ACADEMY OF ECONOMIC STUDIES OF MOLDOVA

Report
Discipline: Tourist Resource Management Theme: The plan of TRM and report about Republic of Moldova

Teacher: Roman Livandovschi Author: Guzunov Vladimir Group: T-105

Chisinau, 2011

Contents
Subject no. 1. The Object of Study of the Tourist Resource Management Course. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Introductory notions4 The place in the system of the economic and geographical sciences..7 Principles, methods and means of study10 The categories of the Tourist Resource Management course12 The primary factors of the tourism phenomenon...15

Subject no. 2. History of Tourist Development 1. The stage of tourism in antiquity...17 2. The stage of tourism in the Middle Ages until the Renaissance18 3. The stage of tourism in the late Middle Ages, during the Renaissance and the great geographic discoveries, until in the mid-20th century...19 The period of modern and contemporary tourism...21 Subject no. 3. Tourist Resources and Tourist Potential 1. Natural tourist resources.23 2. Forms of relief as natural tourist resources28 2.1. Mountainous sides and escarpments29 2.2. Crests and peaks...35 2.3. Passes and quays..36 2.4. Gorges, defiles and canyons.39 2.5. Caves45 2.6. Geological structures49 Subject no. 4. Natural Tourist Resources. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Climate as a tourist resource..51 Hydrography as a tourist resource.57 Vegetation as a tourist resource.62 Fauna as a tourist resource.64 Tourist landscapes..68

Subject no. 5. Man-made Tourist Resources. 6. The tourist attributes of the man-made resources72 7. Historic erections.74 8. Religious erections..75 9. Cultural and sports erections...77 10.Economic erections intended for tourist activities..81 11.Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques90 12.Purely tourist erections94 Subject no. 6. Human Tourist Activities. 13.Carnivals.95 14.Fairs, exhibitions, religious pilgrimages and shrines.....97 15.Artistic festivals and sporting events101 16.Tourist resources of an ethnographic nature....105 Subject no. 7. Natural Tourist Resources of the Republic of Moldova. 17.Relief as tourist resource..107 18.Climate as tourist resource...108 19.Hydrography as tourist resource...110 20.Tourist landscapes112 Subject no. 8. Man-made Tourist Resources of the Republic of Moldova. 21.Historic erections..113 22.Religious erections...114 23.Cultural, sports and economic erections...116 24.Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques.121 Conclusion ..........124 Bibliography 125

Subject no. 1. The Object of Study of the Tourist Resource Management Course.

Introductory notions
Surprisingly, today, as it once was, very few people are aware that tourism is the largest affair in the world economy, the "receiving" more than two trillion dollars for both forms of tourism (national and international), it slightly exceeding 12% annual maintenance of businesses in the global economy. Tourism has overpassed world military spending, for several years estimated at over one trillion dollars annually, even before agriculture, considering that a large part of its production is subsistence production for underdeveloped countries, not being a part of the Gross National Product of the consuming countries. Indeed, guessing the upcoming tourist boom, futurists Herman Kahn, cautiously optimistic, not too much mistaken, in 1976, by his prediction inserted in the study "The next 200 years, " the fact that "towards the end of the century, tourism will be one of the largest industries in the world. In fact, it is the largest today. In the international trade of goods and services, tourism comes second, after oil, and there is always the possibility of moving to the first place, if the world could enjoy reasonable conditions of peace, extinguishing in the not too distant future even limited "local war breakouts", but which, unfortunately, seem unavoidable today. "Tourism - a passport to peace, " the longknown call of the World Tourism Organization, succinctly expresses the association of peace with tourism. Currently, the words "peace - a passport for tourism! is equally true. Countries and peoples of the world sign in the world tourist landscape by certain natural features, economic - social, historical, religious, language, culture and civilization, which place their footprint on the heritage of the tourism. The natural conditions are imposed by high scenic attractions, being present everywhere on Earth, from the highest mountains to the most arid plains and deserts, from the U.S.,
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African, Australian etc. national parks, to the sea and oceans coasts or the largest areas of eternal icecaps. Each nation's own history and civilization not only enrich the natural values of that country but require a certain " cultural - touristic brand unmistakable in the world. We refer only to what it means for cultural international tourism, for the awareness and understanding of the appearance of each of the nations, cultures and civilizations created by them throughout the millennia. Many artistic creations, scientific, architectonical, technical - engineering, etc. have revolutionized the then-world amaze our contemporaries minds. We touch upon what means for tourism the remains of Hellenistic, Roman, Aztec, Inca, Hebrew, Arabic, Buddhist and African etc. civilizations and closer to us in Europe, Renaissance, Medieval Art, Byzantine, Ottoman, etc.. Geography and ecology deals with spatial and environmental systems (ecosystems), that is the interaction of phenomena in the space, and the interaction between society and environment. These subjects have besides the economical sciences, a special place in the touristic studies, because the natural sciences and social sciences are interwoven. Therefore, geographers, economists and ecologists have an almost an unique coverage in both groups of sciences, are the most skilled and knowledgeable, as integrators and synthesizers in the scientific domain of tourism which combines also the nature and the social sciences. Geographers, especially because of their background, have the best potential to assess and coordinate different points of view. This generalizing - synoptic method of the geography as the American researcher considers previously mentioned - is a large private value for the interdisciplinary field of tourism. International statistics since 1998 have been registered about 625.2 million tourists, with 133.7% more than in 1989. These flows have been perceived differently by the Earth's major destinations, namely: Europe 372,5 million tourist arrivals (59.6% of total), America 120.2 million (19.2%), East Asia and Oceania 86.9 million (13.9%), Africa 24 million (4%), Middle East 15.6 million (2.5%) and South Asia 5.1 million (0.8%). Although, there is the same hierarchy in the allocation of accommodation at the 1998 level. Out of the approximately 29 million beds in hotels and similar establishments built on the world, Europe has 11.3 million (39.3%), Americas 9.3 million (32.2%) and East Asia and Oceania, 6,7 million (23.2).
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In the world ranking top of the first countries receiving tourists are: France 11.2%, Spain 7, 6%, U.S. 7.5%, Italy 6.8%, UK 4.1%, China 8%, Mexico 3.1% Poland 3% Canada 3%, Austria 2.8%, etc. At the global scale tourism resources are of great wealth, variety and complexity and therefore can not be an exhaustive overview, but a selective one, emphasizing those which give originality and specificity to the area or the country. One of the biggest milestones in Tourism Management is the self management and location of the hotels you actually choose. Today's world is dominated with travel, tourism being the largest industry, however most travelers don't think about accommodation that much! But everybody who enjoys travel should. These are five rules who should help you decide what's important in hotel planning:

Location Budget Star (s) Amenities Brandnames or independent.

Cultural resources management in the heritage context is mainly concerned with the investigation of sites with archaeological potential, the preservation and interpretation of historic sites and artifacts and the culture of indigenous people. The subject developed from initiatives in rescue archaeology, sensitivities to the treatment of indigenous people and subsequent legislation to protect cultural heritage. Tourism and recreation, as well as other aspects of human life can not remain outside the scope of impact-induced changes, the most important aspect is how we use your free time that has evolved to the volume and quality, due to change in societal values, the the importance of marginal to a central phenomenon in human life. Thus, the structure of free time and costs incurred by the party's unity in diversity and were lost once the existing lush flavor and has become an essential part of existence, at least for developed countries.

The place in the system of the economic and geographical sciences

The economic science is concerned with achieving an optimal use of limited resources, many of them rare or unique. This principle also works in the case of an individual request aimed at psychological benefits from a journey, or a business aiming at making profits - by providing substantial goods and services to tourists, or even if a host community which overlooks tourism in terms of economic benefits and prosperity of the area they represent. Business agents are seeking to meet physical and psychological demands. How to allocate these scarce resources to meet a variety of needs and desires? That is the question that economic theory and practice of tourism tries to give an answer as acceptable as possible. From this perspective may be nominated at least three important purposes of tourism: 1. maximizing of the importance of the psychological experience to tourists; 2. maximizing of the profits of the companies providing material goods and services to tourists; 3. maximizing of the effects - primary and secondary - induced by touristic investments in a community or region. These objectives are often compatible, maximizing the psychological experience, creating a happy customer, which makes him return, spend money, and satisfy each bidder from the tourism industry and from a certain region. In some cases, however, these goals are incompatible. An objective such as maximizing the profit made in a small tourist area may cause the development of the capacity over the availability of the place, which leads to overutilization and the decline of psychological pleasure. The exaggerated emphasis of tourism as a factor in economic development can have the same results. There may also occur conflicts between the use of tourism resources and the potential of their use for other forms of socio-economic activity. To better define our image of the place and role of tourism in the economy and life of the inhabitants
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of a territory, we should approach synthetically the motives and implications of this specific activity. There are 8 things that are included and used in economy of tourism: Optimization experiences Optimization benefits Optimization of local economy Exports and imports of tourism Tourism and Balance of Payments Leveraging investments Tourism and taxation Inflationary pressure The natural factors (relief, climate and hydrography), often participate proportionally in the setting up of the tourist resources: potential of many regions of the world, determining the rhythm and the intensity of tourist phenomenon. Tourism is a dynamic activity taking up a lot of space and risks. For example, if you have overdeveloped tourism industry in the economy, land prices will increase enormously. We invest only 1% into the ground of tourism and if land prices will increase about 20% of costs, we have low income from tourists and so we have a total inflation of world tourism. Tourist activity has a lot in common with such sciences as geology, history, biology, which also participate in the setting up of tourist potential of a given region. As Table 1 indicates, the evolution of international tourism is steadily increasing. This increase is characteristic of all regions as illustrated in Table No. 2.
Period
1950-70 1970-80 1980-90 1950-90 1990-95 1995-2000 1990-2000 2000-2010 Average annual growth rate of international tourist arrivals (%) 9,90% 5,70% 4,70% 7,50% 3,20% 4,40% 3,80% 3,50%

Table Nr.1
The dynamics of international tourist arrivals by region and around the world: Annual growth rate (%) 1990-2000
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2,7 4 4,6 5 3,8 6,1 6,8 Europe Middle East Americas Africa South Asia East Asia and Pacific Total World

Table Nr.2 Europe 2,7; Middle East 4; Americas 4,6; Africa 5; South Asia 6,1; East Asia and Pacific 6,8; Total World -3,8.

Principles, methods and means of study

Tourist activity uses a series of principles, methods, and means of study such as: Principle of spatiality-according to this principle the research of tourist phenomena,uses as a method observation,and as a mean of representation description.And the final part of this process is the elaboration of the descriptive model,thatis widely used inform the potencial tourists.

Principle of causality-which aim is the study of appearance,assertion,and development of tourist process.As activity method it has recourse to the detailed analysis of phenomena,carries out by means of explanation that can be accomplished by a mathematical model(equation,formula). From this perspective a primary place it is offered in detail to the geographical areas of reception, especially of how tourist phenomenon environment and human communities are articulated.Tourism disturbes the populations of the visited regions ,influence on environment, changes the most beautiful places in nature to create a certain idea of authenticity.It disturbs the scientists that are working in studying
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the touristic phenomenon .And is added the issues and operation of tourism infrastructure management. Principle of integration-of characteristic phenomena in logistical structures,designed to show the objective aspect(activity methodsynthesis),operation means-graphic representations(cartographic models). Between the principles there is a close link.The first principle serves as a basis for the second one,while the latter for the third one.

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The categories of the Tourist Resource Management course

The tourist phenomenon is defined by a series of notions. The most used are: tourist, tourism, tourist infrastructure, tourist potential, tourist product, tourist supply and demand. Tourist , Tourism, Travel There is a correlation between this terms. Tourism may also be defined as people taking trips away from home, and it embraces the entire range of transportation ,lodging, food service, and other activities relating to and serving the traveler. The WTO has taken the concept of tourism beyond a stereotypical Image of holiday-making. The officially accepted definition is:Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. Consequently a tourist is someone who travels away from home and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited. There are also other words describing the people traveling, such as:
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national tourist, domestic tourist, internal tourist, visitor, traveler, same-day visitor (excursionist) etc. Tourist resources. They represent all the attractive elements of a territory without taking into account their origin and the connections between them. There can be distinguished two groups of objects that make up the tourist resources, that is to say: Tourist natural resources (relief, climate, etc.); Tourist human resources (museums, religious

erections, etc.). Tourist infrastructure. It consists of all the tourist endowments, such as: accommodation and catering capacity; tourist services network; spas and resorts; transport links; electricity network and heating system; water supply and mains; postal and banking services, etc., etc. Tourist potential. It consists of tourist resources and infrastructure. Tourist flow. It represents the movement of the visitors from their place of residence to the place visited. It is a dynamic category, which considers human factor by its number and financial opportunities. The special features of the tourist flows are:
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 the direction; the rhythm; the intensity. Tourist product. It represents all goods and serves that facilitate the tourist activity. Tourist market. It represents the place of interference or contact of tourist product with its consumers, demand. Internal tourism.Visits by residents of a country to their own country Travel.the action and activities of people taking trips to a place outside their home communities for any purpose except daily commuting to and from work. Recreation:the action and activities of people engaging in constructive for and 24 personally hours with pleasurable use of leisure time. Excursionist.Movement overnight accommodation in other words, of supply with

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The primary factors of the tourism phenomenon

Factors that contribute to tourism development are the following: o Demographic factors-Tourism is a process in which the human being is an important factor. The human needs to physical and psychological recovery and knowledge is the main cause of the emergence of tourism.This factors act through the population growth, increase in life expectancy, the growth of young people.So if the number of population is higher then logically the number of tourists is higher.This growth of tourists is explained by the fact that people want to rest from city busy life(cars,noise,or the bigger number of population in a country)

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o Economic factors-They are of great importance for tourist phenomenon. Only people that have a certain standard of living and savings can take part in tourist activity. This kind of people that saves money for resting have an important influence : Labor productivity growth, rising incomes of populations snd the growth of leisure time. o Political factors- They often contribute to the development or the restriction of tourist activity (different systems of government, armed conflicts, etc.).This fact mean that can be a limitation to the tourist flow through the visa regime.Tourism is a product of international atmosphere,of the understandings between countries for iti development. o Psychological factors- They determine the need for travel. It involves the mental activity of people concerning its interest for nature, health and beauty.This facors have a great importance for tourism industry.They are generated by the usual stress,the removal from nature.
o Social

factors.

They are the leisure time of

people.This term of leisure time appears in the time of transition of economy to industrialization.The development of the economy led to the development of tourism throught the new technologies of firms and so the interval of the labor force increased,and they have more time to spend in recreation.
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Subject no. 2. History of Tourist Development

The stage of tourism in antiquity

We travel long roads and cross the water to see what we disregard when it is under our eyes. This is either because nature has so arranged things that we go after is far off and remains indifferent to what is nearby, or because any desire loses its intensity by being easily satisfied Wealthy people have always travelled to distant parts of the world, to see great buildings, works of art, learn new languages, and experience
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new cultures and to taste different cuisines. Long ago, at the time of the Roman Republic, places such as Baia were popular coastal resorts for the rich. Early explorers, traders, and shippers laid the groundwork upon which our modern age of travel is based. Human needs to arrange trips and facilitate movements have not changed over ages. Building roads, vehicles, and ships and providing overnight rest accommodations go back into antiquity. The brave explorers who went into the unknown made available to their contemporaries knowledge of what the world was really like. Over the centuries, inventions such as the sandglass to measure time, the log Line to measure distance, made possible successful sea exploration. The roads of early Persia and those of the Roman Empire were used for exploration, for military purposes, for transporting tribute, and for pleasure trips and recreation. The emergence of human civilization in China, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome represented a favorable occasion for tourist movements. A direct source of many trips was at ancient cities like Rome, Alexandria, and Athens. During this stage appeared many problems in movement, people could move only within a particular city. But there were many attractive places, cities, events such as Olympic Games that attract people to travel.

The stage of tourism in the Middle Ages until the Renaissance

Pseudo-tourist corresponds to the period between medieval and Renaissance history in Europe. During this period all tourism activity is confused due to religious fanaticism. People travel from one region to another because of religious issues. Appear pilgrimages to Rome and Jerusalem (are visited by the Christians), Medina and Mecca (by the Muslims), Lhasa by the Buddhists, Mount Fuji (is the pole of gravity for touristic activities) by the Japanese. Convoys were led by monk guides.
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During this period appear first trade routes: Venice-Vienna-Krakow, Chernovtsy-Baltic Sea -Siren-Galati-Paris-Munich-Prague-Budapest. With the development of trade routes appears an extension of maritime links used in diplomatic purposes. The most important sea links were those who united w the Mediterranean ports of East Asia and Southeast. The movement of merchants and dealers caused the emergence of inns. During this period, with a halt of more than one hundred years, the cultural tourism was developed, promoted by the emergence of the first universities: Bologna (1119, the oldest), the Sorbonne (1200), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1214), Naples (1224), Prague(1348), Cracow (Krakow) (1364), Vienna (1365), Cologne (Kln) (1380), etc. Tourism in the Middle Ages revolved around aimless wandering and 'educational' wandering. Research material includes the sources of the period: texts, chronicles, travelers accounts, literature (poetry and prose), biographies, deeds, wills etc. Sociological analysis should focus on country or region of origin, the traveler, and the destination visited. Comparisons are made between tourism in the middle Ages and contemporary tourism: tourism today is seen as a reaction to everyday routine and a momentary escape from performing many roles in society; religious tourism, e.g., pilgrimages is still popular; however, educational tourism, which was popular in the Middle Ages, is quite rare today.

