Research paper

The palaeoenvironmental study of the Alimini Piccolo lake enables a reconstruction of Holocene sea-level changes in southeast Italy
Milena Primavera,1 Oronzo Simone,1 Girolamo Fiorentino1 and Massimo Caldara2
Abstract

The Holocene 21(4) 553 563 The Author(s) 2011 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0959683610385719 hol.sagepub.com

Based on multiproxy investigations of a 250 cm long sediment core (ALI1), a reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental dynamics for the Alimini Piccolo lake (south Adriatic coast of Apulia, Italy), is proposed. Our results indicate that shortly before 5500 cal. yr BP a marsh environment established. From 5400 cal. BP the marsh progressively became a lagoon and did not change until 3320 cal. BP, when Alimini Piccolo evolved into a shallow, sheltered, freshwater basin. Around 1400 cal. yr BP the basin became again a lagoon. Changes of the deposition environments and the chronological framework defined in the ALI1 sequence allowed speculation about local relative sea-level motions through the midlate Holocene. Using proxy-data (molluscs, foraminifers, ostracods and plant macro-remains) as environment and bathymetry indicators, we reconstruct the elevation of the basin bottom (above or below sea level) through time. Plant macro-fossils have proved to be an especially reliable source of data for sea-level reconstruction. The resulting relative sea-level curve is characterised by a slow rise between 5500 and 3900 cal. yr BP, a drop culminating around 2500 cal. yr BP and a new, steeper rise continued to the present position. Our model differs from other curves (tectonically and isostatically corrected) proposed for a number of Mediterranean coastal sites where Holocene sea-level changes have been described with a continuously rising curve, steep before 70006000 yr BP, more gradual between 6000 yr BP and the present. On the other hand, our reconstruction seems to agree with evidence on sea-level position during the Roman age, found in several Apulian sites (Salento coastland) by means of geomorphological and archaeological investigations.

Keywords
bathymetry reconstruction, charophytes, coastal lake environment, plant macro-remains, sea-level changes

Introduction
The Alimini Piccolo lake is part of a system consisting of two sheltered coastal water-bodies. The larger lake is called Alimini Grande, the smaller Alimini Piccolo or Fontanelle; these communicate through the Lu Strittu channel; a narrow entrance (Bocca degli Alimini) connects the Alimini Grande to the sea. Wet environments close to the sea (coastal lakes, isolation basins, lagoons, salt-marshes, etc.) are characterized by a marked environmental instability ruled by a number of processes acting both at global and regional scales (tectonic movements, climate conditions, freshwater input, changes in sea level, etc.). In particular relative sea-level motion affects the groundwater-table position, basin extent and salinity; those effects are recorded by several proxies which can be utilized as palaeoenvironmental indicators. In this paper we reconstruct the midlate Holocene environmental changes in the Alimini Piccolo lake, also suggesting how local sea level changed during this timespan. We used biological remains as paleoenvironment and past sea-level indicators. If not displaced from their original life position, many organisms could be used as sea-level indicators (Antonioli and Oliverio, 1996; Antonioli et al., 1999; Ferranti et al., 2006; Laborel and Laborel-Deguen, 1996; Laborel et al., 1994; Lambeck et al., 2004). In particular, for brackish coastal environments (such as lagoons) Lambeck et al. (2004) and Ferranti et al. (2006) report that mollusc assemblages of the Mediterranean Euryhaline and Eurythermal in brackish water biocoenosis (sensu Prs and Picard, 1964) allow to define the mean sea level with an uncertainty of 2 m. In our research, dealing with former brackish water environments, we tried to find some other possible biological proxies capable of defining the paleo sea-level position with a narrower uncertainty range. Plant remains are commonly considered a sound tool for detecting lake-level changes in Quaternary freshwater basins (Birks, 2000, 2001; Birks and Birks, 2003, 2006; Garcia, 1994; Hannon and Gaillard, 1997); nevertheless the use of these
1
2

Universit del Salento, Italy Universit degli Studi di Bari, Italy

Received 28 October 2009; revised manuscript accepted 21 July 2010 Corresponding author: Girolamo Fiorentino, Laboratorio di Archeobotanica e Paleoecologia, Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Universit del Salento,Via D. Birago, 64, 73100 Lecce, Italy Email: girolamo.fiorentino@unisalento.it

554 indicators for sea-level reconstruction is not common or even unusual. It is widely accepted that macrophytes are potential indicators of lake-level fluctuations (Birks, 2001; Birks and Birks, 2006; Dieffenbacher-Krall and Halteman, 2000; Hannon and Gaillard, 1997). Charophytes, commonly found in all types of water-bodies, are considered responsive to environmental changes involving parameters such as pH, temperature and salinity (Garcia, 1994). According to Birks (1973) dispersal distances of plant remains (seeds, fruits, etc.) are rather short, thus the highest numbers of seeds and fruits are commonly found close to the parent plants (Hannon and Gaillard, 1997). Dispersion of such material is accentuated by wave action and tidal currents; however, the Alimini Piccolo basin is a small sheltered water-body, located in a microtidal setting, quite isolated from the open sea and wind disturbance. Therefore, using macrophytes as depth markers and charophytes as a salinity indicators, we tried to asses the basin-level fluctuations and the phases of major marine influence. The depth of the basin at the coring site has been reconstructed taking into account modern ecological requirements and depth distribution ranges of plant taxa (Bennike et al., 2001; Dieffenbacher-Krall and Halteman, 2000; Hannon and Gaillard, 1997; Zaho et al., 2004).

