap Year)

Flow Chart For A Discontinuity

Chapter 2 - Visual Inspection

Chapter 3 - Liquid Penetrant Testing

Prorated Maximum Number of Indications

MAXIMUM OF 8 INDICATIONS IN A 36 INCH SQUARE AREA Actual Area Prorated Indications 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8

MAXIMUM OF 10 INDICATIONS IN A 36 INCH SQUARE AREA Actual Area Prorated Indications 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10

MAXIMUM OF 12 INDICATIONS IN A 36 INCH SQUARE AREA Actual Area Prorated Indications 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12

MAXIMUM OF 16 INDICATIONS IN A 36 INCH SQUARE AREA Actual Area Prorated Indications 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16

(MAX # OF INDICATIONS/36) X ACTUAL AREA = NEW MAX # OF INDICATIONS

Penetrant Wetting Characteristics