The stage of tourism in the late Middle Ages, during the Renaissance and the great geographic discoveries, until in the mid-20th century
The Late middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (c. 13001499). The Late Middle Ages were preceded by the High Middle Ages, and followed by
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the Early Modern era (Renaissance).Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 13151317 and the Black Death, reduced the population by as much as half according to some estimates. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and England experienced serious peasant risings: the Jacquerie, the Peasants' Revolt, and the Hundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance. The absorption of Latin texts had started in the twelfthcentury Renaissance through contact with Arabs during the Crusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy. Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would later lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began (Age of Discovery). The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to discover new trading routes, as was the case with Columbuss travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gamas circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

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The industrial revolution promoted the leisure industry too. The mass tourism could only emerged in an industrialized society and not in an agricultural one. The population explosion in the West led to a strong demographic growth and respectively to the increased number of tourists. The transportation links have been modernized and the first hotels, spas, and resorts appeared in Germany and France. Thomas Cook arranged in 1841 the first organized trips, which later also established the first travel agencies. From the second half of the 19th century the foundations for the tourist infrastructure have been laid (for instance, the tourist areas on the French Riviera: Monte Carlo, San Remo, Nice, Saint-Tropez, etc.). The first tourist guide appeared in France in 1672. As from the second decade of the 20th century, tourism as subject of study is taught at the Universities of Dsseldorf (1914), Rome (1925), and Berlin (1929). The institution of paid leave and the general spread of passports promoted leisure activities. The changes brought about by these developments have caused many scholars to see it as leading to the end of the Middle Ages, and the beginning of the modern world. However, the division will always be a somewhat artificial one for other scholars, who argue that since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society, there is certain continuity between the Classical and the Modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the 14th century Renaissance as a direct transition to the Modern Era. Expansion continued as improvements in transportation linked the resort to a wider range of visitors markets with better roads and expanded coach services reducing travel times

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The period of modern and contemporary tourism

The study of tourism and indeed the tourism industry is changing constantly. Contemporary Tourism: an international approach presents a new and refreshing approach to the study of tourism, considering issues such as the changing world order, destination marketing, tourism ethics and pro-poor tourism. In particular, it highlights the ongoing threats from terrorism and health scares faced by the tourism industry today, and discusses the related security and risk management strategies, illustrating the potential implications for the patterns and flow of tourism in the future. Divided into five sections, each chapter has a thorough learning structure including chapter objectives, examples, discussion points, self review questions, checklists and case studies. Cases will be both thematic and destination-based and always international. They will be used to emphasise the relationship between general principles and the practice of tourism looking at areas such as business and special interest tourism and the role of technology.

The period of mass tourism begins in middle of 20 th century. The reasons why tourist movement intensified all over the world are: The shortening of the working days and weeks; The rise in the standard of living; The intense development of links and means of transportation;
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 The development and diversification of tourist supply on a regional scale; The increased need for relaxation with regard to city life. The features of contemporary tourism are: The growth of its mass nature; The growth of travel distance; The growth of tourist consumption; The diversification of forms of tourism in accordance with tourists needs; The mobility due to the perfection of modes and links of transportation; The involvement in tourism of the low-income tourists; The computerization, the automation, and robotization.

This factors of contemporary tourism determined a lot of changes in tourism industry and in all industries of a specific country.The modernization and the effect of free mobility of people caused the change in contemporary tourism.

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Subject no. 3. Tourist Resources and Tourist Potential

Natural tourist resources

Tourism is an industry that depends on the physical environment. Recent research has emphasized the importance of the environment for tourism activity and development. It has also been concerned with the impacts that tourism has on natural resources (Green, Hunter and Moore, 1990). Most of the impact of tourism occurs in destination areas, around service centers, or along transportation routes. Impacts are caused by both development of structures, such as roads and buildings, as well as by the tourists themselves (May, 1991). Nearly all impact studies have been concerned with natural or seminatural areas, with very little work focused on urban settings (Green et al., 1990). These studies have examined specific sites, such as alpine areas (Goodman, 1989; Rodriguez, 1987), islands (Wilkinson, 1989), coastal areas (Martinez-Taberner, Moya, Ramon and Forteza, 1990), and other areas (Farfell and Runyon, 1991). Additionally, most research has been reactionary and centered around the negative impacts that tourism has on natural resources after the damage has taken place. Thus, it is difficult to document the process of environmental change resulting from tourism activity. Tourism is often blamed to an unreasonable degree for resource degradation (Farrell and McLellan, 1987). While tourism does at times result in negative environmental impacts, there are also environmental benefits associated with tourism, including fostering appreciation for the environment. Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world, or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. It ranges in scale from the subatomic to the cosmic.

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The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essential qualities, innate disposition", and in ancient times, literally meant "birth". Natura was a Latin translation of the Greek word physis, which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals, and other features of the world develop of their own accord. The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word by pre-Socratic philosophers, and has steadily gained currency ever since. This usage was confirmed during the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries. Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" may refer to the general realm of various types of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objectsthe way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth, and the matter and energy of which all these things are composed. It is often taken to mean the "natural environment" or wildernesswild animals, rocks, forest, beaches, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For, example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, "human nature" or "the whole of nature". This more traditional concept of natural things which can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind. Depending on the particular context, the term "natural" might also be distinguished from the unnatural, the supernatural, or what is man-made (man-made). Nature tourism responsible travel to natural areas, which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people. It is tourism based on the natural attractions of an area. Examples include birdwatching, photography, stargazing, camping, hiking, hunting, fishing, and visiting parks. These experiential tourists are interested in a diversity of natural and cultural resources. They want what is real, and they want to be immersed in a rich natural, cultural, or historical experience.
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From the standpoint of conservation, nature-based tourism provides incentives for local communities and landowners to conserve wildlife habitats upon which the industry depends it promotes conservation by placing an increased value on remaining natural areas. As nature tourism becomes more important to the local economy, communities have additional incentive to conserve their remaining natural areas for wildlife and wildlife enthusiasts. The nature-based tourism efforts in Texas will continue to focus on achieving habitat conservation by providing information and assistance to private landowners, communities, businesses, and local community leaders wishing to make nature-based tourism an integral part of their business and community. By empowering people at the local level, we hope to build and provide guidance to a growing industry that holds great promise for sustainable economic development and conservation of wildlife habitat. Tourism is possible to experience almost every kind of environment that Australia offers, without leaving NSW. The states diverse areas of natural beauty range from off-shore islands and marine parks to rainforests and deserts. Sydneys spectacular harbour, beaches, national parks and climate are an intrinsic part of the citys charm. Without these it would be just another international city. Some natural assets, such as Sydney Harbour and the Blue Mountains, are well known but there is much more that should be done to promote all the states natural attractions. These attractions must also be developed in ways that are sustainable and which conserve the very qualities that visitors are seeking. Tourism NSW published a Nature in Tourism Plan in 2004, which provides vision and leadership for the development, management and marketing of nature in tourism in New South Wales. Our Natural Treasures: a shared vision for NSW is a summary of the plan. The Plan is a subset of the 'Towards 2020: New South Wales Tourism Masterplan' and complements regional marketing and development plans. The Nature in Tourism Plan will play a vital role in increasing the number of visitors to regional NSW.
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The Nature in Tourism Plan:

explains what nature in tourism is and its value to NSW stresses the importance of sustainable practices promotes integrated planning and development encourages a cooperative partnership between government and industry

The plan identifies opportunities in:

product development and visitor experiences tourism facilities and services market research marketing business and industry development

It also provides:

strategic direction for Tourism NSW a guide for industry-initiated action

Tourism NSW's nature in tourism fact sheets are designed to assist existing and potential operators with the important relationship between nature and tourism. The fact sheets are the result of extensive research undertaken as part of the development of the Nature in Tourism Plan. Tourism more than any other sphere of activity (except of course agriculture) depends on natural environment, which represents, we can say, raw material of it, the subject and the field of activity. Relief, woods, rivers, lakes, seas, natural monuments, mineral waters are components of natural environment; these are considered tourist resources and provide activity of recreation tourism, healing, cultural tourism, hiking, etc. Natural resources are natural elements, such as: water, air, rocks and so on, and natural forces: wind, volcanism, earthquakes. After the sphere of their development, they can be industrial, agricultural and of recreation. Natural tourist resources comprise: primary resources, that are the tourist potential of relief, hydrography link, vegetation and fauna and resources developed and arranged by men parks, zoological, botanical gardens. Lets discuss about natural tourist resources and their processes. Rivers except their activity of erosion, transportation, accumulation
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create diverse forms of river relief used widely in tourism, such as river valleys with meadow vegetation, natural beaches. Mountainous rivers create spectacular valleys of quays, canyons, defiles. I can give such examples even in our country: The quays of Rut (Orhei), defile from Saharna (Rezina), the canyon of ipova. Known on the world plan- the Great canyon Colorado (Arizona, USA). The rivers also create falls that serves as tourist attractions. The tourists are interested to see the force that makes to fall the water, its mysterious noise, mist and rainbows produced by fall. The most visited falls are: Niagara fall (50 m), Victoria (120 m), Angel waterfall (154m) and others. Air masses moving create the wind, which on the other side creates bizarre relief forms, so attractive for tourists: stone castles, tunnels, pillars (in states of Arizona, Utah, Nevada). On the peak of Bugeci mountains (Romania) wind created figures which make an impression of two old women talking; the figure like the Egyptian Sphinx. Also this factor creates landscapes of dunes in desert zones. Due to this phenomena develop different kinds of tourism (especially exotic), notably in Mauritania, Sudan, Uzbekistan, Australia. Natural landscapes of dunes form also on the shores of Baltic sea, and promote tourist flow in Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Kaliningrad. In zones of shores and seacoasts waters create natural beaches. The most extended are: the beach in Rio de Janeiro called Copacabana, in Florida Miami beach, Long beach, Beverly hills, in India Mombay, in France Cote dAzur, and others. Fluvial tourism, cruises are practiced on Danube, Volga, Dnieper, Odra, Siena, Mississippi, Geneva lake, Ladoga, Caspian sea, Baikal, in North America on Manitoba, Winnipeg, Victoria, Chad. Vegetation creates natural landscapes of forests, steppes, savanna; these are widely developed for hunting, safari, hiking and just for pleasure. Natural tourist resources arranged and developed by men are represented by natural reservations, national parks, botanical and zoological gardens. For example, such national parks as Serengeti (Tanzania), Cruger (South Africa), Corbet(India), Everest (Nepal), GrandParadisso (Italy), Retezat(Romania); natural reservations Juventas(Latvia), Sihotealin (Russia), Codru, etc. So, the relations of tourism and nature environment are close and very significant. The tourist interest for tourist natural resources increase
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more if they are varied and complex, and particularly non-altered, ie with primary properties and as follows the activities that resources generates are more valuable and attractive.

Forms of relief as natural tourist resources

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Mountainous sides and escarpments

A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is generally steeper than a hill. The adjective montane is used to describe mountainous areas and things associated with them. The study of mountains is called Orography. Exogeology deals with planetary mountains, which in that branch of science are usually called montes (singularmons). The highest mountain on Earth based from sea level is Mount Everest (8,848 m (29,029 ft)) in the Himalayas of Asia. The highest known mountain in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on the planet Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft) There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain. In the Oxford English Dictionary a mountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable." Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on usage among the local people. The highest point in San Francisco, California, is called Mount Davidson, notwithstanding its height of 300 m (980 ft), which makes it ten feet short of the minimum for a mountain in American appellation<needs citation>. Similarly, Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma is only 251 m (823 ft) from its base to its highest point. Definitions of "mountain" include:

Height over base of at least 2,500 m (8,202 ft).

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Height over base of 1,500 m (4,921 ft).2,500 m (8,202 ft). with a slope greater than 2 degrees Height over base of 1,000 m (3,281 ft).1,500 m (4,921 ft). with a slope greater than 5 degrees Local (radius 7,000 m (22,966 ft). elevation greater than 300 m (984 ft)., or 300 m (984 ft)1,000 m (3,281 ft). if local (radius 7,000 m (22,966 ft). elevation is greater than 300 m (984 ft).

By this definition <ambiguous>, mountains cover 64% of Asia, 25% of Europe, 22% of South America, 17% of Australia, and 3% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous and 10% of people live in mountainous regions. Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, and more than half of humanity depends on mountains for water.

Mountain in Carbon County, Utah Tall mountains reach into the colder layers of the atmosphere. They are consequently subject to glaciation, and erosion through frost action. Such processes produce the peak shape. Some of these mountains have glacial lakes, created by melting glaciers; for example, there are an estimated 3,000 glacial lakes in Bhutan. Mountains can be eroded and weathered, altering their characteristics over time.

Mount Olympus in Greece

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Tall mountains have different climatic conditions at the top than at the base, and will thus have different life zones at different altitudes. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the alpine type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line, one may find subalpine forests of needleleaf trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which in turn lead to differing flora and fauna. Some plants and animals found in these zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or dispersal. On the other hand, birds, being capable of flight, may take advantage of montane habitats and migrate into a region that would otherwise not provide appropriate habitat. These isolated ecological systems, or microclimates, are known as sky islands. The reason mountains are colder than lowlands has to do with how the sun heats the surface of the Earth. Practically all the heat at the surface of the Earth comes from the sun, in the form of solar energy. The sun's radiation is absorbed by land and sea, whence the heat is transferred into the air. Air is an insulator, so conduction of heat from the ground to the atmosphere is negligible. Heat is mainly transferred into the atmosphere through convection and radiation. Warm air rises because of its buoyancy, leading to convective circulation, in the form of thermals, within the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere. When heat radiates from the surface of the earth, it is released as long-wave radiation, which does not travel through the air efficiently. This radiant heat is absorbed temporarily by gasses in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. Thus, the lower portion of the troposphere more than 50% of all air lies below the altitude of the summit of Mt. Everestforms a blanket of air keeping the surface warm. This is the Greenhouse Effect. The higher one goes in altitude, the less of this blanket there is to keep in the heat. Thus, higher elevations, such as mountains, are colder than surrounding lowlands.[11] Air temperature in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, decreases with gains in altitude. The rate at which the temperature drops with elevation, called the environmental lapse rate, is not constant (it can fluctuate throughout the day or seasonally and also regionally), but a normal lapse rate is 5.5C per 1,000 m (3F per 3,000 ft). The temperature continues
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to drop up to a height of about 916 km, where it does not decrease further. However, this is higher than the highest mountaintop. Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands; the weather is often harsher, and there is little level ground suitable for agriculture. At very high altitudes, there is less oxygen in the air and less protection against solar radiation (UV). Acute mountain sickness (caused by hypoxiaa lack of oxygen in the blood) affects over half of lowlanders who spend more than a few hours above 3,500 metres (11,480 ft). Many mountains and mountain ranges throughout the world have been left in their natural state, and are today primarily used for recreation, while others are used for logging, mining, grazing, or see little use. Some mountains offer spectacular views from their summits, while others are densely wooded. Summit accessibility is affected by height, steepness, latitude, terrain, weather. Roads, lifts, or tramways affect accessibility. Hiking, backpacking, mountaineering, rock climbing, ice climbing, downhill skiing, and snowboarding are recreational activities enjoyed on mountains. Mountains that support heavy recreational use (especially downhill skiing) are often the locations of mountain resorts. Mountains are made up of earth and rock materials. The outermost layer of the Earth or the Earth's crust is composed of seven primary plates. When two plates move or collide each other, vast land areas are uplifted, resulting in the formation of mountains. Classified by the geological processes that shape them, there are five major types of mountains: Fold mountains Fold mountains are the most common type of mountains. They are formed due to collision of two plates, causing folding of the Earth's crust. The fold that descends on both sides is called anticline; whereas, the fold that ascends from a common low point (on both sides) is called syncline. Examples of fold mountains are the Himalayas of Asia and the Alps in Europe. Fault-Block mountains As the name suggests, fault-block mountains or fault mountains are formed when blocks of rock materials slide along faults in the
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Earth's crust. There are two types of block mountains, namely the lifted and tilted. Lifted mountains have two steep sides; whereas, the tilted type has one steep side and a gentle sloping side. Examples of fault-block mountains are found in the Sierra Nevada mountain range of the western United States. Volcanic mountains Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic eruptions where magma piles up on the surface of the Earth. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. Dome mountains Dome mountains are formed when the hot magma rises from the mantle and uplifts the overlying sedimentary layer of the Earth's crust. In the process, the magma is not erupted, but it cools down and forms the core of the mountain. They are called dome mountains due to their appearance that resembles a dome shape. Example of a dome mountain is Navajo Mountain in the U.S. state of Utah. Plateau mountains Plateau mountains are pseudo mountains that are formed because of erosion. They usually occur near folded mountain ranges. An example of a plateau mountain is the Catskill Mountains in the U.S. state of New York. Some mountains are formed as a result of several of the Earth's forces. Though the Rockies in North America is formed due to folding, there are mountains in the same range that are formed by faulting and doming. In nature, there is a continuous process of glaciation, soil erosion, and mechanical and chemical weathering, which altogether play a major role in altering the shape and characteristics of mountains. An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that results from erosion or faulting and separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations. Usually escarpment is used interchangeably with scarp (from the Italian scarpa, shoe.But some sources differentiate the two terms, where escarpment refers to the margin between two landforms, while scarp is synonymous with a cliff or steep slope. The surface of the steep slope is called a scarp face. Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes:
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either by differential erosion of sedimentary rocks, or by vertical movement of the Earth's crust along a fault (faulting).

Table nr.1 Schematic cross section of a cuesta, dip slopes facing left, and harder rocklayers in darker colors than softer ones (table nr.1). Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series of sedimentary rocks to another series of a different age and composition. When sedimentary beds are tilted and exposed to the surface, erosion and weathering may occur differentially based on the composition. Less resistant rocks will erode faster, retreating until the point they are overlain by more resistant rock (see cross section schematic). When the dip of the bedding is gentle, a cuesta is formed. Steeper dips (greater than 30-40) form hogbacks. Escarpments are also frequently formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other, a fault scarp is created. This can occur in dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip fault brings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area of lower ground. More loosely, the term scarp describes the zone between coastal lowlands and continental plateaus which have a marked, abrupt change in elevation caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau. Earth is not the only planet where escarpments occur. They are believed to occur on other planets when the crust contracts, as a result of cooling. On other Solar System bodies such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, the Latin term rupes is used for an escarpment.