The Holocene 21(4)

Study area description

The study site is located in Salento (Apulia) on the Southern Adriatic coast of Italy, 40 km south of Lecce (Figure 1). The landscape is characterised by gently undulating surfaces and low plains. The bedrock is made of alternating calcarenites, biogenic sands and sandy clays whose age ranges from the Pliocene to the Pleistocene. These units are cut by an erosion surface shaped by karst processes (Palmentola, 1989). As for the tectonic aspect, the southern Salento is considered a low seismic area surrounded by highly seismic zones (Albania and Greece to the east, the Calabrian arc and southern Apennines to the west); nevertheless, recent tectonic activity in the areas surrounding our study site has been reported by several authors. In particular, along the coastland between Torre dellOrso and Torre Santo Stefano, Selleri et al. (2003) found evidence of recent tectonic displacements along the NNWSSE alignment, with prevalence of lateral movements. These dislocations affected the geometry of lower palaeoshorelines, caused marine terraces tilting, the formation of several depressions (among which the Alimini basins) and the recent uplift of a wave-cut platform near Torre dellOrso. Di Bucci et al. (2009) have shown that during the Middle and Late Pleistocene the Salento peninsula was affected by a mild brittle deformation characterised by little vertical displacements and widespread extensional joints. Recent vertical displacements have been estimated by means of the last interglacial marine terrace elevations. In Ionian and Adriatic Apulia the coastline referred to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5.5 (~125 kyr) has been found at different elevations, indicating an uneven tectonic behaviour during the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene. In the southernmost part of the Salento peninsula the markers of MIS 5.5 have been found at elevations that suggest small recent tectonic displacements (Ferranti et al., 2006; Mastronuzzi and Sans, 2003; Mastronuzzi et al., 2007). A discontinuous drainage network was set during the last glacial regression, when the sea level was c. 120 m below the present position. During major rainfalls, these streams collect rainwater toward closed depressions, the bottom of which is frequently
Figure 1. Study area location

drained by one or more sinkholes. As a result, water flows toward the sea following underground paths. The Alimini lakes fill two tectonic depressions (Ciaranfi et al., 1992; Guerricchio and Zezza, 1982) parallel to the coastline, stretching for about 7 km along the NWSE direction (Figure 1). Along their west side, where the underground water-table intercepts the topographic surface, these water-bodies are fed by a number of springs. The larger basin, Alimini Grande, is connected to the Adriatic Sea through a channel called Bocca degli Alimini and is characterised by brackish water. Owing to freshwater inputs from the Zuddeo channel, the Traugnano marsh and a few other drainage canals, salinity decreases across the basin from the sea inland (from 34.8 to 2.2). The smaller lake, the Alimini Piccolo, or Fontanelle, has a mean depth of 0.70 m, and is only 0.5 km2 in area. It is fed by several springs along the southwestern shore and by the Rio Grande channel, which occasionally brings precipitation on the area around the hill of Montevergine. The two basins are separated by a rocky sill incised by the shallower Lu Strittu channel (Figure 1). During the last century a lock was built in order to inhibit brackish water inflow from the Alimini Grande, making the Alimini Piccolo a virtually fresh basin. According to De Marco et al. (1983) current dynamics in Alimini Piccolo are characterised by authigenic sedimentation in the southeastern sheltered areas. The Rio Grande ephemeral stream discharges terrigenous material only during short heavy rain episodes. Organic matter accumulation occurs along the northern and southern shores. The hydrological balance of Alimini Piccolo is influenced by a seasonally fluctuating groundwater discharge.

Primavera et al. The Alimini area is characterised by peculiar microclimatic conditions, as the presence of the two water-bodies causes intense evaporation and air humidity increase. The mean annual temperature ranges between 16 and 18C, and the mean annual rainfall varies between 700 and 1000 mm; both temperature and precipitation are slightly higher than the averages of surrounding areas, influencing floral composition and structure. In fact, the Alimini area is characterised by thermo-mediterranean subhumid bioclimate; its natural potential vegetation is a transitional term between Oleo-ceratonion (coastal) and Quercion-ilicis (inland) phytosociological alliance (Curti and Lorenzoni, 1969). The lakes are surrounded by planted Pinus halepensis woodland, while maquis vegetation occurs in scattered residual patches dominated by Quercus calliprinos, together with Q. ilex, Phillyrea latifolia, Pistacia lentiscus, Erica multiflora, Rhamnus alaternus, Myrtus communis, Arbutus unedo, and Cistus monspeliensis (Macchia, 1972; Marchiori et al., 1998). The aquatic vegetation of Fontanelle is represented by reeds along the shoreline (Phragmites communis), floating and submerged macrophytes (Lemna minor, Potamogeton pectinatus, P. lucens, P. natans, Zannichellia palustris, Najas graminea, Myriophyllum spicatum, M. verticillatum, Callitriche palustris, and Utricularia vulgaris), and emergent macrophytes in the marshy area around the lake (Juncus articulatus, J. acutus, Cladium mariscus, Cyperus longus, Schoenus nigricans, Typha angustifolia) (Amico and Macchia, 1964; Macchia, 1972).

