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particular adverbials, in expressing time or modal meaning, for instance.

5 Itemising the grammatical syllabus seems to lead to a great deal of teaching and testing at sentence level, with gap-fill and multiple choice often dominating as exercise types. The sentence is another convenient pedagogical tool: it is easy to distribute sentences around the class to make sure everyone gets a turn; a sentence can be written up on the board quickly. However, grammar at sentence level often bears little or no resemblance to the way it works in real connected discourse, which is, of course, far less easy to deal with in textbooks and in classroom settings. The result is that learners may not actually work with grammar at text or discourse level until they are relatively advanced, or (worse still!) until they are confronted with it in real communicative contexts.

Holistic grammar teaching

Rod Bolitho argues that the whole is more than the sum of the parts.
espite developments in views of language as communication and an emphasis on the four skills in statements of objectives and learning outcomes, the traditional, Latin-derived grammatical syllabus lurks on or just below the surface in most coursebooks and syllabus documents, often alongside functions, topics, text types, lexical fields and other interwoven elements. The grammatical syllabus tends to be presented atomistically as a series of language structures, often with verb forms as the backbone. Almost any coursebook at elementary or intermediate level will furnish examples of this kind of organisation, as does, rather disappointingly, the recent Core Inventory for General English, published by the British Council and Eaquals, which bases its conclusions on the levels specified in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).

Alternatives
There are alternative ways of approaching grammar for learners at different levels. Let us start by focusing on ways of looking more holistically at modal meaning. Modal verbs receive intensive treatment in most coursebooks, and the nuances of meaning that they carry can create a headache for both learners and teachers. Once again, there is an overconcentration on verbs (here: may, might, could, should, etc) as the basic building blocks. I should like to offer an alternative view of modal meaning based on consideration of key text types, accompanied by activities aimed at getting learners to think about the way English speakers and writers often cloak or emphasise their true intentions by resorting to modal expressions by no means all of them verbs.

1 Staging the grammatical syllabus can be a block to communication. Do we really want to hold students back from, say, using the passive to conceal the doer of an action, or the future continuous to express the continuity of an action from the present to a point in the future, until they have reached intermediate level (B1 on the CEFR scale) or even higher? 2 Itemising the grammatical syllabus favours serialist learners and can disadvantage holistic thinkers. It misses an opportunity to help learners to gain a big picture view of how various grammatical phenomena work. 3 Some grammatical categories are, at best, rationalisations and, at worst, distortions of how language really works. They may be pedagogically convenient but often lack face validity beyond the confines of the classroom. A good example is reported speech with all its associated rules: wonderful for torturing learners in sentence-level exercises and tests requiring transformation but, as was pointed out so eloquently by Dave Willis in a recent ETp article, it is essentially a non-category which causes far more trouble to learners than it is worth. 4 Our traditional fixation with the verb system tends to overgrammaticalise teaching and learning, and to neglect the power of lexical units, and in

Awareness-raising
On pages 5 and 6 there is a photocopiable activity for learners at intermediate level. The approach in this activity is based on raising awareness, which involves the learners in interrogating a familiar text type (a horoscope) to find out how modal meaning can be expressed. Most learners (and teachers!) feel pleased to discover that modality is all about the attitude of a speaker or writer towards what they wish to convey, and that it is expressed in many ways other than just through modal verbs. While a horoscope text cant possibly express every type of modal meaning, the range it offers is wide enough to illustrate

Atomisation
There are clearly some persuasive reasons for the retention of an atomised approach to the grammatical syllabus: teachability, learnability and testability probably being the main ones. However, there are also reasons to question its validity and usefulness, and Id like to go into these in slightly more detail here:

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several different ways of expressing probability, possibility, certainty, obligation and necessity. Interestingly, close study of this kind of text also reminds us that the vast majority of statements about the future are modal in nature and, in particular, that will is a modal verb expressing a high level of probability or even certainty, and not a marker of a so-called future tense. However, the main advantage is the potential that a horoscope offers for looking at the big picture of modality in an integrated way, rather than bit by bit.

I hope this working example has served to illustrate the main point of this series of articles, which is to highlight the difference between traditional grammatical syllabuses that still break the language down into bite-sized chunks, mainly to make it appear teachable and learnable, on the one hand, and syllabuses and teaching approaches that look at the big picture in order to see more clearly how the smaller parts actually work on the other. The traditional approach generally leaves the learner to assemble the parts in order to arrive at sense-producing utterances or pieces of writing. There is a kind of acquiescence in the approach that is built on a bottom-up, serialist-based word > phrase > sentence > connected discourse sequence, and it is the last step which is often so difficult for learners, not all of whom are able to synthesise bits of language into a coherent whole. Understanding the difference outlined above is a step towards finally shaking off the legacy of the teaching of Latin and Ancient Greek. Thanks to corpus analysis tools developed through ICT, we are now much more able to see and work with the big picture of language at whole-text and discourse level, and this should be gradually changing some of the views that have traditionally dominated language pedagogy. In these articles I will examine several areas of language from a topdown, holistic perspective to see what difference this can make to success in learning. In Issue 74 I will offer a model for working with time and tenses. ETp
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Council of Europe 2001 North, B, Ortega, A and Sheehan, S Core Inventory for General English British Council and Eaquals 2010 Willis, D Reported speech rules, what rules? English Teaching Professional 70 2010
Rod Bolitho is Academic Director at Norwich Institute for Language Education, UK. Before that, he spent 17 years at the University College of St Mark and St John in Plymouth. His most recent book is Trainer Development, coauthored with Tony Wright. rodbol44@yahoo.co.uk