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Crests and peaks The crests and the peaks represent lines and points of certain sides of the mountains. The more unusual and higher the peaks are, the more their individuality grows, and the more they draw travelers attention.

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Passes and quays

The passes and the banks play a major part in the gathering of tourists along certain destinations. They link different regions between them. The passes intervene between the crests and the massifs. The banks are along the river systems. A mountain pass (also gap, notch, col, saddle, hause, bwlch (Welsh), brennig or bealach (Gaelic)) is a route through a mountain range or over a ridge. If following the lowest possible route, a pass is locally the highest point on that route. Since many of the world's mountain ranges have presented formidable barriers to travel, passes have been important since before recorded history, and have played a key role in trade, war, and migration. Mountain passes are analogous to the mathematical concept of a topological saddle surface, with a saddle point marking the highest point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a topographic map, passes are characterized by contour lines with an hourglass shape, which indicates a low spot between two higher points. Passes are often found just above the source of a river, constituting a sort of "bridge" over to the headwaters of a different river. Passes may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the pass, or valleys of many kilometres, whose highest point is only identifiable by surveying.

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Roads have long been built, and more recently railways, through passes. Some high and rugged passes may have tunnels bored underneath to allow faster traffic flow throughout the year. The top of a pass is frequently the only flat ground in the area, a high vantage point, so it is often a preferred site for buildings. For countries whose borders are delimited by a mountain range, the pass is typically part of the border, and the facilities likely include a border control or customs station, and possibly a military post as well, as relatively few soldiers are required to guard a pass. For passes with roads, it is also customary to have a small roadside sign giving the name of the pass and its elevation above mean sea level. An example of this is Argentina and Chile that share the world's third longest international border, 5,300 kilometres (3,300 mi) long, running from north to the south through the Andes mountains, having a total of 42 mountain passes between them. As well as offering relatively easy travel between valleys, passes also provide a route between two mountain tops with a minimum of descent. As a result, it is common for tracks to meet at a pass; this often makes them convenient routes even when travelling between a summit and the valley floor. There are thousands of named passes around the world, some of which are well-known, such as the Great St. Bernard Pass at 2,473 metres (8,114 ft) in the Alps, the Khyber Pass at 1,027 metres (3,369 ft) between Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the Khardung La at 5,359 metres (17,582 ft) in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The Marsimik La at 5,590 metres (18,340 ft) is a lesser-known pass; it is one of the world's highest motorable passes and lies in India, on the northern-most tip of the Changthang Plateau, near the Chinese border. There are many words for pass in the English-speaking world. In the United States, pass is very common in the West, the word gap is common in the southern Appalachians, notch in parts of New England, and saddle in northern Idaho. Scotland has the Gaelic term bealach (anglicised "Balloch"). In the Lake District of north west England, the term hause is often used, although the term pass is also commonone distinction is that a pass can refer to a route, as well as the highest part
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thereof, while a hause is simply that highest part, often flattened somewhat into a high level plateau.

On this topological saddle surface a red dot marks the saddle point and a green line shows the route of steepest descent.

A mountain pass as appears on a contour map: Bwlch Maesgwm in Snowdonia, north Wales

A photo of the approach to the same pass as in the above map (looking from the north-northeast). 39

Gorges, defiles and canyons

The gorges, the defiles, and the canyons constitute an imposing group of natural resources. The gorges represent the first stage, the most savage, of the valleys. Sometimes their cross profile is so narrow that mens access is very difficult, or even impossible. The defiles are more evolved gorges. Some examples of gorges that we know: # The Verdon Gorge (in French: Gorges du Verdon or Grand canyon du Verdon), in south-eastern France (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence), is a river canyon that is often considered to be one of Europe's most beautiful. It is about 25 kilometers long and up to 700 meters deep. It was formed by the Verdon River, which is named after its startling turquoise-green colour, one of the canyon's most distinguishing characteristics. The most impressive part lies between the towns of Castellane and Moustiers-Sainte-Marie, where the river has cut a ravine up to 700 metres down through the limestone mass. At the end of the canyon, the Verdon river flows into the artificial lake of Sainte-Croixdu-Verdon. Because of its proximity to the French Riviera, the canyon is very popular with tourists, who can drive around its rim, rent kayaks or hike. The limestone walls, which are several hundreds of meters high, attract many rock climbers. It is considered an outstanding destination for multi-pitch climbing. There are routes encompassing cracks, pillars and
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seemingly endless walls. The climbing is generally of a technical nature, and there are over 1,500 routes, ranging from 20m to over 400m. # Taroko Gorge is an impressive 19-km-long canyon, situated near Taiwan's east coast. The area of the gorge is also identified as Taroko Gorge National Park. The Taroko Gorge is composed mainly metomorphic rocks, such as marble,gneiss, "schist",etc. The name, Taroko, means the "magnificent and splendid" in the language of Truku, the aboriginal tribe who resides in the area. The most phenomenal aspect of the park is the amazing relief. In a single afternoon you can travel from rugged coastal cliffs through a maze of subtropical forested canyons to high elevation subalpine coniferous forests. In about 60 kilometers the landscape rises from sea level to some of the tallest peaks in Taiwan at over 3400 meters. That's steep! The force behind the steep valleys and narrow canyons is a (geologically speaking) relatively fast rate of uplift combined with ample water. Over the last 70 million years, these two forces collaborated to form the world's deepest marble canyon. The slot canyons here are remarkable with narrows sections a thousand feet high and only a dozen yards apart, reminiscent of the Virgin River in Zion National Park in Utah, USA. Ignore the fact that Zion is in the desert, and made of sandstone and Taroko is subtropical and comprised of marble, and these two gorges have a lot in common. # Todra Gorge (French: Gorges de Todra,) is situated on the remote east side of the High Atlas Mountains in Morocco. Both the Todra and neighbouring Dades Rivers have carved out cliff-sided canyons on their final 40 kilometres (25 mi) through the mountains. The last 600 metres (1,969 ft) the Todra gorge are the most spectacular as the canyon narrows to a flat stony track as little as 10 metres (33 ft) wide in places with sheer and smooth rock walls up to 160 metres (525 ft) high on each side. The tiny glacier stream is something of a misfit and the river which once filled the gorge can only be imagined. It is easy to hike in the gorge - there is a well-maintained dirt road to walk along. The scenery is spectacular. Local people live in the area and can be seen with their small donkeys, or herding camels.
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It is no longer as remote as it once was: there is a reasonably wellmaintained asphalt road that leads up the valley from Tinerhir to the gorge. A concrete road continues on, past the hotels at the mouth of the gorge and up to the villages of At Hani, Tamtatouchte, and Imilchil.
List of gorges

Aragvi River Gorge, Georgia (country) Avon Gorge, Bristol, England Bog Walk Gorge, Saint Catherine Parish, Jamaica Bued Gorge, Benguet, Philippines Cataract Gorge, Launceston, Australia Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, England Columbia River Gorge, Oregon/Washington USA Corrieshalloch Gorge, Ullapool, Scotland Galston Gorge, NSW, Australia Gorropu, Sardinia, Italy Ironbridge Gorge, Shropshire, England Kloof, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (The word Kloof means 'gorge' in Afrikaans) Komati Gorge, South Africa Lanner Gorge, South Africa Letchworth State Park (Genesee River Gorge), New York, USA Linville Gorge Wilderness, North Carolina, USA Manawatu Gorge, Manawatu, North Island, New Zealand Montalban Gorge, Philippines New River Gorge, West Virginia, USA Niagara Gorge, Canada/USA North and South Gorges of North Stradbroke Island, QLD, Australia Katherine Gorge of Nitmiluk National Park in Australia Pankisi Gorge, Georgia (country) Pine Creek Gorge, Pennsylvania, USA Quechee Gorge, Vermont, USA Red River Gorge, Kentucky, USA Rio Grande Gorge, New Mexico, USA Royal Gorge, Colorado, USA Samaria Gorge, Crete, Greece Siq, Petra, Jordan Talari Gorges, Mali Tallulah Gorge, Georgia, USA Gorges du Tarn, France Taroko Gorge of Taroko National Park, Taiwan Three Gorges, Hubei, China Tiger Leaping Gorge, Yunnan, China Verdon Gorge, Provence, France Viamala, Graubnden, Switzerland Vikos Gorge, VikosAos National Park, Greece

Defile is a geographic term for a narrow pass or gorge between mountains or hills. It has its origins as a military description of a pass through which troops can march only in a narrow column or with a
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narrow front. On emerging from a defile (or something similar) into open country, soldiers are said to debouch. In a traditional military formation soldiers march in rank (the depth of the formation) and files (the width of the formation), so if a column of soldiers approach a narrow pass the formation must narrow which means that files on the outside must be ordered to the rear (or to some other position) so that the column has fewer files and more ranks. The French verb for this order is dfil, from which the English verb comes, as does the physical description for a valley that forces this manoeuvre. Defiles of military significance can also be formed by other physical features that flank a pass or path and cause it to narrow, for example impassable woods and rivers. At the Battle of Agincourt a defile formed by the woods of Agincourt and Tramecourt caused a choke point for the French army and aided the English in their victory over the French. Some defiles have a permanent strategic importance and become known by that term in military literature. For example the military historian William Siborne names such a geographic feature in France near the frontier with Germany in his book Waterloo Campaign 1815 On the following day, General Rapp fell back upon the Defile of Brmath ; but this he quitted in the night, and took up a favourable position in the rear of the Suffel, near Strasburg. William Siborne, There are some defiles that are used in tourism: # The Olt Defile is a defile that has been cut into the Transyvanian Alps in south-central Romania by the Olt River. In the Brezoi-Titesti Depression portion of the defile are located hot spring resorts. In the surrounding mountains grow Walnut and oak trees, wild roses, and white ivy. Transportation is provided by highways and railways between Rmnicu Vlcea and Sibiu. The defile was important when Rome occupied the area during the 1st century BC to 2nd century AD, building roads and fortifications along the Olt to north of the Danube. This line of fortifications was known as the Limes Alutanus, which once marked the eastern frontier of Roman Dacia. Remains of these Roman castra have been found in several villages, including those of Boia, Clineni, and Climneti. From the 14th to 18th century, several monasteries were
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built in the area. One of these, Turnul Monastery from the 17th century, even had cells that were carved into the cliffs by hermits from the 14th century Cozia Monastery, which was known for its exterior frescoes. The Ostrov Hermitage, also in the area, dates from the 17th century, while the Cornet Hermitage was built during the 17th and 18th centuries. There are also two fortresses, dating from the 16th century, located in Turnu Rosu and Boita. A canyon (occasionally spelled caon) or gorge is a deep ravine between cliffs often carved from the landscape by a river. Rivers have a natural tendency to reach a baseline elevation, which is the same elevation as the body of water it will eventually drain into. This forms a canyon. Most canyons were formed by a process of long-time erosion from a plateau level. The cliffs form because harder rock strata that are resistant to erosion and weathering remain exposed on the valley walls. Canyons are much more common in arid areas than in wet areas because physical weathering has a greater effect in arid zones. The wind and water from the river combine to erode and cut away less resistant materials such as shales. The freezing and expansion of water also serves to help form canyons. Water seeps into cracks between the rocks and freezes, pushing the rocks apart and eventually causing large chunks to break off the canyon walls. Canyon walls are often formed of resistant sandstones or granite. Submarine canyons form underwater, generally at the mouths of rivers. The word canyon is Spanish in origin (can). The word canyon is generally used in the United States, while the word gorge is more common in Europe and Oceania, though it is also used in some parts of the United States and Canada. The military derived word defile is occasionally used in the United Kingdom. A famous example is the Grand Canyon in Arizona with an average depth of one mile and a volume of 4.17 trillion cubic meters. In the southwestern United States, canyons are important archeologically because of the many cliff-dwellings built there, largely by the earlier inhabitants, Ancient Pueblo Peoples. The Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon (or Tsangpo Canyon), along the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet, China, is regarded by some as the deepest canyon in the world at 18,000 feet, and is slightly longer than Grand Canyon making it one of the world's largest. The Kali Gandaki Gorge in midwest Nepal is seen by others to be the deepest canyon, with
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a 21,000 foot difference between the level of the river and the peaks surrounding it. Sometimes large rivers run through canyons as the result of gradual geological uplift. These are called entrenched rivers, because they are unable to easily alter their course. The Colorado River in the Southwest and the Snake River in the Northwest are two examples of tectonic uplift. Canyons often form in areas of limestone rock. Limestone is to a certain extent soluble, so cave systems form in the rock. When these collapse a canyon is left, for example in the Mendip Hills in Somerset and Yorkshire Dales in Yorkshire, England. A canyon may also refer to a rift between two mountain peaks such as those in ranges such as the Rocky Mountains, the Alps, the Himalayas or the Andes. Usually a river or stream and erosion carve out such splits between mountains. Examples of mountain type canyons are Provo Canyon in Utah or Yosemite National Park in California's Sierra Nevada. Canyons within mountains or gorges that only have an opening on one side are called box canyons. Slot canyons are very narrow canyons, often with smooth walls.
List of canyons

Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Colorado, USA Blyde River Canyon, Mpumalanga, South Africa Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, USA Canyon Sainte-Anne, Quebec, Canada Charyn Canyon, Kazakhstan Chicamocha Canyon, Santander, Colombia Colca Canyon, Arequipa, Peru Cotahuasi Canyon, Arequipa, Peru Fish River Canyon, Namibia Fraser Canyon, British Columbia, Canada Grand Canyon of Torotoro, Torotoro, Potosi Department, Bolivia Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, Wyoming, USA Guartel Canyon, Paran, Brazil Hells Canyon, Idaho and Oregon, USA Horseshoe Canyon, Alberta, Canada Huasteca Canyon, Monterrey, Mexico Kanionet e Skraparit, Albania Kings Canyon (Northern Territory), Australia Little River Canyon, Alabama, USA Matka Canyon, Republic of Macedonia Nfeye Canyon, Portugal

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Nine Mile Canyon, Utah, USA Ouimet Canyon, Ontario, Canada Palo Duro Canyon, Texas, USA Rugova Canyon, Kosovo, Europe Saturban canyon, Santander, Colombia Somoto Canyon, Somoto, Madriz, Nicaragua Shnizow Canyon, Uak, Turkey Sumidero Canyon, Chiapas, Mexico Tara River Canyon, Montenegro, Europe Valla Canyon, Kure,Turkey Waimea Canyon, Hawaii, USA

Caves A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. Some people suggest that the term cave should only apply to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness; however, in popular usage, the term includes smaller spaces like sea caves, rock shelters, and grottos. Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the environment which surrounds the caves. Exploring a cave for recreation or science may be called caving, potholing, or, in Canada and the United States, spelunking. Types of caves:
Solutional cave

Solutional caves are the most frequently occurring caves and such caves form in rock that is soluble, such as limestone, but can also form in other rocks, including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt, and gypsum. Rock is dissolved by natural acid in groundwater that seeps through beddingplanes, faults, joints and so on. Over geological epochs cracks expand to become caves or cave systems. The largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes, and underground drainage. Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation. These include flowstones, stalactites,
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stalagmites, helictites, soda straws and columns. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems. The portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be flooded. The world's most spectacularly decorated cave is generally regarded to be Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico. Lechuguilla and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes. This gas mixes with ground water and forms H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface.
Primary cave

Exploring a lava tube in Hawaii.

Some caves are formed at the same time as the surrounding rock. These are sometimes called primary caves. Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity and are the most common 'primary' caves. The lava flows downhill and the surface cools and solidifies. The hotter lava continues to flow under that crust, and if most of the liquid lava beneath the crust flows out, a hollow tube remains, thus forming a cavity. Examples of such caves can be found on the Canary Islands, Hawaii, and many other places. Kazumura Cave near Hilo is a remarkably long and deep lava tube; it is 65.6 km long (40.8 mi). Lava caves, include but are not limited to lava tubes. Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rift caves, lava mold caves, open vertical volcanic conduits, and inflationary caves.
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Sea cave or littoral cave

Painted Cave, a large sea cave, Santa Cruz Island, California

Sea caves are found along coasts around the world. A special case is littoral caves, which are formed by wave action in zones of weakness in sea cliffs. Often these weaknesses are faults, but they may also be dykes or bedding-plane contacts. Some wave-cut caves are now above sea level because of later uplift. Elsewhere, in places such as Thailand's Phang Nga Bay, solutional caves have been flooded by the sea and are now subject to littoral erosion. Sea caves are generally around 5 to 50 metres (16 to 160 ft) in length but may exceed 300 metres (980 ft).
Corrasional cave or erosional cave

Corrasional or erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other sediments. These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite. Generally there must be some zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint. A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian cave, carved by wind-born sediments. Many caves formed initially by solutional processes often undergo a subsequent phase of erosional or vadose enlargement where active streams or rivers pass through them.

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Glacier cave

Glacier cave in Big Four Glacier, Big Four Mountain, Washington, ca. 1920.

Glacier caves occur in ice and under glaciers and are formed by melting. They are also influenced by the very slow flow of the ice, which tends to close the caves again. (These are sometimes called ice caves, though this term is properly reserved for caves that contain year-round ice formations).
Fracture cave

Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals, such as gypsum, dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks of stone.
Talus cave

Talus caves are the openings between rocks that have fallen down into a pile, often at the bases of cliffs (called "talus").
Anchihaline cave

Anchihaline caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water). They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic faunas.

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Geological structures
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the regional geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation (e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics. The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps for the accumulation and concentration of fluids such as petroleum and natural gas. Faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids and the resulting concentration areas for base and precious metal ore deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks. They often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such as ancient sinkholes. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas. Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology, which is concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations and joints are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the stability of human engineered structures such as dams, road cuts, open pit mines and underground mines or road tunnels. Geotechnical risk, including earthquake risk can only be investigated by inspecting a combination of structural geology and geomorphology. In addition areas of karst landscapes which are underlain by underground caverns and potential sinkholes or collapse features are of importance
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for these scientists. In addition, areas of steep slopes are potential collapse or landslide hazards. Environmental geologists and hydrogeologists or hydrologists need to understand structural geology because structures are sites of groundwater flow and penetration, which may affect, for instance, seepage of toxic substances from waste dumps, or seepage of salty water into aquifers. Plate tectonics is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense structural geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as a framework to analyze and understand global, regional, and local scale features.