555 Magnetic susceptibility allowed to precisely correlate the ALI1 succession to the one used for pollen investigation, in order to extend to our core the same chronological frame defined by Di Rita and Magri (2009).

Results
Sediment stratigraphy
The core ALI1 succession has been subdivided in 4 units as described below (Figure 2).

Unit 1 (250220 cm). At the bottom of the core the sediments

are fine-grained, very dark grey (10YR 3/1) and rich in organic matter; in the lower part a few terrestrial gastropods occur, while in the upper levels, where the deposit becomes more sandy, faunal remains are dominated by freshwater gastropods.

Unit 2 (220112 cm). The overlying unit is made of grey

clayey and sandy sediments with brackish fauna; four different subunits can be distinguished: subunit A (220194 cm) is made of dark grey sand (10YR 4/1), rich in mollusc shells; subunit B (194176 cm) consists of dark grey clayey sediments (10YR 4/1) with brackish gastropods and scattered root marks; subunit C (176158 cm) is formed by grey clayey sediments (10YR5/1) with scattered bivalves in life position; subunit D (158112 cm) is formed by grey sandy sediments (10YR5/1), characterised by juvenile individuals of brackish molluscs organised in thin layers.

Materials and methods

The ALI1 sediment core, 4 cm in diameter and 250 cm long, was collected by researchers of Rome University La Sapienza in the central part of Alimini Piccolo using a Russian corer. ALI1 is one of three cores drilled at approximately 1 m distance from each other, within the framework of a palynological investigation program performed by Di Rita and Magri (2009), aimed at the reconstruction of the vegetation history of the area. The sediments of ALI1, mainly clay and calcareous silts, have been visually described. Sediment magnetic susceptibility has been measured with the Bartington SM2C device. The core was divided into 60 subsamples, each 5 cm long. All the samples have been wet-sieved through different mesh sizes (500, 250, and 60 m). Sieved subsamples have been examined under a stereomicroscope for macrophytes seeds and fruits, charophyte oospores and gyrogonites, ostracods, foraminifera and mollusc shells. Macrophyte seeds and fruits have been identified using key atlases and the reference collection of the Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology Laboratory in Lecce. Charophyte remains have been identified at the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences (University of Wollongong, Australia) using the LPA (Largest Polar Axis), LED (Largest Equatorial Diameter), ISI (Isopolarity Index) and striae number parameters (Garcia, 1987; Horn af Rantzier, 1959; Souli-Mrshe, 1989). Plant remains have been counted and plotted against volume using the Psimpoll 4.25 program (Bennett, 2005). Faunal assemblages (ostracods, foraminifera and molluscs), have been identified and grouped in abundance classes (very abundant, abundant, frequent, occasional, rare) and used as additional ecological indicators.

Unit 3 (11231 cm). The third unit consists of light grey

to whitish silty-clayey sediments; these have been divided in two subunits: at the bottom (A: 11275 cm) the light grey deposit gradually becomes whitish (2.5Y 7/22.5Y 8/1), levels bearing poor brackish fauna alternate with intervals crossed by root marks; in the upper subunit (B: 7531 cm) the sediments are thickly laminated and rich in Hydrobiidae at the top.

Unit 4 (310 cm). The uppermost part of the sequence consists

of light grey clay (10YR7/1 to 10YR5/2) with interdispersed brackish molluscs alternating with root marks levels.

Plant data
The results of plant macroremains analysis are represented in a concentration diagram in which four assemblage zones (MAZ) have been defined through a constrained cluster analysis performed with the Psimpoll 4.5 program (Figure 3).

MAZ-1 (250220 cm). The lower part of the core yielded

rare plant remains; two subzones have been identified; MAZ1a is defined by the presence of only Chara vulgaris oospores; MAZ-1b starts at 2.36 m and shows a larger C. vulgaris remains (oospores and gyrogonites). The other plant taxa found are Cladium mariscus and a few Juncus sp. seeds.

MAZ-2 (220104 cm). Plant macroremains occur in relatively

high concentrations and taxonomical richness; four subzones have been recognized. In MAZ-2a (220202 cm) Chara

556

The Holocene 21(4) of Cladium mariscus counts is associated with the presence of Juncus sp., Typha latifolia and Sparganium sp. together with Potentilla palustris and Sagittaria sagittifolia shore-plants. The first Ruppia maritima and Suaeda maritima appearance characterise the beginning of MAZ-2b subzone (202180 cm); within this interval we record the maximum occurrence of Chara hispida group, a marked Potamogeton species diversification (P. perfoliatus, P. pusillipus and P. pectinatus) and a low occurrence of emergent taxa (Cladium mariscus and Cyperaceae). Subzone MAZ-2c (180152 cm) is defined by high counts of Lamprothamnium papulosum, accompanied by Ruppia maritima. The disappearance of the submerged/floating macrophytes defines subzone MAZ-2d (152104 cm) in which only charophyte remains have been found: L. papulosum and C. hispida group concentrations, rather low, show fluctuations in the relative abundances, while the emergent plants Typha latifolia and Juncus sp. appear scattered.