Holistic grammar teaching

Modal meaning
1 Find your own horoscope in

the text. How would you describe the tone? Choose one or more from these options: advisory definite warning negative prescriptive provisional/conditional positive pessimistic/downbeat tentative/hesitant urgent optimistic/upbeat Give reasons for your answer. Why does the tone vary from one star sign to another?
2 Now scan the other

Adverbs
Adverbs such as probably, possibly and perhaps, and phrases such as theres a chance that ..., is likely to ... and theres no need to ..., all complement the modal verbs and extend the nuances of meaning available to a speaker or writer. Some languages, Russian for example, make extensive use of adverbial phrases, often in preference to modal verbs, to express attitude. It makes sense for teachers to build on this by equipping learners with a selection of adverbs to enable them to communicate effectively, before going into all the complexities of the modal verb system, where the learners mother tongue often (as in German) works a little differently from English in the way it carves up meaning. The introduction early on of such adverbs and adverbial phrases also gives a set of conceptual hooks to hang the modal verbs on when they are finally introduced.

horoscopes and find examples of the following communicative functions: expressing probability expressing possibility expressing certainty expressing necessity expressing obligation suggesting/recommending telling/ordering How were you able to identify these functions?
3 Is modal meaning expressed

Angles
There are other text types which yield different angles on modal meaning. A set of regulations, such as school rules or house rules in a hotel or guesthouse, will provide a broad view of ways of expressing obligation. Engagement with the selfassessment framework in the CEFR, for example, will quickly familiarise learners with ways of expressing ability. Looking at business reports will throw up ways of recommending or expressing necessity in a more or less urgent way. Listening to certain types of dialogue, such as discussing options for the weekend or for a shopping trip, will also raise learners awareness of the way we express nuances of attitude through intonation. In each of these cases, the text is best accompanied by the sorts of questions exemplified in the activity below, aimed at raising awareness and helping learners to make connections between form and meaning.

only by modal verbs? Give examples from the horoscope text to support your answer.
4 Make a poster covering as

many aspects of modal meaning as you know about. Illustrate it in any way you like. If you wish, include comparisons and contrasts with ways in which your own language expresses modal meaning.

www.etprofessional.com ENGLISH TEACHING professional Issue 73 March 2011

Holistic grammar teaching

Scintilla Saturn reads your stars

Aries
March 21April 20 You should put energy into social contacts. Any plans you have for the weekend are likely to work out, but you will need to tread carefully. Your finances might receive a welcome boost later in the week. Watch out for an important text message or email.

Taurus
April 21May 20 Dont bank on getting some news that you are waiting for. This could be a good time to plan a trip. You will soon meet someone who will very probably play an important part in your career. Theres a better than even chance of an upturn in your love life, too.

Gemini
May 21June 21 All is not well at home and you might have to go through some pain to put things right. Listening to advice from a friend could be a good move. But you will probably find success at work as long as you can be patient enough to wait for it. Try to take more breaks in your day and to sleep longer at night.

Cancer
June 22July 22 Take it easy today and tomorrow but plan for a more energetic time later. You may well be shocked by a reply from a colleague but dont get upset about it. Things are sure to look up after that, especially on the personal front. Start saying yes more often! You definitely wont regret it.

Leo
July 23Aug 23 Putting off a big decision might be a tempting option, but dont go for it. Time will prove you right. Someone you love will make unexpected demands on you and you should think carefully before agreeing. This is a good time for you to make an investment.

Virgo
Aug 24Sept 23 Your current run of bad luck cant possibly go on much longer so do stop feeling sorry for yourself! Dont travel unless its absolutely necessary. There are probably better prospects for you close to home. You need to reconsider your eating habits to boost your energy levels.

Libra
Sept 24Oct 23 You will hear from someone you have been out of touch with for ages. Weighing up alternative holiday plans for a while might result in a good decision. You really must start taking more care of yourself. Start by eating less and taking more exercise!

Scorpio
Oct 24Nov 22 Something you were looking forward to is likely to be cancelled or postponed, but you will find a different outlet for your energy. You will get some advice from a friend about problems in a relationship, but you may not feel like heeding it. Go with your instincts in this and in everything else you do.

Sagittarius
Nov 23Dec 21 You will be obliged to think again about a financial decision you made some time ago. You may find it difficult to change your mind, but you are certain to benefit if you do. A quarrel with a loved one is not necessarily the end of the world! You will soon kiss and make it up, for sure.

Capricorn
Dec 22Jan 21 If you see a chance to go on a trip for a few days, take it. It will give you some breathing space and you neednt feel bad about leaving some responsibilities behind. Theres no doubt that you need time to think and perhaps to start on something new at home or at work.

Aquarius
Jan 22Feb 19 You will get some help from a family member this week, but you may need more support than that. Go out and do something active as this is certain to help you see your problems more clearly. Towards the end of the week there will be an invitation to some kind of celebration. Dont turn it down!

Pisces
Feb 20March 20 A financial transaction is certain to work out to your advantage, but you may need to wait before the money is in your pocket. You could be tempted into a new personal relationship but it wont necessarily be in your best interests, so think hard before getting too involved. It may be best to sleep on this decision.

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