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Subject no. 4. Natural Tourist Resources

Climate as a tourist resource

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Worldwide Climate Classifications

Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a given region over a long period of time. Climate can be contrasted to weather, which is the present condition of these same elements and their variations over shorter time periods. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme was originally developed by Wladimir Kppen. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration in addition to temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying animal species diversity and potential impacts of climate changes. The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic
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evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors; recent warming is discussed in global warming. Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period of time. The standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary definition is: Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: for example, the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 C (9 F) warming of the northern Atlantic ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement
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that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned. Climate classification There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness, evapotranspiration,[10] or more generally the Kppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes. A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature. Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic The most simple classification is that involving the concept of air masses. The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification. Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled w. While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973. Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification system (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC
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scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental polar), Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical), Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical), and Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime equatorial).
Kppen

Monthly average surface temperatures from 19611990. This is an example of how climate varies with location and season

Monthly global images from NASA Earth Observatory

The Kppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Kppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. These primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold midlatitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert. Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in). Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 C (64 F) during all months of the year.
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A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's rainy season. Regions within North America, South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes. A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semihumid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures remain at or above 18 C (64 F) year round and rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia. The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones. Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20 and 40 degrees away from the equator.

Humid continental climate, worldwide

A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature variance. Places with more than three months of average daily temperatures above 10 C (50 F) and a coldest month temperature below 3 C (26.6 F) and which do not meet the criteria for an arid or semiarid climate, are classified as continental. An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, and in southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round. The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.
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A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to 40 C (104 F) and during the winter down to 40 C (40 F). A subarctic climate has little precipitation, and monthly temperatures which are above 10 C (50 F) for one to three months of the year, with permafrost in large parts of the area due to the cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates usually include up to six months of temperatures averaging below 0 C (32 F).

Map of arctic tundra

Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, including vast areas of northern Russia and Canada. A polar ice cap, or polar ice sheet, is a high-latitude region of a planet or moon that is covered in ice. Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures. A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation. Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 C or 113 F), and low night-time temperatures (in winter down to 0 C; 32 F) due to extremely low humidity. Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert.

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Hydrography as a tourist resource

The hydrographic elements have picturesque attributes, physical and chemical features, and some water dimensions. The main forms of hydrographys presence in tourism are: River systems; Lakes; Sea and ocean water; Waterfalls; Geysers; Mineral, thermal, and thermo-mineral springs; Glaciers. The river systems are a first-rate tourist resource thanks to the opportunity given by swimming, fishing, and landscapes varieties. Lakes, contrary to the current water, have a greater tourist contribution thanks to landscapes, salt lakes with healing properties, the picturesque quality of glacial and volcanic lakes, etc. Sea and ocean water is important for tourism due to the morphohydro-climatic complex of coastal regions. River System - main channel of a river together with all tributary rivers and streams that flow into it. Major North American river systems include the Mississippi, Colorado, and Columbia, each consisting of a major river together with several major tributary rivers and many smaller tributary rivers and streams. The area draining into a river system is called a drainage basin (see Basin: Drainage Basins). The Mississippi river system drains an area of 3,250,000 sq km (1,250,000 sq mi) and extends from the Canadian border in the north to the Gulf of Mexico in the south, and from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Appalachian Mountains in the east. The larger tributary rivers of major
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river systems are important river systems in their own right. For example, the Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee rivers are tributaries of the Mississippi. The boundaries between individual river systems are called drainage divides. Rain falling on opposite sides of a drainage divide will flow into separate river systems. Continental divides are drainage divides that separate groups of river systems that drain into different oceans. The main continental divide in the United States lies along the crest of the Rocky Mountains and separates the rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean from the rivers that flow into the Gulf of Mexico. The smallest tributaries of river systems, called fingertip tributaries, are small gullies. As the various tributaries of a river system successively join together downstream, they form a treelike network with the fingertip tributaries as twigs, larger tributaries as branches, and the main river channel as the trunk. As the amount of water being carried through the river system becomes greater downstream, the size of the channels that carry the water also increases, as does the size of the valleys that the water carves. The outlet, or mouth, of a river system is usually located at the coast of an ocean or at the shoreline of a lake. In arid regions, however, rivers may gradually disappear as they flow downstream as the water evaporates or seeps into the ground. Lake - large, inland body of fresh or salty standing water. Lakes are distinguished from bodies of water such as bays and gulfs, and some seas, that have an interchange with the ocean and are subject to tides. Lake basins are formed by many geologic processes, such as buckling of stratified rock into large folds, displacement of large masses of rock by faults, and blocking of valleys by landslides. Lakes also form by glaciation. Glaciers carve out large basins by scooping up bedrock and redistributing loose material. Many of the lakes of North America formed this way, including the Great Lakes and New York's Finger Lakes. The source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation that reaches the lake directly and by means of springs, brooks, and rivers. The primary mineral constituent of salt lakes is common salt; bitter lakes contain sulfates; alkali lakes contain carbonates; borax lakes contain borates; and some lakes contain combinations of these substances. Lakes form at all altitudes and are distributed throughout the world. Almost one-half of the world's lakes are in Canada. Lakes are abundant in high latitudes, particularly in mountain regions subjected to glacial
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action. Many lakes are important commercially as sources of minerals and fish, as shipping arteries, and as vacation resorts. The largest lakes in the world include the Caspian Sea, Lake Superior, and Lake Victoria. The Dead Sea is the world's lowest lake, 408 m (1,340 ft) below sea level. The Caspian, the world's largest lake, covers an area of 370,998 sq km (143,243 sq mi). Lake Baikal is the deepest freshwater lake in the world, with a maximum depth of 1637 m (5371 ft). Sea - general designation for all the salt water in all the specific oceans and seas that cover a large area of the surface of the earth. The name is particularly given to bodies of salt water such as the Mediterranean Sea that are partially landlocked and are smaller than the ocean to which they are generally connected. The name is also used to designate inland bodies of salt water, such as the Caspian Sea, and has occasionally been given to inland bodies of fresh water, such as the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias). Waterfall sudden sheer descent of a stream or river over a steep drop in its bed, sometimes in a free fall. The term cataract, usually designating a series of rapids in a large river, is often applied to waterfalls of large volume. A waterfall of any height that has a small volume of water or is one of a series of falls is called a cascade. The term cascade is also applied to a waterfall if, while plunging, it maintains contact with the streambed. The highest waterfalls frequently are cascades. Waterfalls are valuable today as sources of hydroelectric power. Especially voluminous or spectacular waterfalls include Angel Falls (979 m/3212 ft) in Venezuela; Tugela (948 m/3110 ft) in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; Cuquenan (610 m/2000 ft) in Venezuela; Takakkaw (503 m/1650 ft) in British Columbia; Great Fall (488 m/1600 ft) in Guyana; Krimmler (381 m/1250 ft) in Austria; Silver Strand Falls (357 m/1170 ft) in California; Wollomombi (335 m/1100 ft) in Australia; Jog Falls (253 m/830 ft) in India; and Iguacu Falls. The given length measurements for some of these falls involve more than one leap. Geyser - hot spring that erupts intermittently in a column of steam and hot water. Some geysers erupt at regular intervals, but the majority erupt irregularly, the intervals ranging from a matter of minutes to years. The length of time of the eruption varies with the geyser, from seconds to hours. The height of the column ranges from about 1 m (about 3 ft) to about 100 m (about 328 ft), and the amount of water
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ejected in a single eruption varies from a few liters to hundreds of thousands of liters. A geyser erupts when the base of a column of water resting in the earth is vaporized by hot volcanic rock. The force with which the water column is expelled depends on its depth. The weight of the water column increases with its depth. The weight, in turn, increases the pressure exerted on the base of the column, thereby increasing the boiling point of the water there. When the water finally boils, it expands, driving some water out into the air. With the weight of the column reduced, the pressure correspondingly drops, and the boiling point of the water remaining in the column falls below its actual temperature. Thereupon, the entire column instantly vaporizes, causing the geyser to erupt. Eruption intervals depend on such variables as the supply of heat, the amount and rate of inflow of subsurface water, and the nature of the geyser tube and its underground connections. Almost all known geysers are located in three countries of the world New Zealand, Iceland, and the United States. A famous geyser is Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park, which expels about 38,000 to 45,000 liters (about 10,000 to 12,000 gallons) at each eruption. Old Faithful usually erupts at intervals of between 30 and 90 minutes, its column rising as high as 52 m (170 ft), but natural changes in the underground water system have recently made the timing of the eruptions less reliable. The geyser gives warning of its impending activity by ejecting jets of water 3 to 8 m (10 to 25 ft) high. Mineral Water - spring water that contains mineral salts or gases, and which consequently may have an action on the human body different from that of ordinary water. As a remedial agent, mineral waters have been used from early times, and were familiar to the ancient Greeks and Romans. They are usually classified as alkaline, saline, chalybeate or iron-containing, sulfurous, acidulous, and arsenical. Many effervescing carbonic-acid waters are used as table beverages and to dilute spirits or wines. Saline waters are taken for their medicinal effects. Mineral springs are numerous in the U.S. Among the eastern states, New York is the leading producer, and the springs at Saratoga, New York, have an international reputation and compare favorably to foreign spas. In the Appalachian Mountains are the celebrated hot springs of Berkeley Springs, Virginia, and White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. Of the south-central states, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Arkansas are the
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chief producers; the hot springs of Arkansas are among the most important in the country. Other well-known hot springs include those of Waukesha, Wisconsin, Las Vegas, N. Mex., San Bernardino, California, and Medical Lake, Washington. One of the widely known springs in the U.S., French Lick Springs, Indiana, produces the Pluto waters, which rival the famous Hunyadi Janos waters of Hungary as a purgative. The most noted of the European mineral waters include Vichy and Appollinaris, both alkaline; Apenta, Hunyadi Janos (Hungary), and Friedrichshall, saline waters rich in sulfate; Karlsbad and Marienbad, rich in sodium chloride; Tunbridge Wells, chalybeate; Aix-la-Chapelle, Baden, and Aix-les-Bains, sulfurated; and Bath and Baden, arsenical. Mineral Water, spring water that contains mineral salts or gases, and which consequently may have an action on the human body different from that of ordinary water. As a remedial agent, mineral waters have been used from early times, and were familiar to the ancient Greeks and Romans. They are usually classified as alkaline, saline, chalybeate or iron-containing, sulfurous, acidulous, and arsenical. Many effervescing carbonic-acid waters are used as table beverages and to dilute spirits or wines. Saline waters are taken for their medicinal effects. Glacier - large, usually moving mass of ice formed in high mountains or in high latitudes where the rate of snowfall is greater than the melting rate of snow. Glaciers can be divided into four welldefined typesalpine, piedmont, ice cap, and continentalaccording to the topography and climate of the region in which the glacier was formed.

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Vegetation as a tourist resource

Biomes classified by vegetation Ice desert Tundra Taiga Temperate broadleaf Temperate steppe Subtropical rainforest

Mediterranean Monsoon forest Desert Xeric shrubland Dry steppe Semidesert

Grass savanna Tree savanna Subtropical dry forest Tropical rainforest Alpine tundra Montane forests

Much of the work on vegetation classification comes from European and North American ecologists, and they have fundamentally different approaches. In North America, vegetation types are based on a combination of the following criteria: climate pattern, plant habit, phenology and/or growth form, and dominant species. In the current US standard (adopted by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC), and originally developed by UNESCO and The Nature Conservancy), the classification is hierarchical and incorporates the non-floristic criteria into the upper (most general) five levels and limited floristic criteria only into the lower (most specific) two levels. In Europe, classification often relies much more heavily, sometimes entirely, on floristic (species) composition alone, without explicit reference to climate, phenology or growth forms. It often emphasizes indicator or diagnostic species which separate one type from another. In the FGDC standard, the hierarchy levels, from most general to most specific, are: system, class, subclass, group, formation, alliance, and association. The lowest level, or association, is thus the most precisely defined, and incorporates the names of the dominant one to three (usually two) species of the type. An example of a vegetation type defined at the level of class might be "Forest, canopy cover > 60%"; at
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the level of a formation as "Winter-rain, broad-leaved, evergreen, sclerophyllous, closed-canopy forest"; at the level of alliance as "Arbutus menziesii forest"; and at the level of association as "Arbutus menziesii-Lithocarpus densiflora forest", referring to Pacific madronetanoak forests which occur in California and Oregon, USA. In practice, the levels of the alliance and/or association are the most often used, particularly in vegetation mapping, just as the Latin binomial is most often used in discussing particular species in taxonomy and in general communication. Victoria in Australia classifies its vegetation by Ecological Vegetation Class. Vegetation is closely linked to relief and climate. The tourist role of vegetation resides in: The make-up of plant associations (it can be seen through type of vegetation; for instance, equatorial forest, rain forest, etc.); The presence of certain endemic and relic plants (baobab, sequoia, eucalyptus (or gum tree), cedar of Lebanon and Atlas cedar); Dimension and age of some plants; The annual evolution rhythm; The periphery effect and the island effect (the edge of a forest, tourists concentrating in clearing and glades); Elements of a spiritual nature in contact with vegetation.

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Fauna as a tourist resource

Fauna or faun is all of the animal life of any particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert fauna" or the "Burgess shale fauna". It also can refer to a given subset of the fauna of a given region, as in: "... the Amazon basin has a rich ant fauna...". Paleontologists sometimes refer to a sequence of faunal stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. The name comes from Fauna, a Roman fertility and earth goddess, the Roman god Faunus, and the related forest spirits called Fauns. All three words are cognates of the name of the Greek god Pan, and panis is the Greek equivalent of fauna. Fauna is also the word for a book that catalogues the animals in such a manner. The term was first used by Linnaeus in the title of his 1747 work Fauna Suecica.
Subdivisions of fauna

Australian and New Zealand Fauna. This image was likely first published in the first edition (18761899) of the Nordisk familjebok.

Infauna

Aquatic animals that live in the substrate of a body of water, especially in a soft sea bottom.

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Epifauna

Epifauna, also called epibenthos, are aquatic animals that live on the bottom substratum as opposed to within it, that is, the benthic fauna that live on top of the sediment surface at the seafloor.
Macrofauna

Macrofauna are benthic or soil organisms which are retained on a 0.5mm sieve. Studies in the deep sea define macrofauna as animals retained on a 0.3mm sieve to account for the small size of many of the taxa.
Megafauna

Megafauna are large animals of any particular region or time. For example, Australian megafauna.
Meiofauna

Meiofauna are small benthic invertebrates that live in both marine and fresh water environments. The term Meiofauna loosely defines a group of organisms by their size, larger than microfauna but smaller than macrofauna, rather than a taxonomic grouping. One environment for meiofauna is between grains of damp sand (see Mystacocarida). In practice these are metazoan animals that can pass unharmed through a 0.5 1 mm mesh but will be retained by a 30 45 m mesh, but the exact dimensions will vary from researcher to researcher. Whether an organism passes through a 1 mm mesh also depends upon whether it is alive or dead.
Mesofauna

Mesofauna are macroscopic soil invertebrates such as arthropods, earthworms, and nematodes.
Microfauna

Microfauna are microscopic or very small animals (usually including protozoans and very small animals such as rotifers).

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Fauna (or wildlife) is the most mobile element of nature, characterized by its structural diversity. The cognitive tourism makes these attributes attractive. In order to know the animal kingdom of remote territories with limited accessibility one created zoological gardens (zoos) and aquariums (fish tanks). Hunting - sport of pursuing and killing wild game animals in order to provide food, or simply for the thrill of the chase, or for the enjoyment of outdoor life. People have been hunting since prehistoric times to provide themselves and their families with food, fur and leather clothing, and hides for shelter. With the development of agriculture, animal husbandry, and, eventually, manufacturing, hunting gradually diminished in importance as a means of survival. Because of its challenge and pleasure as a sport, however, hunting has remained a popular activity even in modern times. Game animals are hunted throughout the world. In North America, deer, elk, bear, pronghorn, caribou, rabbit, squirrel, duck, goose, pheasant, and wild turkey are hunted. Among the animals hunted in Asia are elephant, tiger, wild sheep, deer, bear, rabbit, waterfowl, and pheasant. African safari-hunting offers opportunity to bag a diversity of game: Cape buffalo, elephant, lion, antelope, and duck and other wild fowl. European hunters generally go out for wild boar, fox, red stag, rabbit, and various game birds. Jaguar, peccary, deer, duck, dove, and turkey are popular quarry in Central and South America. The leisured nobility of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome enjoyed hunting for sport. Greek historian Xenophon argued that hunting is an asset to society, in that the recreation promotes the well-being and health of the hunter. The first laws designed to conserve game animals were not instituted until the 13th century, when Kublai Khan, emperor of the Mongols, forbade his subjects to hunt during animal breeding seasons. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) the feudal lords of Europe imposed extensive restrictions on hunting, effectively limiting the taking of game to the ruling classes. Stag hunts with hounds and horses and the pursuit of game birds with trained falcons (see Falconry) were popular pastimes of the nobility. The invention of gunpowder in the 14th century and the perfection of the matchlock rifle in the 15th century drastically changed methods of hunting. Whereas the trap and snare, the bow and arrow, and falcons and
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hounds had previously been used, rifles now facilitated the bringing down of fleeing birds and animals at greater distances and in greater numbers. Today, most hunters use rifles and shotguns to pursue their sport; shotguns and .22-caliber rifles are generally used for small game such as squirrels and rabbits, and larger caliber rifles are employed for animals such as deer and elk. For game birds such as ducks, geese, doves, and pheasant, 12- and 20-gauge shotguns are used. Claiming that primitive weapons make the hunt more challenging, many hunters now have gone back to the use of bows and arrows, especially for deer (see Archery), and some use muzzle-loading rifles.