MAZ-3 (10430 cm). This zone has been divided in three

subzones: MAZ-3a (10474 cm) is defined by the presence of Chara vulgaris and Chara hispida group; poorly recorded are L. papulosum and Phragmites sp. The increase of Typha latifolia and the main Phragmites peak characterise subzone MAZ-3b (7450 cm); rare Najas cf. minor and N. cf. marina remains have also been counted. In the third subzone MAZ-3c (5030 cm) Chara vulgaris decreases while Chara hispida group shows a slightly increasing trend; Typha latifolia is the only emergent macrophyte recorded in low concentration.

MAZ-4 (300 c m). MAZ-4 shows a gradual increase of

taxonomic richness. The observed taxa are Ruppia maritima, Potamogeton sp., Zannichellia palustris, Najas cf. minor and Nymphaeae. Charophyte assemblage is still dominated by C. vulgaris and C. hispida, Lamprothmanium papulosum is poorly represented only at the top of the sequence.

Faunal data
Analysed fauna are ostracods, foraminifers and molluscs. These have been grouped in abundance classes. Each faunal zone (FAZ) has been named according to its most represented taxon. The interval boundaries do not coincide exactly with plant zones (MAZ), even though considerable correspondences can be noticed (Figure 4).

FAZ-1: Cyprideis torosa and Planorbis planorbis (250220 cm).

The microfauna is represented by ostracods Cyprideis torosa and Ilyocipris gibba: in the lower part of the interval, up to 2.38 m, ostracods are abundant and belong to different age classes, in the upper part the counts show a decreasing trend. Gastropods are represented by occasional remains of Vallonia pulchella and V. costata; from 238 cm Planorbis planorbis occurs frequently.
Figure 2. Stratigraphic sketch of the ALI1 core

FAZ-2 Ammonia beccarii and Cerastoderma glaucum (220 104 cm). The appearance of foraminifera marks the base
of this interval; Ammonia beccarii is abundant and around 1.62 m occurs in association with Haynesina germanica, Quinqueloculina cf. seminulum and Elphidium cf. gunteri. Among the ostracods, Cyprideis torosa, occasionally coupled with Loxoconcha sp., is a constant presence (although with

vulgaris is replaced by Lamprothamnium papulosum; floating/ submerged macrophytes (Potamogeton sp., P. cf. perfoliatus and Ranunculus aquatilis type) appear for the first time. The decrease

Primavera et al.

557

Figure 3. Plant macroremains diagram. V alues are expressed as number of macroremains per sediment sample; charophyte remains are expressed as 10 oospores/gyrogonites per sediment sample

Figure 4. Scheme of the results acquired in this study

varying abundances); upcore ostracods outclass foraminifera in numbers. The mollusc Cerastoderma glaucum is very abundant, especially in the lower-middle sections; the other accompanying taxa are Abra segmentum and, occasionally, Mytilaster sp.; Hydrobiidae, rare at the beginning, become abundant in those levels where Cerastoderma and Abra are represented only by juvenile individuals.

FAZ-3: Cyprideis/Ammonia and Hydrobiidae (10475 cm). The

ostracods dominate the microfauna. Cyprideis torosa and Candona neglecta are very abundant; Darwinula cf. stevensoni, Potamocypris sp. and Pseudocandona sp. occur occasionally. Foraminifera are poorly represented; Ammonia beccarii and Haynesina cf. germanica disappear abruptly at 75 cm. Molluscs assemblage is characterised by Hydrobiidae together with a

558 few Mytilaster sp., juvenile Cerastoderma glaucum and Abra segmentum.

The Holocene 21(4) and Girotti, 1974). Since C. vulgaris monospecific algal populations are common in shallow sheltered sites (Schubert and Blindow, 2003), the gradual increase of this species seems to corroborate this hypothesis.

FAZ-4

Cyprideis/Candona

and

Hydrobiidae

(7535

cm).

Foraminifera are virtually absent in these horizons, while ostracods are mainly represented by the very common Cyprideis torosa and Candona neglecta; Pseudocandona sp. and Potamocypris sp. are less frequent. Molluscs are rare. Hydrobiidae, not very frequent, appear together with several Physa sp. individuals. At around 55 cm Cyprideis torosa becomes very abundant, while Candona neglecta decreases in numbers. Molluscs become more frequent and are represented by Hydrobiidae and juvenile Cerastoderma glaucum and Abra segmentum. These two species become rare around 43 and at 35 cm again disappear.

Lagoon A and Lagoon B; 55003320 cal. yr BP (220104 cm).