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Tourist landscapes
A tourist landscape can be described as constructed through a variety of symbolic and material transformations of an original physical and/or socioeconomic landscape in order to serve the interests of tourists and the tourist industry. Since the early days of tourism, landscape has played an important role in the decision making for holiday destinations. In trying to escape from an ordinary taken-for-granted-world, people of all periods have looked to far-away landscapes in order to re-create. Landscapes are no longer exclusively shaped by the productive claims of agricultural interests. More and more, its form is a reflection of the consumer demand and recreation, tourism and even nature conservation combine to model the new aesthetics of nature (Wilson, 1992). The media confronts people with an ever more varied palette of images of their surroundings. Commercial broadcast by the World Wide Fund for Nature, vacation folders displayed by the tour operators and tourist boards, and the travel reports published in glossy magazines determine to a large degree how the tourist landscape should look. The most influential parties come from the new middle class, consisting of individuals and groups who are concentrated in professions like the media and fashion, education, and the arts and sciences. In this context the tourism industry constructs the rural idyll, an understanding of the countryside based partly on reality, but largely on nostalgia and romance: It is sustained and developed by media images and popular imagination. It portrays a world of unchanging values, traditional and community living which some people feel with regret has been lost forever from their own lives. The heritage industry has developed to meet such expectations. It packages and presents aspect of the heritage in ways which broadly sustain the illusion of unchanging values(The National Trust, 1995, 11). However by this aesthetic appropriation the landscape has become an assemblage of beautiful forms that ignores the basically vital aspects.
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A related problem is that tourism landscapes are frequently subject to the characteristic problems of common pool resources - a tendency toward overuse and a lack of incentive for individuals to invest in maintaining or improving the resource (Healy, 1994). Scenic landscapes are often the result of active (traditional) land management. The fading away of the pastoral economy in Alpine regions or the traditional orchard economy in parts of the Mediterranean threatens the characteristic scenery of old cultural landscapes. The Mediterranean landscape To the peoples of Northern Europe the Mediterranean landscape represented an ideal that has to be admired, sketched, painted and visited. From the beginning of the nineteenth century on the Mediterranean landscape functioned as a promotional objective of the nascent tourist industry. The presence of celebrities and highly effective publicity campaigns in combination with the work of many artists turned the regional geographical landscape into a tourist landscape, a dream space for the twentieth century. Luginbhl (1992) suggests that tourist publicity posters that appeared toward the end of the nineteenth century were used to represent the Mediterranean landscape and to reinforce the selective view of that landscape held by an elite stratum of society. Characteristic of these posters is the emphasis on the exotic in the Mediterranean landscape. Plant life especially is used to symbolise the ideal tourist scenery whilst constructing a landscape that retreats from reality: The Mediterranean landscape is replaced with a landscape in which the only thing that is Mediterranean is the stuff of the tourist promotion: a beach, a palm-tree, and a couple browning their skin in the sun or letting their hair blow in the wind. The Mediterranean landscape no longer exists, because it has been made palatable to all(Luginbhl, 1992, 227). The Alpine landscape The Mediterranean landscape is not the only example of how tourism contributes to the construction of model tourist landscapes. The Alpine regions too represent a model tourist landscape that combines ideas on both the sublime and the savage. The Alps were regarded as a
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wilderness and the habitat of a society free and archaic in its direct contact with nature. The characteristic environmental variety of the Alps offered concrete manifestations of idealized landscape models: the mountains were also an imaginary-symbolic space to which ideal properties could be attributed, such as those imposed by nature on its inhabitants to make them rough, but, also free and natural Scaramellini, 1996, 53). Ehrentraut (1996) remarked on the continuing attractive power of stereotypical alpine landscapes to contemporary tourists despite the rapid transformations of the traditional rural landscape and its vernacular architecture. Open air museums reinforce these existing meanings and contribute to the persistence of an idea of rurality on the symbolic level: Popularized and commodified by the travel industry, these lieux de mmoire thus become stations of the secular pilgrimage that tourists make through the cultural landscape of modern society in search of the authenticated experiences central to their collective identities(Ehrentraut, 1996, 22). The tourist objects which belong to relief, climate, hydrography, fauna, and flora do not exist isolated. They combine to make up tourist landscapes: Karstic (limestone) landscapes; Volcanic landscapes; Mountainous landscapes; Coastal landscapes. Beach gently sloping strip of land bordering an ocean or other body of water. Beaches form by the action of rivers, waves, currents, tides, and wind, and they are usually covered with sand or gravel. Beaches change shape from day to day and season to season. Waves, tides, currents, and the wind sometimes broaden a beach by depositing sand and sometimes narrow a beach by carrying sand away.
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Beaches along the ocean are divided into a foreshore and a backshore. The foreshore extends from the place the ocean reaches at low tide to the place it reaches at high tide. The backshore consists of the remaining portion of the beach that is only submerged during unusually high tides and storms. The steepest part of the foreshore is called the beach face. The backshore may contain one or more berms, ridges of sand and debris running parallel to the beach and deposited by a storm at its highwater mark. The backshore may also contain sand dunes, piles of sand built by wind blowing across a sandy beach. Some beaches consist chiefly of materials derived from one kind of rock, which may give the beach a distinctive color. Coral or limestone produces white sand, and quartz usually produces yellowish sand. Sands formed from volcanic rock are black. Wave action tends to carry away lighter minerals, leaving behind sand that is enriched in heavier minerals. These heavier minerals often contain valuable metals, such as titanium, zirconium, uranium, and gold, and many beaches are mined for them. Some of the worlds major recreational beaches are barrier beaches, which are formed when the action of waves and currents is not strong enough to wash sand fully to the shore. The sand is instead deposited in the water near the shore, forming a sandbar. The bar may grow outward until strong waves pile the sand high enough that it rises above water level, forming a barrier beach. Barrier beaches are generally elongated islands, but the beach may be joined to the mainland as sand and silt accumulates in the water between the two land areas. Well-known barrier beaches include those at Miami Beach, Florida; Atlantic City, New Jersey; and Coney Island in New York City. Other famous recreational beaches are located at Acapulco on the western coast of Mexico, at Cannes on the Mediterranean coast of France, and at Sydney on the southeastern coast of Australia. Beaches along the islands of Hawaii in the United States have helped generate a large tourist industry in that state.

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Subject no. 5. Man-made Tourist Resources

The tourist attributes of the man-made resources

Natural resources (economically referred to as land or raw materials) occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by mankind, in a natural form. A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity existent in various ecosystems. Natural resources are derived from the environment. This is currently restricted to the environment of Earth yet the theoretical possibility remains of extracting them from outside the planet, such as the asteroid belt. Many of them are essential for our survival while others are used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:

Biotic Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere, such as forests and their products, animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms. Mineral fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic Abiotic resources include non-living things. Examples include land, water, air and ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.

Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following ways:

Potential Resources Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India, having sedimentary rocks but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource. Actual Resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual resource that can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve.

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On the basis of status of development, they can be classified into potential resources,developed resources,stock and reserves. With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorized as follows:

Renewable resources are ones that can be replenished or reproduced easily. Some of them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take even longer. Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological periods. Minerals and fossil fuels are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be replenished once they get depleted. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them. But coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.

On the basis of availability, natural resources can be categorised as follows:

Inexhaustible natural resources- Those resources which are present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely to be exhausted easily by human activity are inexhaustible natural resources (sunlight, air etc.) Exhaustible natural resources- The amount of these resources are limited. They can be exhausted by human activity in the long run (coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.)

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Historic erections
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events, and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of cause and effect that determine events. Historians debate the nature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present. The stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline of history. Events of the past prior to written record are considered prehistory. Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.

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Religious erections
The conditions for canonical erection of a monastery, in the Roman Catholic Church, are laid down in canon law. A religious house (monastery or convent) is a fixed residence of religious persons. It supposes, therefore, continuous habitation of a community strictly so called, governed by a superior and following the rule prescribed by the respective religious order. Such a religious house is to be distinguished from a grange or farm, from a villa or place of recreation, and from a hospice or place for the reception of travelling religious. The conditions for the legitimate erection of a monastery are:

the permission of the Holy See. This is certain for countries subject to the Decree Romanos Pontifices (i.e. the United States, England, etc.); it is also required for Italy. Outside of Italy and missionary countries generally, the question is much disputed by canonists; the assent of the ordinary. This condition was approved by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and was in force as late as the twelfth century. In the thirteenth, the privileges of the mendicant orders caused frequent derogations from the law, but the ancient discipline was restored by the Council of Trent (Sess. XXV, de Reg., cap. iii). This permission cannot be given by the vicargeneral nor by the vicar-capitular. Before the bishop gives his assent, he should make himself acquainted with the opinions of those to whom such a monastery might prove a detriment, as the superiors of other religious orders already established there, or the people of the place. The parish priest cannot object, unless it is intended to confer parochial rights on the new religious house; there must be a proper provision for the sustenance of twelve religious, otherwise they must live under the jurisdiction of the ordinary. This last condition does not, however, apply to countries where the Romanos Pontifices is in force.

For the transfer of a monastery from one site to another in the same locality, no permission of the Holy See is required, as this is translation, not erection. There was an ancient law that a new monastery could not be erected within a certain distance from an older one, but it has gone into desuetude.
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As regards convents of religious women, the assent of the ordinary is required, but not that of the Holy See. The same holds for the erection of houses of pious congregations and institutes.

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Cultural and sports erections

A sport is an organized, competitive, entertaining, and skillful activity requiring commitment, strategy, and fair play, in which a winner can be defined by objective means. Generally speaking, a sport is a game based in physical athleticism. Activities such as board games and card games are sometimes classified as "mind sports," but strictly speaking "sport" by itself refers to some physical activity. Non-competitive activities may also qualify, for example though jogging or playing catch are usually classified as forms of recreation, they may also be informally called "sports" due to their similarity to competitive games. Sports are governed by a set of rules or customs. Physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first often define the result of a sport. However, the degree of skill and performance in some sports such as diving, dressage and figure skating is judged according to well-defined criteria. This is in contrast with other judged activities such as beauty pageants and body building, where skill does not have to be shown and the criteria are not as well defined. Records are kept and updated for most sports at the highest levels, while failures and accomplishments are widely announced in sport news. Sports are most often played just for fun or for the simple fact that people need exercise to stay in good physical condition. However, professional sport is a major source of entertainment. While practices may vary, sports participants are expected to display good sportsmanship, and observe standards of conduct such as being respectful of opponents and officials, and congratulating the winner when losing. Sport" comes from the Old French desport meaning "leisure". American English uses the term "sports" to refer to this general type of recreational activity, whereas other regional dialects use the singular "sport". The Persian word for sport is based on the root bord, meaning "winning". The Chinese term for sport, tiyu connotes physical training. The modern Greek term for sport is athlitismos, directly cognate with the English terms "athlete" and "athleticism".
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The oldest definition of sport in English (1300) is of anything humans find amusing or entertaining. Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise. Roget's defines the noun sport as an "activity engaged in for relaxation and amusement" with synonyms including diversion and recreation. At times, sports and politics can have a large amount of influence on each other. When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, particularly in rugby union, adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. The 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin was an illustration, perhaps best recognised in retrospect, where an ideology was developing which used the event to strengthen its spread through propaganda. In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid 20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported football, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at Gaelic venues. This ban is still enforced, but was modified to allow football and rugby to be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban. Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sports, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War. These trends are seen by many as
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contrary to the fundamental ethos of sports being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") is a term that has various meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses:

Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group

When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German nonpositivist sociologist, Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history". In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with different meanings, in other disciplines such as cultural studies, organizational psychology and management studies.[citation needed]
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Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, in the 20th century "culture" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode their experiences symbolically, and communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially. American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistics, cultural anthropology and archaeology. Research in these fields have influenced anthropologists working in other countries to different degrees.

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Economic erections intended for tourist activities

A number of studies in recent years have examined host residents' perceptions of the impact of tourism towards their community. Many local communities recognize that tourism can stimulate change in social, cultural, environmental and economic dimensions, where tourism activities have had a close connection with the local communities (Beeton, 2006; Richards & Hall, 2000). Understanding and assessing tourism impacts in local communities is important in order to maintain sustainability and long-term success of the tourism industry (Diedrich & Garca-Buades, 2008). A major reason for rising interest in the area has been the evidences that tourism leads not only to be positive, but also has the potential for negative, outcomes at the local level (Lankford & Howard, 1994). It is generally felt that community perceptions toward tourism impacts are likely to be an important planning and policy consideration for successful Asian Social Science July, 2009 tourism development (Ap, 1992). Numerous studies on community residents perceptions of tourism impacts have been conducted (Andereck et al., 2005; Ap, 1990, 1992; Ap & Crompton, 1993; Brown & Giles, 1994; Choi & Sirakaya, 2005; Johnson et al., 1994; Liu et al., 1987; Liu & Var1986; Pizam, 1978; Ritchie, 1993; Robson & Robson, 1996; Ryan & Montgomery, 1994; Seid, 1994; Sheldon & Abenoja, 2001; Sheldon & Var, 1984; Sirakaya et al., 2001; Teye et al., 2002; Upchurch & Teivane, 2000). All these studies are performed by Western researchers. Thus, the relevance of the findings in the Iranian context may not be fitting. To date, very little research has examined residents perceived impacts of tourism toward the local communities in Iran (Zamani-Farahani & Musa, 2008). In point of case, local communities in Shiraz, Iran have never been studied of such. Thus, there is limited understanding of residents perceptions of tourism impacts toward local communities and also very few research has been done here on the process of tourism in Iran. Hence the purpose of this study is to examine community perceptions toward economic and environmental impacts of tourism The study was conducted on local communities in city of Shiraz, Iran. Shiraz is located in Fars province; a central area for Persian civilization. Shiraz has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade centre for more than a thousand years. Shiraz is known as the city of poets, wine
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and flowers. It is also considered by many Iranians to be the city of gardens, because of the many gardens and fruit trees that can be seen in the city. The crafts of Shiraz consist of inlaid mosaic work of triangular design; silver-ware; pile carpet-weaving and weaving of Kilim, called Gilim and Jajim in the villages and among the tribes (Wikipedia, 2009). Shiraz has a population of more than 1,000,000 people; it is situated in south-western region of Iran, in the inlands of about 200 km from the Persian Gulf, at an elevation of 1,800 meters above sea level (Cultural Heritage News Agency, 2004). As one of the oldest Iranian cities (approximately 2,500 years old), Shiraz is listed as a world heritage site and accommodates many of Irans most outstanding tourist attractions. Shirazs archaeology, cultural heritage, traditions, and natural characteristics are among the main factors which attract inbound tourists to Shiraz. According to department of tourism in Shiraz, the majority of the tourists who came to Shiraz were mainly from the neighboring countries. Additionally, the majority of tourist visas granted in 2008 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit important pilgrimage places in Shiraz. Shiraz has a lot of opportunities in building various forms of tourism activities. However, it is believed that Shiraz does not exploit to the maximum its potentials of tourist attractions in developing its tourism sector. Meanwhile, Shiraz Tourism Department has been formulating a policy on tourism development under the community development programs. In this policy, tourism is one of the priorities of community development programs. Shirazs economy also relies on tourism industry. According to available statistics, a total of 843,700 visitors were recorded in 2007 in Shiraz whom 70,400 were foreigners (Shiraz Tourism Department, 2008). Tourism if often referred to as the worlds largest industry and regarded as a means of achieving community development (Sharpley, 2002). According to the World Tourism Organization (2009), tourism is one of the worlds fastest growing industry and one of the global engines of development. One of the most popular topics of tourism is tourism impact studies toward the community. The understanding of communitys perceptions on tourism impacts is important (Ap, 1992). A
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main reason for the rising interest has been the increasing evidence that tourism can both have positive and negative impacts on local communities involved (Lankford & Howard, 1994). Different perceptions from different residents can provide insight into the nature and degree of tourism impacts towards the respective tourist destination. The community perceptions on tourism impacts are likely to be an important planning for successful community development (Ko & Stewart, 2002). Tourism was encouraged first because of its economic impacts. Tourism is an engine for generating a range of new private and public income opportunities. The most immediate and direct benefit of tourism development is the creation of jobs and the opportunity for people to increase their income and standard of living in local communities. Hence local communities turn to tourism as a means of raising income, increase employment and living standards (Akis et al., 1996). These impacts are observable as tourists interact with the local environment, economy, and community. Hence, it is apt to consider the impacts of tourism under the headings of economic and environmental impacts. The impacts of tourism can either be positive and beneficial, or negative and detrimental to the local community. The economic impacts of tourism are the most widely researched impacts of tourism on community (Mason, 2003). Economic impacts are easier to research in a local community because it is small and generally easier to assess. Tourism can have positive economic effects on local economies, and a visible impact on national GDP growth. It can be also an essential component for both community development and poverty reduction (Ashe, 2005). The economic impacts of tourism are therefore, generally perceived positively by the residents (Tatoglu et al., 2000). The environment is being increasingly recognized as a key element in tourism (Liu et al., 1987). Many community attractions and tourism offerings have a reliance on the natural and man-made resources (Starr, 2002). The environmental impacts of tourism on community can take the form of both the quality of the physical environment and access to these resources in which positive environmental impacts of tourism on a community (Liu et al., 1987; Mason, 2003). Tourism provides a reason to preserve the natural scenery and man-made historic sites, traditional towns and neighbourhoods, villages, lighthouses, harbours and fishing piers (Cohen, 1978). Conversely, negative environmental impacts which
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are frequently highlighted include littering, overcrowding, traffic congestion as well as pollution of, water and soil along with the deterioration of natural resources as a result of the constructions of tourism services, such as erections of hotels (Liu et al., 1987; Mason, 2003). The local communities selected for this study is based on the researchers familiarity with Shiraz. This study examined community perceptions toward economic and environmental impacts of tourism in Shiraz during the summer of 2008. For the purposes of the study, Shiraz is divided to two major areas: the Old Shiraz (Historical area) and the New Shiraz (Modern area). Eighty six communities are located in Old Shiraz, whereas 92 communities are located in New Shiraz. The most interesting buildings in Shiraz are located in the old district of the town. In the Old Shiraz, one can find many historical artifacts including monuments, gates, and old buildings, whereas new and modern edifices including shopping complexes and hotels are located in New Shiraz (Aref et al., 2009). This study is based on both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to investigate the community perceptions toward tourism impacts. The research study use survey questionnaires, focus groups discussion (FGD). Surveys are particularly useful to study economic and environmental impacts of tourism. Qualitative research methods nowadays are widely used in tourism research e.g. Esterby-Smith et al. (2002), Miles & Huberman (1994), and Walle (1997) in tourism research, anthropologists and sociologists have used qualitative research (Decrop, 1999; Riley & Love, 2000). When it comes to economy, geography, psychology or marketing, researchers tend to use quantitative approaches (Decrop, 1999). Furthermore, according to Riley (1996) The majority of tourism research has relied on structured surveys. The qualitative methods are used explicitly in the exploratory stage to initiate and provide information for further quantitative investigation or to subordinate and enhance the empirical findings. Walle (1997, p. 528) explained that as tourism is becoming a multidisciplinary field, tourism researchers should explore the variety of tools and techniques available to them. Consequently, the use of quantitative and qualitative research methods in tourism is both useful and appropriate. Triangulation of research methods is commonly used in tourism research. For example, Corey (1996) used FGD techniques and
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questionnaires. To achieve the objectives of this study the concurrent triangulation strategy was adopted. According to Creswell (2003) this approach uses quantitative and qualitative methods separately to balance the weaknesses of one with the strengths of the other. Moreover, the results of the two methods are integrated during the interpretation stage, which allows ratifying and cross validating the findings of the study. Furthermore, the process of gathering the data is quicker than any other strategy mentioned above. Findings that are based on several different sources of information following this type of corroboratory mode are likely to be much more reliable (Yin, 1994). The questionnaire was structured around a Likert scale. The items for community perceptions toward tourism impacts were taken from these studies (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Perdue, Long, & Allen, 1987; Pizam, 1978). The respondents answered to each statement based on five scales. The value of each response for these items on the questionnaire is as follows: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = not sure 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree. Ko & Stewart (2002) and Maddox (1985), recommended the use of a Likert type scale in tourism research due to its high validity. Then, the questionnaire was piloted tested to have its content validated by several reviewers of Persian background. Statements for tourism impacts were tested for their validity using Cronbachs alpha. The participants in the pilot test had relatively diverse demographic characteristics, especially with regards to community. To test the proposed objective, this study employed statistical techniques such as descriptive statistic and t-test. The t-test was employed to test to determine whether there were significant differences among group mean totals and item mean scores. Means and standard deviations are the descriptive statistics used in discussing the distribution of responses gathered during the quantitative component of this study. To assess the normality of the distribution of the data, the skewness and kurtosis of each variable were also examined. According to George & Mallery (2002) if the coefficient of the skewness and kurtosis falls between -0.5 and +0.5 inclusive, then the distribution appears to be relatively symmetric which in this study skewness was .254 and Kurtosis -.211. The data for this study was collected from two independent sampling frames. These two samples were drawn from populations that include
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local residents, and community leaders. Community leaders in Shiraz where chosen as the sample population for this survey because they represent "the voice of the people of concern (Eng & Parker, 1994). Community leaders are able to speak for the community because they have special knowledge of the community being studied because of their roles in that community (Eyler et al., 1999; Thompson, Lichtenstein, Corbett, Nettekoven, & Feng, 2000; Von Kroff et al., 1992; Warheit, Bulh, & Bell, 1978). For this study community leader was defined as one who can influence policy, opinion, or community action because of their role, title, or position in the community. Community leaders were identified in each community accepting funding by the Shiraz municipality. The data collection process in this research involved a variety of methods which included collecting data in the field through questionnaires, FGD, and using secondary data and information. The primary data collection is based on survey questionnaires. The major method used in this research to collect data is the use of questionnaires. A questionnaire interview is a data instrument that each respondent fills out as part of participating in a research study (Johnson & Christensen, 2004; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). The questionnaire is structured around a type of scale like the Likert scale. The Likert scale is most common because it is easy for the researcher to construct and administer and it is suitable for the respondent to understand. Likert scale also commonly used in marketing research (Grover & Vriens, 2006). Part of the data and information needed to gather through reviewing the documents and reports published by governmental organizations related to tourism in Iran. It must be emphasized. However, that most of these documents and reports are prepared by the government and tried to justify the new tourism activities, although they provided valuable information about the tourism development. For achieve the objectives also ten FGD were held at local mosque, and local school. FGD participants were selected from local community in the old and new areas of Shiraz. Five FGD were scheduled in the new district and also five FGD in old district. By examining these variables, I hoped to answer some additional questions for support qualitative data. As noted earlier, the unit of analyses is divided by two Districts; Old and New. The Old district includes 84 communities, which are located on the central part of Shiraz whereas the New district consists of 91 communities, which are modern and smaller
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in population. Overall response rate was 48% from the Old community and 52% from the New part of Shiraz. Out of 175 leaders who responded, 5.14% were female and 94.86% were male participants, with an average age of 53.12 years. Of all the respondents, 26.36% said their highest level of education earned was a diploma and 42.86% had a bachelors degree. More than 60% of the respondents had engaged in tourism activities. Median income range of the respondents was 500$. However, there were 12% who earned less than 350$, and 8% who make more than 750$ per month. Participants gender composition, age, education level and income did not differ significantly. Moreover, two question were used to collect information regarding respondents attitude towards the most important types of tourism activates. For most important types of tourism activities they illustrated Handicrafts with (34.9%), Nature 10.3%, and Culture (e.g. visiting archaeological sites, festivals) 41.7%, Business 10.9% and Medical Services 2.3 %. Community perceptions toward economic and environmental impacts of tourism were measured using a 10-item, five point Likert type scale. Descriptive statistics revealed that respondents from both parts of Shiraz rated higher on positive statements and lower on negative statements, indicating consistency in the direction of their perceptions. Some of the economic impacts, which are most favored by residents, are as follows: benefits to local people and small business (4.59), creates employment opportunities (4.53), and increase standard of living (3.62). Following the economic impact of tourism, the findings environment impacts show traffic congestion, noise and air pollution, as well as natural environment detriment is the negative aspects of environmental impacts of tourism which do not appear to be unexpected. Some of the environmental impacts, which are most favored by leaders, are as follows: Provides more parks and other recreational areas (4.36) and Provides convenient transport (4.06). As shown in Table 2, all these suggest that the respondents have rather positive perception toward economic and environmental impacts of tourism in their community. Meanwhile differences among respondents were also observed. Most of the 10 attitudinal items had the max range from the minimum (1 point) to maximum (5 points), indicating a variation of individual respondents perceptions toward tourism impacts. The size of the
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standard deviations of the 10 statements also indicated a moderate spread around the theoretical mean. We have attempted to prove whether the differences between the Old and New districts of Shiraz are significant. We use t-test statistical analysis to establish whether there is a difference. The result of the test shows that there are no significant differences of economic and environmental impacts of tourism between the Old and New districts. According to the table of equality of variance, tourism impacts are not accepted because the significant difference level at (-.012) does not show any significant differences between the Old and New districts of Shiraz (t = -2.531, p = -012). In response to this objective, the open discussion at the focus group discussion (FGD) was performed. According to FGD a number of themes emerged as to what local people saw as tourism impacts on their communities. According to FGD most of the participation in both districts of Shiraz had positive perceptions toward economic of impacts tourism. However, all of the respondents said they had no doubts about the benefits of tourism, especially economic benefits including employment and income. The respondents were said they felt that the long-term effect of tourism on the economy had been positive. Additionally, all deem tourism to be a positive enhancer towards the community's future developments. In regards to environmental impacts of tourism, several respondents from the New district of Shiraz agreed that tourism has negatives impacts towards the communitys environment, for example, tourist overflowing would lead to parking space problems near their homes. Residents of local communities in the Old district of Shiraz were accustomed to traffic and crowds because many people commute to work in the area (Old Shiraz). It is important to note that some of the findings in this study are better understood in light of research about resident perceptions toward tourism. Consistent with the findings, data in this study indicated high concern for the tourism process among the residents of the communities. Through FGD, in whole, the respondents felt that tourism has had a long term positive economic impact on their communities. As equally important, all participants of the study from both districts of Shiraz agreed that tourism development not only had a positive impact on the locals economy, but it also creates a positive impact on the infrastructure and economic development of the community. Those issues were some of the strongest and most favorable characteristics about tourism impacts reported in this study. Lastly, FGD
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supported community leaders perceptions toward positive economic and environmental impacts of tourism on the local community.

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Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques

A monument is a type of structure either explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of past events. They are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington D.C., New Delhi and Braslia are often built around monuments. The Washington Monument's location was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed. Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are already important or are sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem "Ozymandias" ("Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!"), the purpose of monuments is very often to impress or awe. In English the word "monumental" is often used in reference to something of extraordinary size and power. The word comes from the Latin "monere," which means 'to remind' or 'to warn.' A cenotaph is a type of monument intended to honor the dead who are buried elsewhere, such as those killed in a war or disaster. Functional structures made notable by their age, size or historic significance can also be regarded as monuments. This can happen because of great age and size, as in the case of the Great Wall of China, or because an event of great import occurred there such as the village of Oradour-sur-Glane in France. Many countries use Ancient monument or similar terms for the official designation of protected structures or archeological sites which may originally have been ordinary domestic houses or other buildings. Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information. They can be used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of Trajan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union. They can be used to educate the populace about important events or figures from the past, such as in the renaming of the old General Post Office Building in New York City to the James A. Farley Building (James Farley Post Office), after former Postmaster General James Farley.

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The social meanings of monuments are rarely fixed and certain and are frequently 'contested' by different social groups. As an example whilst the former East German socialist state may have seen the Berlin Wall as a means of 'protection' from the ideological impurity of the west, dissidents and others would often argue that it was symbolic of the inherent repression and paranoia of that state. This contention of meaning is a central theme of modern 'post processual' archaeological discourse. Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations. The Egyptian Pyramids, the Greek Parthenon, the Tunisian Great Mosque of Kairouan (masterpiece of Islamic North African architecture) and the Moai of Easter Island have become symbols of their civilizations. In more recent times, monumental structures such as the Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower have become iconic emblems of modern nation-states. The term monumentality relates to the symbolic status and physical presence of a monument. Until recently, it was customary for archaeologists to study large monuments and pay less attention to the everyday lives of the societies that created them. New ideas about what constitutes the archaeological record have revealed that certain legislative and theoretical approaches to the subject are too focused on earlier definitions of monuments. An example has been the United Kingdom's Scheduled Ancient Monument laws. Types of monuments

Buildings designed as iconic landmarks Church monuments to commemorate the dead, above or near their grave, often featuring an effigy Cenotaphs and memorials to commemorate the dead, usually war casualties - e.g. Vimy Ridge Memorial and India Gate Columns, often topped with a statue - e.g. Nelson's Column in London Grave stones constitute small monuments to the deceased Mausoleums and tombs to inter the dead - e.g. the Great Pyramid and Taj Mahal
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Monoliths erected for religious or commemorative purposes - e.g. Stonehenge Mounds erected to commemorate great leaders or events - e.g. Kociuszko Mound Obelisks usually erected to commemorate great leaders - e.g. the Washington Monument, Monas Statues of famous individuals or symbols - e.g. Statue of Liberty Temples or religious structures built for pilgrimage, ritual or commemorative purposes - e.g. Borobudur, Kaaba Terminating vista, layout design for urban monuments Triumphal arches, almost always to commemorate military successes - e.g. the Arc de Triomphe Entire areas established as memorials to commemorate wartime atrocities or notably bloody battles - e.g. Oradour-sur-Glane or the battlefields at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Sekigahara and Borodino On occasion, monuments also refer to areas of special natural beauty

A statue is a sculpture in the round representing a person or persons, an animal, or an event, normally full-length, as opposed to a bust, and at least close to life-size, or larger. Its primary concern is representational. The definition of a statue is not always clear-cut; sculptures of a person on a horse, called Equestrian statues, are certainly included, and in many cases, such as a Madonna and Child or a Piet, a sculpture of two people will also be. A small statue, usually small enough to be picked up, is called a statuette or Figurine. Many statues are built on commission to commemorate a historical event, or the life of an influential person. Many statues are intended as public art, exhibited outdoors or in public buildings for the edification of passers-by, with a larger magnitude than normal words could ever have for the common man. On rare occasions, statues themselves become historic and inspire their own historic events. In 1986, when the Statue of Liberty marked her one-hundredth anniversary, a three-day centennial celebration in her honor attracted 12 million. The guest list was unique. "We invited all the great statues of the world to her birthday party and created giant puppets
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to represent them," said Jeanne Fleming, director of the event. "Each one arrived accompanied by native music." There is an urban legend concerning a code for mounted statues, whereby the horse's hooves are supposed to indicate how the rider met his end. One hoof off the floor would indicate the rider died of wounds received in battle, or perhaps was just wounded in battle; two hooves off the floor would indicate the rider was killed in battle. An examination of the equestrian statues in most major European cities shows this is not true. If it ever was true, the practice appears to have died out in the 19th century. Statues are amongst the wonders of the world, with the Colossus of Rhodes and the Statue of Zeus at Olympia among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the Moai of Easter Island among the wonders of the modern world. A commemorative plaque, or simply plaque, is a plate of metal, ceramic, stone, wood, or other material, typically attached to a wall, stone, or other vertical surface, and bearing text in memory of an important figure or event. A monumental plaque or tablet commemorating a deceased person or persons, can be a simple form of church monument.

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Purely tourist erections

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Subject no. 6. Human Tourist Activities

Carnivals
Carnival is a festive season which occurs immediately before Lent; the main events are usually during February. Carnival typically involves a public celebration or parade combining some elements of a circus, mask and public street party. People often dress up or masquerade during the celebrations, which mark an overturning of daily life. Carnival is a festival traditionally held in Roman Catholic and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Orthodox societies. Protestant areas usually do not have carnival celebrations or have modified traditions, such as the Danish Carnival or other Shrove Tuesday events. The Brazilian Carnaval is one of the best-known celebrations today, but many cities and regions worldwide celebrate with large, popular, and days-long events. The Carnival of Rio de Janeiro is the biggest carnival in the world, and the biggest popular party on the planet, according to The Guinness Book of World Records 2010. The Rio de Janeiro Carnival is also considered the world's most famous. The Lenten period of the Liturgical year Church calendar, being the six weeks directly before Easter, was marked by fasting and other pious or penitential practices. Traditionally during Lent, no parties or other celebrations were held, and people refrained from eating rich foods, such as meat, dairy, fats and sugar. The forty days of Lent, recalling the Gospel accounts of the forty days that Jesus spent in the wilderness, serve to mark an annual time of turning. In the days before Lent, all rich food and drink had to be disposed of. The consumption of this, in a giant party that involved the whole community, is thought to be the origin of Carnival. While it forms an integral part of the Christian calendar, particularly in Catholic regions, some carnival traditions may date back to preChristian times. The ancient Roman festivals of Saturnalia and Bacchanalia may possibly have been absorbed into the Italian Carnival. The Saturnalia, in turn, may be based on the Greek Dionysia and Oriental festivals. While medieval pageants and festivals such as Corpus Christi were church-sanctioned celebrations, carnival was also a manifestation of medieval folk culture. Many local carnival customs are
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based on local pre-Christian rituals, for example the elaborate rites involving masked figures in the Swabian-Alemannic carnival. Some of the best-known traditions, including carnival parades and masquerade ball masquerading, were first recorded in medieval Italy. The carnival of Venice was for a long time the most famous carnival. From Italy, carnival traditions spread to the Catholic nations of Spain, Portugal, and France. From France, they spread to the Rhineland of Germany, and to New France in North America. From Spain and Portugal, they spread with Catholic colonization to the Caribbean and Latin America. Other areas have developed their own traditions. In the United Kingdom, West Indian immigrants brought with them the traditions of Caribbean Carnival, however the Carnivals now celebrated at Notting Hill, London; Leeds, Yorkshire, and other places have become divorced from their cycle in the religious year, becoming purely secular events, that take place in the summer months. The origin of the name "carnival" is disputed, between those that have argue a link with the Italian word "carne" (meat), and those that argue a link with the word "carrus" (car). The link with carne would suggest an origin within Christianity, while the link with carro with earlier religions.