Around 5400 cal. BP the marsh progressively became a lagoon, as testified by euryhaline faunal assemblages. The brackish water-body lasted until 3320 cal. BP. Two lagoon phases have been distinguished: Lagoon A (55003900 cal. BP) and Lagoon B (39003320 cal. BP); the chronological limit between these two has been set at 3900 cal. BP on the base of the faunal assemblage, which discriminates different water salinities (Lagoon B appears to have been less saline than Lagoon A).

FAZ-5 Ammonia beccarii and Cerastoderma glaucum (350 cm).

Cyprideis torosa, the most common species among the ostracods, occurs together with Ammonia beccarii and Elphidium cf. gunteri foraminifers. Among the molluscs, Hydrobiidae are quite abundant. Adult Cerastoderma glaucum and Abra segmentum also occur.

Data interpretation and discussion

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction
The analysis of lithostratigraphy, plant and fauna remains allows a reconstruction of the deposition phases during the midlate Holocene (shortly before 5500 cal. BP to present) to be made. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the basin is based on the ecological requirements of the identified taxa (Figure 4).

Marsh; before 5500 cal. BP (250220 cm). The lower section

of our core dates to shortly before 5500 cal. yr BP when in Alimini Piccolo a marsh fed by springs was established. At the base of the sequence, the halotolerant freshwater Chara vulgaris (Winter and Kirst, 1990), is the only aquatic vegetal taxon, attested by several oospores. Typical habitats of the common stonewort are ephemeral water-bodies, since this species is able to colonise short-living wet environments (Schubert and Blindow, 2003). The subsequent increase in oospore numbers and the presence of gyrogonites, together with the associated emergent macrophytes (Cladium mariscus and Juncus sp.) indicate a well-vegetated marsh fed by alkaline springs (Corine, 1991). Modern Cladium mariscus lives in Mediterranean coastal regions on calcareous moist soils; it may occur in marshy environments beside springs; warm temperatures favour plant development and its optimal growth occurs when the roots are submerged (Conway, 1938). Ostracods found within this section are Cyprideis torosa and Ilyocypris gibba. The first is considered a typical brackish taxon; nevertheless, several authors (Bassetti et al., 2003; Keyser and Aladin, 2004) reported its adaptability to hypohaline conditions. The freshwater/oligo-haline Ilyocypris gibba colonises shallow, stagnant and temporarily dry water-bodies (Djamali et al., 2006). Among the molluscs, a few terrestrial gastropods (Vallonia costata and V. pulchella) have been found at the bottom of the sequence. The subsequent occurrence of freshwater Planorbis planorbis, can be considered as a signal of increased water availability in a vegetated freshwater environment, under a low hydrodynamism (Esu

Lagoon A. Between 5500 and 4900 cal. BP charophyte association shows the progressive replacement of freshwater C. vulgaris with the brackish Lamprothamnium papulosum; submerged/floating macrophytes appear for the first time; this evidence indicates that the basin reached stability. Emergent taxa are also well represented, suggesting that the coring site was not far from the shore. Around 4900 cal. BP Lamprothamnium decreases; this species is replaced by the deepest Chara hispida group, halotolerant/slightly brackish taxa (Souli-Mrsche et al., 2008). At the same time the enrichment in submerged/floating macrophytes counts, together with the disappearance of emergent species, point to an expansion of the basin. Between 4300 cal. BP and 3800 cal. BP Lamprothamnium papulosum shows its maximum peak (Figure 3). Other wellrepresented species are the submerged Ruppia maritima and the terrestrial Suaeda maritima. L. papulosum is one of the few eury-hiperhaline charophytes widespread in brackish environments (Bisson and Kirst, 1980; Corillion, 1972; Garcia and Chivas, 2004; Schubert and Blindow, 2003), living preferably within a depth range between 10 and 100 cm (Corillion, 1972); R. maritima lives in brackish waters and has been found as common among the modern macrophytes in Alimini Grande basin; S. maritima colonises salt soils close to the sea. Faunal remains in the Lagoon A sediments confirm the existence of a brackish environment. The molluscs assemblage is characterised by Cerastoderma glaucum and Abra segmentum. These species are commonly found together in lagoons. The microfaunal assemblage is dominated by the foraminifer Ammonia beccarii and the ostracod Cyprideis torosa. At first glance the oligotypic macro- and microfaunal assemblages, made of opportunistic taxa (i.e. A. beccarii and C. torosa) would indicate a somewhat stressed environment. Aquatic plants give several pieces of information on lake level changes within the Lagoon A interval. Between 5500 and 4900 cal. BP the progressive development of submerged and floating macrophytes provides evidence of a rise in water-table (Hannon and Gaillard, 1997). Between 4900 and 4300 cal. BP, maximum values of Chara hispida group suggest a continuous rise in lake level and, perhaps, a salinity increase. From 4300 to 3800 cal. BP the decrease of Chara hispida group and the increase of the lessdeep euryhaline Lamprotamnium papulosum suggest a phase of water level lowering. As defined by the pollen record, between 5500 and 4900 cal. BP the area surrounding the Alimini lakes was covered by a lush vegetation and the climate was relatively humid; between 4900

Primavera et al. and 4300 cal. BP pollen diagrams show a dense oak-dominated mediterranean evergreen vegetation with some deciduous elements (Di Rita and Magri, 2009). At around 4100 cal. BP the pollen diagram shows a marked decrease of arboreal pollen (both in percentages and concentrations; Di Rita and Magri, 2009); this deforestation phase has also been recognized in many other Italian sites south of 43N (Caroli and Caldara, 2007; DrescherSchneider et al., 2007; Magri, 1999; Magri and Sadori, 1999; Sadori and Narcisi, 2001; Vigliotti, 2006), and has been interpreted as a drought climate event (Dalfes et al., 1997; Jalut et al., 2000).