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Fairs, exhibitions, religious pilgrimages and shrines

A fair or fayre (common British spelling) is a gathering of people to display or trade produce or other goods, to parade or display animals and often to enjoy associated carnival or funfair entertainment. It is normally of the essence of a fair that it is temporary; some last only an afternoon while others may ten weeks. Activities at fairs vary widely. Some trade fairs are important regular business events where either products are traded between businesspeople, as at the Frankfurt Book Fair, where publishers sell book rights in other markets to other publishers, or where products are showcased to largely consumer attendees, as for example in agricultural districts where they present opportunities to display and demonstrate the latest machinery on the market to farmers. Fairs are also known by many different names around the world, such as agricultural show, fte, county fair, exhibition or state fair, festival, market and show. Flea markets and auto shows are sometimes incorporated into a fair. An exhibition, in the most general sense, is an organized presentation and display of a selection of items. In practice, exhibitions usually occur within museums, galleries and exhibition halls, and World's Fairs. Exhibitions include [whatever as in major art museums and small art galleries; interpretive exhibitions, as at natural history museums and history museums, for example; and commercial exhibitions, or trade fairs. The word "exhibition" is usually, but not always, the word used for a collection of items. Sometimes "exhibit" is synonymous with "exhibition", but "exhibit" generally refers to a single item being exhibited within an exhibition. Exhibitions may be permanent displays or temporary, but in common usage, "exhibitions" are considered temporary and usually scheduled to open and close on specific dates. While many exhibitions are shown in just one venue, some exhibitions are shown in multiple locations, such exhibitions are called travelling exhibitions.
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Though exhibitions are common events, the concept of an exhibition is quite wide and encompasses many variables. Exhibitions range from an extraordinarily large event such as a World's Fair exposition to small one-artist solo shows or a display of just one item. Curators are sometimes involved as the people who select the items in an exhibition. Writers and editors are sometimes needed to write text, labels and accompanying printed material such as catalogs and books. Architects, exhibition designers, graphic designers and other designers may be needed to shape the exhibition space and give form to the editorial content. Art exhibitions include an array of artifacts from countless forms of human making: paintings, drawings, crafts, sculpture, video installations, sound installations, performances, interactive art, etc. Art exhibitions may focus on one artist, one group, one genre, one theme or one collection; or may be organized by curators, selected by juries, or show any artwork submitted. Fine arts exhibitions typically highlight works of art with generous space and lighting, supplying information through labels or audioguides designed to be unobtrusive to the art itself. Exhibitions may occur in series or periodically, as in the case with Biennales, triennials and quadrennials. A pilgrimage is a journey or search of great moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a person's beliefs and faith. Many religions attach spiritual importance to particular places: the place of birth or death of founders or saints, or to the place of their "calling" or spiritual awakening, or of their connection (visual or verbal) with the divine, or to locations where miracles were performed or witnessed, or locations where a deity is said to live or be "housed," or any site that is seen to have special spiritual powers. Such sites may be commemorated with shrines or temples that devotees are encouraged to visit for their own spiritual benefit: to be healed or have questions answered or to achieve some other spiritual benefit. A person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim. In America, the term pilgrim is typically associated with an early colonial protestant sect known for their strict rules of discipline.
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The Holy Land acts as a focal point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the visitation of certain ancient cult-centers was repressed in the 7th century BCE, when worship was restricted to the YHWH at the Temple in Jerusalem. In Syria, the shrine of Astarte at the headwater spring of the river Adonis survived until it was destroyed by order of Emperor Constantine in the 4th century. In mainland Greece, a stream of individuals made their way to Delphi or the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and once every four years, at the period of the Olympic games, the temple of Zeus at Olympia formed the goal of swarms of pilgrims from every part of the Hellenic world. When Alexander the Great reached Egypt, he put his whole vast enterprise on hold, while he made his way with a small band deep into the Libyan desert, to consult the oracle of Ammun. During the imperium of his Ptolemaic heirs, the shrine of Isis at Philae received many votive inscriptions from Greeks on behalf of their kindred far away at home. A shrine (Latin: scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: escrin "box or case") is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other such objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which votive offerings are made is called an altar. Shrines are found in many of the world's religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Wicca, Chinese folk religion and Shinto, as well as in secular and nonreligious settings such as a war memorial. Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, or in the home, although portable shrines are also found in some cultures. Types of Shrines Temple shrines Many shrines are located within buildings designed specifically for worship, such as a church in Christianity, or a mandir in Hinduism. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in the building, and is given a place of prominence. In such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine.
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Household shrines Historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, as well as in modern faiths, such as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a small structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official religion, to ancestors or to a localised household deity. Small household shrines are very common among the Chinese and people from South and Southeast Asia, whether Hindu, Buddhist or Christian. Usually a small lamp and small offerings are kept daily by the shrine. Buddhist household shrines must be on a shelf above the head; Chinese shrines must stand directly on the floor. Yard shrines Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the places of many peoples, following various religions, including historically, Christianity. Many consist of a statue of Christ or a saint, on a pedestal or in an alcove, while others may be elaborate groupings, including paintings, statuary, and architectural elements, such as walls, roofs, glass doors and ironwork fences, etc. In the United States, some Christians have small yard shrines; some of these resemble side altars, since they are composed of a statue placed in a niche or grotto; this type is colloquially referred to as a bathtub madonna.

The Shrine of the Bb and its Terraces on Mount Carmel, Haifa

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Artistic festivals and sporting events

A festival is an event, usually and ordinarily staged by a local community, which centers on and celebrates some unique aspect of that community and the Festival. Among many religions, a feast is a set of celebrations in honour of God or gods. A feast and a festival are historically interchangeable. However, the term "feast" has also entered common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal. When used as in the meaning of a festival, most often refers to a religious festival rather than a film or art festival. In the Christian liturgical calendar there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection, (Easter). In the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican liturgical calendars there are a great number of lesser feasts throughout the year commemorating saints, sacred events, doctrines, etc. There are numerous types of festivals in the world. Though many have religious origins, others involve seasonal change or have some cultural significance. Also, certain institutions celebrate their own festival (often called "fests") to mark some significant occasions in their history. These occasions could be the day these institutions were founded or any other event which they decide to commemorate periodically, usually annually. Seasonal festivals are determined by the solar and the lunar calendars and by the cycle of the seasons. The changing of the season was celebrated because of its effect on food supply. Ancient Egyptians would celebrate the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops. In the Alps, in autumn the return of the cattle from the mountain pastures to the stables in the valley is celebrated as Almabtrieb. A recognized winter festival, the Chinese New Year, is set by the lunar calendar, and celebrated from the day of the second new moon after the winter solstice. An important type of seasonal festivals are those related with the agricultural seasons. Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is one such important festival, which is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 praying for bumper crop harvest.
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Types of festivals :

Arts festival Beer festival Comedy festival Japanese Cultural festival Esala Perahera festival Film festival Fire festival Folk festival Food festival Literary festival Mela Festival Music festival Peanut Festival Ribfest Religious festival Renaissance festival Rock festival Science festival Sindhi festivals Storytelling festival Theatre festival Wine festivals Winter festivals

A multi-sport event is an organized sporting event, often held over multiple days, featuring competition in many different sports between organized teams of athletes from (mostly) nation-states. The first major, modern, multi-sport event of international significance was the modern Olympic Games. Many regional multi-sport events have since been founded, modeled after the Olympics. Most have the same basic structure. Games are held over the course of several days in and around a "host city," which changes for each competition. Countries send national teams to each competition, consisting of individual athletes and teams that compete in a wide variety of sports. Athletes or teams are awarded gold, silver or bronze medals for first, second and third place respectively. The games are generally held every four years, though some are annual competitions. The first modern multi-sport event organised were the Olympic Games, organised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) (est. 1894) for the first time in 1896 in Athens, Greece. After some badly organized
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celebrations (1900, 1904), the Olympics became very popular. The number of sports, initially only a few, is still growing. The biggest multi-sport event organised, where athletes with a physical disability compete, are the Paralympic Games, organised by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) (est. 1989). Arranged for the first time in 1960 in Rome, Italy. The number of sports, initially only a few, is still growing. t the beginning of the 20th century, another multi-sport event, the Nordic Games were first held. These Games were held in Scandinavia, and the sports conducted were winter sports such as cross-country skiing and speed skating. The Nordic Games were last held in 1926, after which the 1924 Winter Sports Week in Chamonix was declared the first Olympic Winter Games. In the 1920s, all kinds of other multi-sport events were set up. These were usually directed for a selected group of athletes, rather than everybody, which was - basically - the case with the Olympic Games. The Soviets organised the first Spartakiad in 1920, a communist alternative to the 'bourgeois' Olympic Games, and in 1922 the University Olympia was organised in Italy, the forerunner of the World University Games, meant for students only. Regional Games were another kind of multi-sport event that was established, such as the Far Eastern Championship Games or the Central American and Caribbean Games.
Regional events

All-Africa Games, held first in 1965, for all African nations Afro-Asian Games, first held in 2003 in India. Australasian Police and Emergency Services Games, both by regional and by occupations. Pan American Games, held first in 1951, for all nations of the Americas Central American and Caribbean Games, held first in 1926, every 4 years for nations in the Caribbean, Central America and/or borderind the Caribbean sea Central American Games, held first in 1973 for countries in the Central America Caribbean Games, proposed to be held first in June 2009 for countries in the Caribbean sea, suspended by the swine flu fears, was scheduled in Netherlands Antiles in May 2011. Now reschedules to 2013 South American Games, began in 1978. Arafura Games, held first in 1991 and hosted in the Oceania region. Asian Games, held first in 1951, for all Asian nations Southeast Asian Games, held first in 1959, for nations in Southeast Asia East Asian Games, for nations in East Asia West Asian Games, for nations in West Asia

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Central Asian Games, for nations in Central Asia South Asian Games, for nations in South Asia European Youth Olympic Festival (EYOF), for youth athletes from Europe, began in 1991 (summer) and 1993 (winter). Mediterranean Games, held first in 1951, for all nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea South Pacific Games, held first in 1963 for countries around the South Pacific Arctic Winter Games, held first in 1970, an international biennial celebration of circumpolar north and artic sports and culture

National events

National Games of the People's Republic of China, perhaps the oldest national games with a history dating back to 1910 Korean National Sports Festival, held first in 1920, for provinces in South Korea National Sports Festival of Japan National Games of India, started in 1924 as "Indian Olympics Games." Palarong Pambansa in the Philippines Pekan Olahraga Nasional in Indonesia Canada Games SUKMA Games in Malaysia

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Tourist resources of an ethnographic nature

A society or a human society is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations. A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"; adjectival form socialis) thus used to describe a bond or interaction among parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals sharing a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. Without an article, the term refers either to the entirety of humanity or a contextually specific subset of people. In social sciences, a society invariably entails social stratification and/or dominance hierarchy. Used in the sense of an association, a society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence, possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity, social solidarity, language or hierarchical organization.

Canis lupus social ethology

Like other groupings, a society allows its members to achieve needs or wishes they could not fulfill alone; the social fact can be identified, understood or specified within a circumstance that certain resources, objectives, requirements or results, are needed and utilized in an individual manner and for individual ends, although they can't be achieved, gotten or fulfilled in an individual manner as well, but, on the contrary, they can be gotten only in a collective, collaborative manner;
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namely, team work becomes the valid functional means, to individual ends which an individual would need to have but isn't able to get. More broadly, a society is an economic, social or industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied collection of individuals. Members of a society may be from different ethnic groups. A society may be a particular ethnic group, such as the Saxons; a nation state, such as Bhutan; a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. The word society may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes. A "society" may even, though more by means of metaphor, refer to a social organism such as an ant colony or any cooperative aggregate such as for example in some formulations of artificial intelligence.

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Subject no. 7. Natural Tourist Resources of the Republic of Moldova

Relief as tourist resource

Located in southeastern Europe, Moldova is bordered on the west by Romania and on the north, south, and east by Ukraine. Most of its territory lies between the area's two main rivers, the Dniester and the Prut. The Dniester forms a small part of Moldova's border with Ukraine in the northeast and southeast, but it mainly flows through the eastern part of the country, separating Bessarabia and Transnistria. The Prut River forms Moldova's entire western boundary with Romania. The Danube touches the Moldovan border at its southernmost tip, and forms the border for 200 m (656 ft). Phytogeographically, Moldova is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Moldova can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, the East European forest steppe (the most territory of the country), and Pontic steppe (in the south and southeast).

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Climate as tourist resource

Moldova's proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate. Moldova's climate is moderately continental: the summers are warm and long, with temperatures averaging about 20 C (68 F), and the winters are relatively mild and dry, with January temperatures averaging 4 C (24.8 F). Annual rainfall, which ranges from around 600 millimeters (23.6 in) in the north to 400 millimeters (15.7 in) in the south, can vary greatly; long dry spells are not unusual. The heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in October; heavy showers and thunderstorms are common. Because of the irregular terrain, heavy summer rains often cause erosion and river silting. Weather records. The highest temperature ever recorded: +41.5 C (106.7 F) on July 21, 2007 (Camenca). The lowest temperature ever recorded: 35.5 C (31.9 F) on January 20, 1963 (Brtueni, Edine county).
Chiinu's climate. (Central Moldova)
Climate data for Chiinu Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
39.4 (102.9) 14.1 (57.4) 9.6 (49.3) 5.8 (42.4)

Month Record high 15.5 20.7 25.1 31.6 35.9 37.1 39.4 39.2 37.3 32.6 23.6 18.3 C (F) (59.9) (69.3) (77.2) (88.9) (96.6) (98.8) (102.9) (102.6) (99.1) (90.7) (74.5) (64.9) Average high 0.7 1.6 7.1 15.3 21.3 24.5 26.1 26.2 21.4 14.8 7.3 2.8 C (F) (33.3) (34.9) (44.8) (59.5) (70.3) (76.1) (79) (79.2) (70.5) (58.6) (45.1) (37) Daily mean C -2.5 -1.7 3.0 10.0 16.0 19.3 20.8 20.7 16.0 10.0 4.0 0.0 (F) (27.5) (28.9) (37.4) (50) (60.8) (66.7) (69.4) (69.3) (60.8) (50) (39.2) (32) Average low -5.2 -4.3 -0.3 5.7 11.2 14.6 16.2 15.8 11.4 6.1 1.3 -2.5 C (F) (22.6) (24.3) (31.5) (42.3) (52.2) (58.3) (61.2) (60.4) (52.5) (43) (34.3) (27.5) Record low C (F)
-28.4 -28.9 -21.1 -6.6 -1.1 3.6 7.8 ((-20) (-6) (20.1) (30) (38.5) (46) 19.1)

5.5 -2.4 -10.8 -21.6 -22.4 -28.9 (41.9) (27.7) (12.6) (-6.9) (-8.3) (-20)

Precipitation 30 32 35 42 56 74 74 47 47 30 39 34 539 mm (inches) (1.18) (1.26) (1.38) (1.65) (2.2) (2.91) (2.91) (1.85) (1.85) (1.18) (1.54) (1.34) (21.22) Snowfall cm 6 7 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 21 (inches) (2.4) (2.8) (1.6) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0.4) (1.2) (8.3)
% Humidity Avg. rainy days Avg. snowy days
81 9 14 80 9 13 75 11 9 64 14 1 62 13 0 64 13 0 64 11 0 63 9 0 66 9 0 72 10 0.7 80 13 4 83 12 12 71 133 53.7

Bli's climate. (Northern Moldova)

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Month Average high C (F) Average low C (F) Precipitation mm (inches)

Avg. precipitation days

Climate data for Bli Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
-0.5 1.3 7.0 15.9 22.0 24.9 26.2 26.0 21.8 15.2 7.6 2.1 14.1 (31.1) (34.3) (44.6) (60.6) (71.6) (76.8) (79.2) (78.8) (71.2) (59.4) (45.7) (35.8) (57.4) -7.5 -5.4 -1.6 4.5 9.9 13.1 14.5 13.5 9.5 4.3 0.3 -4.0 4.2 (18.5) (22.3) (29.1) (40.1) (49.8) (55.6) (58.1) (56.3) (49.1) (39.7) (32.5) (24.8) (39.6) 31 28 28 44 55 86 79 49 43 22 34 30 529 (1.22) (1.1) (1.1) (1.73) (2.17) (3.39) (3.11) (1.93) (1.69) (0.87) (1.34) (1.18) (20.83) 11 11 9 11 12 13 11 8 8 6 9 11 120

Tiraspol's climate. (Central Moldova)

Climate data for Tiraspol Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
0.7 2.3 7.8 16.5 22.5 25.8 27.4 27.3 23.0 16.1 8.6 3.3 15.1 (33.3) (36.1) (46) (61.7) (72.5) (78.4) (81.3) (81.1) (73.4) (61) (47.5) (37.9) (59.2) -6.1 -4.3 -0.7 5.1 10.3 13.8 15.5 14.7 10.3 5.3 1.3 -2.8 5.2 (21) (24.3) (30.7) (41.2) (50.5) (56.8) (59.9) (58.5) (50.5) (41.5) (34.3) (27) (41.4) 33 35 28 35 52 72 63 49 38 26 36 38 495 (1.3) (1.38) (1.1) (1.38) (2.05) (2.83) (2.48) (1.93) (1.5) (1.02) (1.42) (1.5) (19.49) 11 11 9 10 11 11 10 7 7 7 11 11 116

Month Average high C (F) Average low C (F) Precipitation mm (inches)

Avg. precipitation days

Cahul's climate. (Southern Moldova)

Climate data for Cahul, Moldova Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
0.2 1.8 7.9 15.9 21.6 25.0 26.8 26.5 22.6 15.9 8.5 2.6 14.6 (32.4) (35.2) (46.2) (60.6) (70.9) (77) (80.2) (79.7) (72.7) (60.6) (47.3) (36.7) (58.3) -5.7 -3.7 -0.2 5.6 11.1 14.5 16.0 15.7 11.9 6.6 1.9 -2.7 5.9 (21.7) (25.3) (31.6) (42.1) (52) (58.1) (60.8) (60.3) (53.4) (43.9) (35.4) (27.1) (42.6) 36 39 33 41 56 76 66 56 48 28 38 40 557 (1.42) (1.54) (1.3) (1.61) (2.2) (2.99) (2.6) (2.2) (1.89) (1.1) (1.5) (1.57) (21.93) 12 13 10 10 11 11 10 8 7 7 11 12 122

Month Average high C (F) Average low C (F) Precipitation mm (inches)

Avg. precipitation days

Hydrography as tourist resource

All Moldovan rivers are part of the Black Sea basin and flow from the north-west to the south-east. The country's water network consists of the
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Nistru and Prut river systems, the rivers flowing into the Danube lakes, and the lakes in the vicinity of the Black Sea. There are 3 621 big and small rivers, permanent and temporary streams, of which only 9 are longer than 100 km. The flow of small rivers decreases in summer, sometimes drying up completely. The most intense floods take place in summer during the torrential rain season. There are 57 lakes with a total surface of 62.2 km2. Groundwater resources are not uniformly distributed over the territory. The main water reserves are located in the Nistru river underlying aquifer. Moving further away from the river, the water supply of the water table decreases. Groundwater is extracted from the Cretaceous and Silurian formations (protozoic age), Baden Sarmatian, middle Sarmatian, upper Sarmatian (Neocene formations), and Meotian and Pontian geological layers. The Republic of Moldova is located in a region of insufficient precipitation and has limited water resources. Medium and moderate droughts (respectively 70% and 90% of normal rainfall) have been reported 40% of the time over the past 50 years; severe droughts (less than 45% normal rainfalls) 4% of the time only. The available overall aquatic resources are 6.3 billion m3 in a typical year, 4.9 billion m3 in a dry year and 3.4 billion m3 in an extremely droughty year. About 3.2 billion m3 of water are needed annually for all national economic sectors and for the supply of drinking water - of which about 2 billion m3 are used at the Moldovan Thermal Power Plant. The rest (1.2 billion m3) is used as follows: 63% for agriculture, 15% for household water supply, 14% for industry and 8% for building, transport and other uses. The Republic draws 56% of its water from the Nistru River, 16% from the Prut River, 8% from small rivers and 20% from underground resources (these data do not include phreatic water sources from rural regions. The degradation of water resources is an urgent concern for Moldova. The Nistru and Prut river systems account for 90% of total surface waters in Moldova. Catchments for the rivers lie in the Ukrainian Carpathians and pass through Moldova into the Danube delta and Nistru liman which lie in Ukraine and Romania. These areas are classed as sensitive environments of European significance. Water reaching the
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territory of Moldova is of relatively good quality. Within Moldova, the classification of the Nistru and Prut rivers change to moderately polluted. In industrial areas, parts of both rivers are highly polluted .