559 that shows a peak shortly before 1000 cal. BP, suggests a slightly higher water-table. Among charophytes, the C. hispida group is the most frequent one, L. papulosum occurs occasionally. C. vulgaris starts to increase again only during the last 300 years. The molluscs Cerastoderma glaucum and Abra segmentum make a more stable association; among the foraminifers A. beccarii outnumbers any other forms. The occurrence of the slightly halo-tolerant Najas cf. minor, together with other macrophytes typical of brackish environment (i.e. R. maritima) suggest seasonal salinity variations (Bennike et al., 2001; Ellenberg et al., 1992). The strong human impact has been revealed also by pollen analysis (Di Rita and Magri, 2009). According to historical sources, fishermen used to periodically open and close the Bocca degli Alimini (the channel connecting Alimini Grande to the open sea) in order to get better catches, causing lake depth and salinity changes (De Giorgi, 1885). Anthropic actions affected both salinity and lake level. These conditions lasted up to the twentieth century, when a sluice was built between the two lakes in order to limit water exchange between the more freshwater Alimini Piccolo and the brackish Alimini Grande.

Lagoon B. Around 3900 cal. BP the molluscs Hydrobiidae occur in relatively high numbers, while Cerastoderma glaucum and Abra segmentum are represented only by juvenile individuals. This suggests that the environment was (at least temporarily) suitable for recruitment but not sufficiently appropriate for life cycle completion. The contemporaneous fall of Lamprothamnium papulosum concentration and the occurrence of the C. vulgarisC. hispida group points to an increase of freshwater supply (Souli-Mrshe, 1991). The absence of typical lagoon macrophytes, together with the sporadic appearance of riparian-emergent macrophytes (Typha and Juncus), indicates low salinity (Hutchinson, 1975; Pignatti, 1982). Within this interval, foraminifers assemblage (still oligotypic) reaches its maximum diversity. Ammonia beccarii is accompanied by Haynesina germanica, Quinqueloculina cf. seminulum and a few Elphidium species (among which E. cf. gunteri). Ostracods are represented by the brackish C. torosa and Loxoconcha sp. Pollen data show a rapid forest recovery (Di Rita and Magri, 2009). Freshwater basin; 33201400 cal. BP (10430 cm). From 3250
cal. BP Alimini Piccolo became a freshwater basin. In this interval Chara vulgaris reaches its maximum, L. papulosum disappears and Phragmites sp. appears for the first time. Among molluscs, opportunistic Hidrobiidae characterise these levels, while the brackish C. glaucum and A. segmentum are still present with juvenile individuals. Foraminifers (only A. beccarii) are rare and occur only in the lower part of the unit. The ostracods are represented mainly by the C. torosa and the freshwater species Candona neglecta. In brief, within the Freshwater basin phase, Alimini Piccolo shifted from meso-haline to oligo-haline conditions. Between 3010 and 2015 cal. BP the presence of emergent macrophytes remains (T. latifolia and Phragmites sp.) indicates a lowered water-table (Hannon and Gaillard, 1997; Hutchinson, 1975). Alimini Piccolo became a shallow, sheltered oligo-haline basin. The occurrence of shallow freshwater ostracods (Darwinula stevensoni, Potamocypris sp. and Pseudocandona sp.), the absence of foraminifers and the presence of the freshwater gastropod Physa sp. corroborate this interpretation. Besides, the occurrence of termophilous Najas marina probably indicate meso-eutrophic water conditions and a slight temperature increase (Wasylikowa et al., 2006).

Lake-level and sea-level fluctuations

Changes of the deposition environments and the chronological framework defined in the ALI1 sequence allow speculation about local relative sea-level motions through the midlate Holocene. In order to reconstruct a local sea level curve we tried to relate each dated horizon in the ALI1 succession to the position of the sea level at the time of accumulation, hypothesising that Holocene and present-day tidal ranges are quite comparable (about 40 cm of maximum excursion). Assuming that between two dated core sections sedimentation rates did not change, in a few cases we used interpolated dates. In the absence of precise sea-level indicators, the analysis required several postulations and approximations; in particular, we tried to reconstruct the position of the coring site (above or below sea level) using the organisms found as environment and bathymetry indicators. Another (but not less important) assumption is the very probable existence of an underground connection between the Alimini Piccolo and the open sea. In fact, without an indirect connection to the sea a brackish water environment could not be explained for the early lagoon stages, when sea level was at an elevation lower than the rocky sill incised by the Lu Strittu channel. The basal part of the investigated succession dates back before 5500 yr BP and it is characterised by a fresh marsh. Around the calibrated age 5460 yr BP (218 cm downcore, 448 cm below present sea level) the organisms found suggest that the environment was a shallow brackish water-body. According to Gravina et al. (1989), the presence of C. glaucum shells provides an idea about basin bathymetry; i.e. at the deposition time local basin bottom could have been between 0 and 2 m below sea level. On the other hand, according to data published by Hannon and Gaillard (1997), the occurrence of P. cf. perfoliatus and C. mariscus seeds suggest that the water-column was somewhat between 20 cm and 100 cm; we decided then to use this range for our bathymetry reconstruction. Around the interpolated date 4500 yr BP the association C. mariscus and C. hispida led us to hypothesise a local depth of 50100 cm; depth requirements for these species are respectively reported in Hannon and Gaillard (1997) and Schubert and Blindow (2003).

Lagoon C; 1400 cal. BPmodern times (300 cm). Around

1400 yr cal. BP the basin evolved again in a lagoon. Among the submerged/floating macrophytes, the halophyte R. maritima, Zannichellia palustris, Potamogeton sp. are present, while emergent freshwater plants are rare. The decrease of emergent plants and the replacement of C. vulgaris with C. hispida group,

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Figure 5. Reconstructed sea-level curve for Alimini Piccolo sequence: a, Basin bottom; b, water-column; c, relative sea-level reconstruction; d, local water level (when it does not coincide with sea level; e, interpolated (calendar) dates; f, age uncertainty (for calibrated radiocarbon dates); g, depth uncertainty (as inferred from biological remains)

Around 3900 cal. yr BP (160 cm below the top of the core, 390 cm below present sea level) the accumulation occurred in a fair lagoonal environment. The presence of C. glaucum would suggest a bathymetry between 0 and 2 m. Nevertheless, the concomitant presence of R. maritima and L. papulosum, whose ecological requirements have been described by Zaho et al. (2004) and Corillion (1972), suggest a narrower depth range, between 20 and 100 cm. Around the (interpolated) date 3370 cal. BP the occurrence of juvenile individuals of the molluscs A. segmentum and C. glaucum suggests a strong freshwater input and a bottom of the basin very close to sea level. Probable mechanisms for sea/inland waters interaction include the existence of an intruding underground saline wedge (common in coastal areas) under a freshwater horizon. Plant remains are rare, C. hispida, the best represented taxon, thrives between the depths of 50 and 300 cm, with its optimum between 100 and 150 cm (Schubert and Blindow, 2003). Therefore, we propose for these horizons a water-column between 50 and 150 cm, while sea level was close to the basin bottom. The calibrated date 2970 yr BP was obtained for a sediment sample from the Freshwater basin horizons (approximately 72 cm downcore, 302 cm below present sea level). Plant assemblages, dominated by C. hispida, allow us to hypothesise again a depth range between 50 and 150 cm. Sediments are characterised by the absence of foraminifers and brackish molluscs, ostracods and macrophytes are dominated by freshwater species. These pieces of evidence are all indicative of a freshwater environment,

thus sea level should have been lower than the bottom of the basin at the deposition time. Around 2500 cal. BP (interpolated), within the freshwater interval the depth of the basin was between 50 and 100 cm, as inferred by the contemporaneous occurrence of Phragmites sp. (data about this taxon in Hannon and Gaillard, 1997) and C. hispida. The floor of the fresh water-body was probably again very close to sea level around 1860 cal. yr BP (42 cm from the top of the core, 272 cm below present sea level), as suggested by the absolute dominance of C. torosa among the ostracods and by the molluscs (Hydrobiidae and juvenile A. segmentum and C. glaucum). Plant remains, dominated by C. hispida, suggest for these horizons a local depth between 50 and 150 cm. More saline conditions set around 980 cal. yr BP (30 cm from the top, 260 cm below present sea level). These beds are again characterised by brackish faunal assemblages. The occurrence of adult C. glaucum would indicate a bathymetry between 0 and 2 m (Gravina et al., 1989), while the oligotypic microfauna suggests a restricted environment. A more precise information is given again by C. hispida. This species led us again to assume a depth ranging between 50 and 150 cm. In Figure 5 the indicative sea-level elevation and local basin depth, inferred for each dated sample, are plotted against age; the interpolated points used have also been represented. Bathymetry and sea-level changes have been obtained connecting mean values within the tentative elevation ranges; sea level was lower than the basin bottom within the freshwater phases. Sea level was at

Primavera et al. about 3.70.5 m around 5460 cal. BP, at 3.450.25 m around 4500 BP, at 3.310.4 m around 3900 cal. BP, close to 3.40 m around 3370; dropped down after 3370 cal. BP (we cannot estimate the vertical extension of the retreat). A new rise started after 2500 cal. BP; around 1860 cal. BP sea level was again close to the basin bottom, at 980 cal. BP sea level was at 1.610.5 m and continued to rise until today.