Tourist landscapes

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Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its history. Wine tours are offered to tourists across the country. Vineyards/cellars include Cricova, Purcari, Ciumai, Romanesti, Cojuna, Milestii Mici.

Subject no. 8. Man-made Tourist Resources of the Republic of Moldova 113

Historic erections
During the Neolithic stone age era Moldova's territory was the middle of the large Cucuteni-Trypillian culture that stretched east beyond the Dniester River in Ukraine, and west up to and beyond the Carpathian Mountains in Romania. The inhabitants of this civilization, which lasted roughly from 5500 to 2750 BC, practiced agriculture, raised livestock, hunted, and made intricately designed pottery. Another remarkable feature of this society was the enormous settlements that were built, some of which numbered up to 15,000 inhabitants. In Antiquity Moldova's territory was inhabited by Dacian tribes. Between the I and VII centuries AD, the south was intermittently under the Roman, then Byzantine Empires. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, the territory of modern Moldova was invaded many times in late antiquity and early Middle Ages, including by Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgarians, Magyars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols and Tatars. The Principality of Moldavia, established in 1359, was bounded by the Carpathian mountains in the west, Dniester river in the east, and Danube and Black Sea in the south. Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern eight of the 41 counties of Romania, and the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. Like the present-day republic and Romania's north-eastern region, it was known to the locals as Moldova. Moldavia suffered repeated invasions by Crimean Tatars and, since the 15th century, by the Turks. In 1538, the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, but it retained internal and partial external autonomy.

Religious erections
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For the 2004 census, Eastern Orthodox Christians, who make up 93.3% of Moldova's population, were not required to declare the particular of the two main churches they belong to. The Moldovan Orthodox Church, autonomous and subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Orthodox Church of Bessarabia, autonomous and subordinated to the Romanian Orthodox Church, both claim to be the national church of the country. 2% of the population is Protestant, 1.2% belongs to other religions, 0.9% is non-religious, 0.4% is atheist, and 2.2% did not answer the religion question at the census. In Republic of Moldova as well as in all countries of the former USSR the Orthodox Church has the greatest value in republic; it covers more then 96 % of orthodox Christians population of the country. As to the population of the country in Republic of Moldova exists freedom of an accessory to any religion and it is guaranteed by Constitution of R (1991). It is precisely told, that every citizen has the right to profess freely religious belief as individually as in the society, and also to distribute this belief, to send privately or publicly the cult in the case if it does not contradict to the law of the country- to the Constitution of Republic Moldova. And on the whole territory of Moldova safely lives common two world religions: Christianities and Judaism. Christians of Moldova has totally about 1035 churches, 35 monasteries and 7 skitoves. Totally, the number of its attendants is about 5000 people: priests, clerks, trustees. The leader of Orthodox Church in Moldova is Metropolitan of Kishinev and of the whole Moldova- Eminence Vladimir - head Mitropolii of Moldova (www.mitropolia.md). The Mitropolia of Moldova includes four dioceses: Kishinev, Cahul and Lapushna, Bricheni, Dubassari and Tiraspol - on the left protect river Dnestr, and also operating vikariat in the north of Republic Moldova in the city Beltsy. The number of educational theological institutions in Republic counts totally five basic institutions: Theological Academy at the State University in Republic of Moldova in Kishinev - capital of the country, Theological Seminary at monastery Nolu Neamts in village Kitskan. And also two specialized lyceums: Spiritual Lyceum for girls at monastery Surucheni, and Spiritual Lyceum for boys at monastery "Christians Christmas", situated at the territory of village Zebricheni.
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Religious Beliefs. The majority of the population, including nonMoldovans, are Orthodox Christians (about 98 percent). There are a small number of Uniates, Seventh-Day Adventists, Baptists, Pentecostalists, Armenian Apostolics, and Molokans. Jews have engaged in religious activities after independence with a newly opened synagogue and educational institutions. Religious Practitioners. During the interwar period, Moldovans belonged to the Romanian Orthodox Church, but they now belong to the Russian Orthodox Church. There is an ongoing debate about returning to the Bucharest Patriarchate. Priests play an important role in the performance of ritual activities. In the villages, there are female healers who use Christian symbols and practices to treat the sick. Rituals and Holy Places. The Orthodox calendar dictates rules and celebrations throughout the year, such as Christmas, Easter, and several saints' days. Some of the rules include fasting or avoiding meat and meat fat as well as restrictions on washing, bathing, and working at particular times. Baptisms, weddings, and funerals are the most important lifecycle rituals and are combined with church attendance and social gatherings. Easter is celebrated in the church and by visiting the graveyards of kin. Candles are an inseparable part of rituals; people buy candles when they enter the church and light them in front of the icons or during rituals. Death and the Afterlife. The dead are dressed in their best clothes. Ideally, the corpse is watched over for three days and visited by relatives and friends. A mixture of cooked wheat and sugar called coliv is prepared and offered to the guests. If possible, the ninth, twentieth, and fortieth days; the third, sixth, and ninth months; and the year after the death are commemorated. However, this usually depends on the religiosity and financial resources of the people concerned. Graveyards are visited often, wine is poured on the graves, and food and coliv are distributed in memory of the dead.

Cultural, sports and economic erections

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Located geographically at the crossroads of Latin, Slavic and other cultures, Moldova has enriched its own culture adopting and maintaining some of the traditions of its neighbors and of other influence sources. The country's cultural heritage was marked by numerous churches and monasteries built by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in the 15th century, by the works of the later renaissance Metropolitans Varlaam and Dosoftei, and those of scholars such as Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Nicolae Milescu, Dimitrie Cantemir, Ion Neculce. In the 19th century, Moldavians from the territories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia, then split between Austria, Russia, and an Ottoman-vassal Moldavia (after 1859, Romania), made the largest contribution to the formation of the modern Romanian culture. Among these were many Bessarabians, such as Alexandru Donici, Alexandru Hjdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stamati, Constantin Stamati-Ciurea, Costache Negruzzi, Alecu Russo, Constantin Stere. Mihai Eminescu, a late Romantic poet, and Ion Creang, a writer, are the most influential Romanian language artists, considered national writers both in Romania and Moldova. Ethnic Moldovans, 78.3% of the population, are Romanian-speakers and share the Romanian culture. Their culture has been also influenced (through Eastern Orthodoxy) by the Byzantine culture. The country has also important minority ethnic communities. Gagauz, 4.4% of the population, are the only Christian Turkic people. Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Jews, Ukrainians, although not numerous, were present since as early as 17th century, and had left cultural marks. The 19th century saw the arrival of many more Ukrainians and Jews from Podolia and Galicia, as well as new communities, such as Lipovans, Bulgarians and Bessarabian Germans. In the second part of the 20th century, Moldova saw a massive Soviet immigration, which brought with it many elements of the Soviet culture. Moldovan culture was also influenced by historic minority ethnic communities, and in turn has had an influence on the culture of these groups, such as Bessarabian Germans and Bessarabian Jews.

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In October 1939, Radio Basarabia, a local station of the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company, opened in Chiinu. Television in Moldova was introduced in April 1958, within the framework of the Soviet television. Moldovan viewers can receive through cable a large number of Russian channels, a few Romanian channels, several Russian language versions of international channels in addition to several local channels. One Russian and two local channels are aired. Moldovan cuisine consists mainly of traditional European foods, such as beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, and a variety of cereals. Popular alcoholic beverages are divin (Moldovan brandy) and local wines. Moldova gave birth to composers Gavriil Musicescu, tefan Neaga and Eugen Doga whose works are recognized worldwide. In the field of popular music, Moldova has produced the band O-Zone, who came to prominence in 2003, with their hit song Dragostea Din Tei. Another popular band from Moldova is ska rock band Zdob i Zdub that represented the country in the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest. Dan Balan released Chica Bomb in 2010. Also worth mentioning is the band SunStroke Project, which along with Olia Tira represented the country in the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest with their hit song, Run Away. Their performance gained international notoriety as an internet meme due to the pelvic thrusting and dancing of Sergey Stepanov, the band saxophonist. He has been fittingly dubbed "Epic Sax Guy." Trnta (a type of wrestling) is the national sport in Moldova. Football is the most popular sport in Moldova. Rugby union is popular as well. Registered players have doubled and almost 10,000 spectators turn up at every European Nations Cup match. The Moldova Sports comprise of different kinds of game played by the people of Moldova. The popular Moldova sports include football, ruby, tennis and chess. Football is a very favorite game of the Moldova sportsmen. All the football matches are held under the governing body "The Football Association of Moldova (FMF)". Located in the capital city of Moldova, this association also organizes the Moldovan National Division matches and the Moldova national football team.
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The football matches are usually held in the various stadiums of Moldova which include the Sheriff Stadium, Stadionul Calarasauca, Stadionul Dinamo (Chisinau), Stadionul Municipal and Stadionul Republican.There are several football clubs in the country including: FC Iskra-Stali Ribnita FC Nistru Otaci FC Olimpia Balti FC Politehnica Chisinau FC Rapid Ghidighici FC Sheriff Tiraspol CS Tiligul-Tiras Tiraspol FC Tiraspol SC Tornado FC Zimbru Chisinau Apart from Football, chess is also an important Moldova sports. The well known players of this game include Mona May Karff, Almira Skripchenko, Gary Koshnitsky and Victor Bologan. The other sport of Moldova which has gained immense popularity over the years is tennis. The Moldova Davis Cup Team and the Moldova Fed cup Team are the two most significant tennis teams of the country. The former represents the country in the Davis Cup tennis tournament. Both the tennis teams are administered by the Moldova Republic tennis Federation. Another popular sort of Moldova is Rugby. The Moldova National Rugby Union Team represents the country, Moldova at Rugby Union matches. The governing body of this team is Federatia de Rugby de Moldovei. Though the rugby team of Moldova is performing well but they are yet to be selected for the World Cup. Moldova is the second smallest of the former Soviet republics and the most densely populated. Industry accounts for only 20% of its labor force, while agriculture's share is more than one-third. It remains the poorest country in Europe. It is landlocked, bounded by Ukraine on the east and Romania to the west. Moldova's proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate. The fertile soil supports wheat, corn, barley, tobacco, sugar beet, and soybeans. Beef and dairy cattle are raised, and beekeeping is
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widespread. Moldova's best-known product comes from its extensive and well-developed vineyards concentrated in the central and southern regions. In addition to world-class wine[citation needed], Moldova produces liqueurs and sparkling wine. It is also known for its sunflower seeds, walnuts, apples, and other fruits. This makes the area ideal for agriculture and food processing, which accounts for about 40% of the country's GDP.

Moldova has experienced economic difficulties, like many other former Soviet republics. Since its economy was highly dependent on the rest of the former Soviet Union for energy and raw materials, the breakdown in trade following the breakup of the Soviet Union had a serious effect, exacerbated at times by drought and civil conflict. The Russian ruble devaluation of 1998 had a deleterious effect on Moldova's economy, but economic growth has been steady since 2000. Moldova has made progress in economic reform since independence. The government has liberalized most prices and has phased out subsidies on most basic consumer goods. A program begun in March 1993 has privatized 80% of all housing units and nearly 2,000 small, medium, and large enterprises. Other successes include the privatization of nearly all of Moldova's agricultural land from state to private ownership, as a result of an American assistance program, "Pamnt" ("land"), completed in 2000. A stock market opened in June 1995. Inflation was brought down from over 105% in 1994 to 11% in 1997. Though inflation spiked again after Russias 1998 currency devaluation, Moldova made great strides in bringing it under control: 18.4% in 2000, 6.3% in 2001, and 4.4% in 2002. In 2003 inflation escalated again due mainly to a drought-driven rise in agricultural prices reaching 15.7%, although it was reigned in to 12.5% in 2004. The local currency appreciated considerably in 2003 and the first months of 2004. By May, the leu had reached its highest level since the end of 1999. After the
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National Bank of Moldova increased considerably its purchases on the foreign exchange market, the leu stabilized in NovemberDecember 2004 at 12.00-12.50 to the US dollar. Moldova continues to make progress toward developing a viable freemarket economy. The country recorded its fifth consecutive year of positive GDP growth in 2004, with year-end real GDP growth of 8%. This growth is impressive considering that, prior to 2000, Moldova had recorded only one year of positive GDP growth since independence. Budget execution in 2004 was also impressive, as actual consolidated budget revenues exceeded projections by 1.4% for most of the year. Privatization results in 2004 were not significant: several smaller companies and one winery were privatized in 2004, but the government postponed indefinitely the privatization of several larger state enterprises, including two electricity distribution companies. Sporadic and ineffective enforcement of the law, economic and political uncertainty, and government harassment and interference continue to discourage inflows of foreign direct investment. Imports continued to increase more rapidly than exports during the first nine months of 2004; Moldovas terms of trade worsened, as higherpriced energy imports outpaced the value of Moldovas main exports agricultural and agro-processing goods. During 2002, Moldova rescheduled an outstanding Eurobond, in the amount of $39.6 million, to avoid a potential default. In May 2004, Moldova redeemed promissory notes with a total value of $114.5 million to Russian Gazprom for just $50 million. Moldova informed its bilateral creditors in mid-2003 that it would no longer service its debts. The 2004 budget did provide funds for external debt service (interest) at some 6% of the government budget, the 2005 budget projects external debt service at some 4%. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank resumed lending to Moldova in July 2002, and then suspended lending again in July 2003. Although Moldova passed a Poverty Reduction Strategy in 2004, it has yet to reach an agreement with international financial institutions.

Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques

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Chiinu's city center was constructed in the nineteenth century by Russians. Official buildings and those erected by the early bourgeoisie are in a neoclassical style of architecture; there are also many small onestory houses in the center, and the outskirts are dominated by typical Soviet-style residential buildings. Small towns (mainly enlarged villages) also have examples of Soviet-style administration buildings and apartment blocks. Depending on their original inhabitants, villages have typical Moldovan, Ukrainian, Gagauz, Bulgarian, or German houses and a Soviet-style infrastructure (cultural center, school, local council buildings). Houses have their own gardens and usually their own vineyards and are surrounded by low metal ornamented bars. Interaction differs in urban and rural areas. In the villages, people are open and greet passersby without prior acquaintance; in the cities, there is a greater anonymity, although people interact with strangers in certain situations, for example, on public transportation.

The country's most prominent monument The Stephen the Great Monument

Hncu monastery

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Noul Neam Monastery

Triumphal arch and Nativity Cathedral

A church in Downtown Chiinu

Capitoline Wolf and National History Museum

Academy of Sciences of Moldova

Cahul University

The Stephen the Great Monument is a prominent monument in Chiinu, Moldova. The monument to Stephen the Great was designed by architect Alexandru Plmdeal in 1923. It was erected near the main entrance of
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the Stephen the Great Park in Downtown Chiinu. The monument was completed in 1927 and opened on 29 April, 1928 (to replace the monument to Alexander II of Russia, destroyed by the Romanian authorities in 1918), marking the 470th birthday of Stephen the Great. The total cost of the monument was 4.000.000 lei. A few days before 1940 Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, the monument was relocated to Vaslui, and its pedestal was blown up by the Soviet troops. On August 25, 1942, the monument was returned to Chiinu and taken back to Romania in 1944. In 1945, the Soviet authorities ordered the restoration of the monument to Chiinu. On 31 August 1989 the monument to Stephen the Great was returned to its original location, chosen by Alexandru Plmdeal in the 1920s. The initial inscriptions were restored. Flower-laying ceremonies are regularly performed at the pedestal of this monument on each national holiday and on days of official top and high level visits.

Conclusion:
The present world is struggling to find a new order in social and economic structure. Dynamic forces are working with incredible speed today. Man is advancing so rapidly that knowledge and technology
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confront him before understanding the past. Miracle in transportation and communication has made this world a global village. The rapid change in family structure, working pattern and public mobility have resulted into a worldwide boom in tourism, proving as one of the planet's major growth industries. Tourism sector also claims to be the largest source of employment in the world. Today, very few people are aware that tourism is the largest affair in the world economy. Countries and peoples of the world sign in the world tourist landscape by certain natural features, economic - social, historical, religious, language, culture and civilization, which place their footprint on the heritage of the tourism.

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Bibliography
Vasile Glavan, Tourism resources, Bucharest, 2000, p.11 Cosmescu Ioan, Tourism, Bucharest, 1998, p.9, p.51, p.60 Lundberg E.D., Tourism Economics, John Wiley & Sons, 1995, p.124 Dyer, Donald L., ed. Studies in Moldovan: The History, Culture, Language and Contemporary Politics of the People of Moldova , 1996. Google Van Meurs, Wim P. "Carving a Moldavian Identity out of History." Nationalities Papers , 26 (1): 3956, 1998

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