561 during the Roman Age sea level was lower than today. Auriemma et al. (2002) found that sea level was at 2.5 or 3 m during the first three centuries bc. According to Auriemma et al. (2004, 2005) around 75007000 BP sea level was at about 10.5 m above present, dropped to about 3 m around 3500 BP, was around 2.5 or 3 m below the present position during the first three centuries bc and at 0.6 m during the Middle Ages.

Holocene relative sea-level motion at Alimini Piccolo

The curve shown in Figure 5 differs from models recently reconstructed for several sites around the Mediterranean coasts (for example, those in Antonioli et al., 2007; Lambeck and Bard, 2000; Lambeck and Purcell, 2005; Lambeck et al., 2004; Sivan et al., 2001). These are models based on the theoretical local glacio-hydro-isostatic response to ice sheet melting and show a slow (and continuous) rise between 70006000 yr BP and present times. If compared, observed and modelled past sea levels seem to be in good agreement. In those papers (and others published to describe Holocene sea-level changes) data points are scattered in an area and are not homogeneous (some are of biological origin, others are archaeological and so on). Discrepancies between observed evidence and models, if significant, are generally interpreted as being of tectonic origin. The Alimini curve that describes sea-level motion during the last 5500 years has been built solely on the basis of observed data; all pieces of evidence considered here have been collected along the vertical in a single sampling point, i.e. there is a direct, welldefined spatial (vertical) relationship among the dated horizons. No corrections have been applied for possible vertical motions, including regional isostatic adjustments of the crust resulting from the late ice-sheet melting hypothesised by several modellers (for example, Lambeck and Chappel, 2001). In addition, according to Ferranti et al. (2006), the estimated vertical displacements in the Alimini area are between 0.03 mm/yr (Grotta Romanelli) and 0.02 mm/yr (Torre Santa Sabina); hence, land movements could be considered negligible for the short timespan investigated. Reconstructed midlate Holocene sea-level motion shows a rising trend before 3370 cal. yr BP, a minimum occurring between 3370 and 1860 cal. BP, a new rise continued up to present day. The Alimini trend (rise, drop, rise) broadly matches with results obtained from other transitional (brackish) deposits on the Adriatic coast of Apulia. Simone (2003) found that: (a) at Palude Ariscianne (near Barletta, also on the Adriatic sea) the last brackish phase (nowadays slightly above the biological sea level) lasted until 2075 cal. BP; the (undated) overlaying paludal-riverine deposits (now affected by coastal erosion) yielded glass fragments, medieval pottery and rusted metallic objects; (b) at Palude Frattarolo (near Manfredonia), sea level continuously rose until after 2760 cal. BP, an erosion surface separates lagoon sediments from marsh deposits dated around 400 cal. BP; (c) near Vieste (Gargano headland) Caldara et al. (2008) reconstructed a local Holocene relative sea-level curve showing a continuous rise interrupted, around 2730 yr BP, by an abrupt drop. After that, sea level started again to rise. Several other recent studies yielded information on relative sea-level movements along the southern Apulian coasts; these, mainly based on geomorphological and archaeological evidence, at least partially corroborate our hypotheses on sea-level positions at several stages. In their paper, Mastronuzzi and Sans (2002) report that a relative highstand occurred around 6000 yr BP,

Conclusion
The study of the 250 cm long ALI1 core allowed the definition of the brackish/lacustrine environments and the reconstruction of local sea-level changes during the last 5500 years. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction has been made using plant assemblages as the main indicators; in particular, considered the ecological requirements of the identified taxa, the local depth has been inferred from macrophyte remains, evidence on salinity changes have been deduced by charophytes. Faunal assemblages (molluscs, foraminifers and ostracods) and their changes have been taken into account as additional information sources. In several horizons (accumulated in brackish conditions) plant remains hallowed to define sea level with an uncertainty range as narrow as 50 cm; for the same levels the presence of brackish mollusc assemblages would have suggested a depth between 0 and 200 cm (Ferranti et al., 2006; Lambeck et al., 2004). The succession of the deposition environments and the chronological framework defined by radiocarbon dates allowed the reconstruction of local relative sea-level changes through the midlate Holocene. The sea-level curve has been drawn relating each dated horizon to the reconstructed position of the sea level at the time of accumulation. The evidence collected along the Apulian coastland suggests us that the Alimini curve most likely gives an idea of the trends that characterised the midlate Holocene sea-level changes in the area. Our curve does not fit theoretical models proposed to describe Mediterranean Holocene sea-level changes; conversely, data collected in several Apulian areas, whose tectonic behaviour is each one different from the other, show the same sea-level trend within an apparently similar chronological framework (Caldara et al., 2008; Simone, 2003; Simone and Caldara, unpublished data). These issues let us to postulate that our data register at least a regional relative sea-level change, whose causes have to be investigated.

Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by the Dottorato di Ricerca in Geomorfologia e Dinamica Ambientale, Universit degli Studi di Bari (Italy) and by Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Universit del Salento (Lecce-Italy). We wish to thank Donatella Magri and Federico Di Rita (Universit La Sapienza Rome) for providing study material and for their critical suggestions and Adriana Garcia for supporting with charophytes recognition.

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