Flow Measurement Handbook

INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS, OPERATING PRINCIPLES, PERFORMANCE, AND APPLICATIONS

ROGER C. BAKER

PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA http://www.cup.org 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain c Cambridge University Press 2000 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2000 Printed in the United States of America Typeface Stone Serif 9/12.5 pt.
AT X 2 System L E

[TB]

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Baker, R. C. Flow measurement handbook : industrial designs, operating principles, performance, and applications / Roger C. Baker. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-521-48010-8 1. Flow meters Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. TA357.5.M43B35 2000 681 .28 dc21 99-14190 CIP ISBN 0 521 48010 8 hardback
DISCLAIMER

Every effort has been made in preparing this book to provide accurate and up-to-date data and information that is in accord with accepted standards and practice at the time of publication and has been included in good faith. Nevertheless, the author, editors, and publisher can make no warranties that the data and information contained herein is totally free from error, not least because industrial design and performance is constantly changing through research, development, and regulation. Data, discussion, and conclusions developed by the author are for information only and are not intended for use without independent substantiating investigation on the part of the potential users. The author, editors, and publisher therefore disclaim all liability or responsibility for direct or consequential damages resulting from the use of data, designs, or constructions based on any of the information supplied or materials described in this book. Readers are strongly advised to pay careful attention to information provided by the manufacturer of any equipment that they plan to use and should refer to the most recent standards documents relating to their application. The author, editors, and publisher wish to point out that the inclusion or omission of a particular device, design, application, or other material in no way implies anything about its performance with respect to other devices, etc.

Contents

Preface Acknowledgments Nomenclature

CHAPTER 1

page xix xxi xxiii

Introduction

1 1 2 4 7 9 9 13 15 15 15 16 17 19 20 21 21 24 24 24 24 27 30 32 34 36 38 39

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Initial Considerations Do We Need a Flowmeter? How Accurate? A Brief Review of the Evaluation of Standard Uncertainty Sensitivity Coefcients What Is a Flowmeter? Chapter Conclusions (for those who plan to skip the mathematics!) Mathematical Postscript
APPENDIX 1.A

1.A.1 1.A.2 1.A.3 1.A.4 1.A.5 1.A.6 1.A.7

Statistics of Flow Measurement Introduction The Normal Distribution The Student t Distribution Practical Application of Condence Level Types of Error Combination of Uncertainties Uncertainty Range Bars, Transfer Standards, and Youden Analysis

CHAPTER 2

Fluid Mechanics Essentials

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10

Introduction Essential Property Values Flow in a Circular Cross-Section Pipe Flow Straighteners and Conditioners Essential Equations Unsteady Flow and Pulsation Compressible Flow Multiphase Flow Cavitation, Humidity, Droplets, and Particles Gas Entrapment

vii

viii

CONTENTS

2.11 2.12

Steam Chapter Conclusions

39 41 42 42 42 43 46 53 55 55 56 56 58 61 61 61 64 65 66 69 69 72 74 74 77 77 79 80 80 81 81 82 84 91 92 93 95 95 97 100 102 106

CHAPTER 3

Specication, Selection, and Audit

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

Introduction Specifying the Application Notes on the Specication Form Flowmeter Selection Summary Tables Other Guides to Selection and Specic Applications Draft Questionnaire for Flowmeter Audit Final Comments
APPENDIX 3.A

Specication and Audit Questionnaires 3.A.1 Specication Questionnaire 3.A.2 Supplementary Audit Questionnaire

CHAPTER 4

Calibration

4.1

4.2 4.3

4.4

4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

Introduction 4.1.1 Calibration Considerations 4.1.2 Typical Calibration Laboratory Facilities 4.1.3 Calibration from the Manufacturers Viewpoint Approaches to Calibration Liquid Calibration Facilities 4.3.1 Flying Start and Stop 4.3.2 Standing Start and Stop 4.3.3 Large Pipe Provers 4.3.4 Compact Provers Gas Calibration Facilities 4.4.1 Volumetric Measurement 4.4.2 Mass Measurement 4.4.3 Gas/Liquid Displacement 4.4.4 pvT Method 4.4.5 Critical Nozzles 4.4.6 Soap Film Burette Method Transfer Standards and Master Meters In Situ Calibration Calibration Uncertainty Traceability and Accuracy of Calibration Facilities Chapter Conclusions

CHAPTER 5

Orice Plate Meters

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Introduction Essential Background Equations Design Details Installation Constraints Other Orice Plates

CONTENTS

ix

5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17

Deection of Orice Plate at High Pressure Effect of Pulsation Effects of More Than One Flow Component Accuracy Under Normal Operation Industrially Constructed Designs Pressure Connections Pressure Measurement Temperature and Density Measurement Flow Computers Detailed Studies of Flow Through the Orice Plate, Both Experimental and Computational Application, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter Conclusions
APPENDIX 5.A

106 109 113 117 118 119 122 124 124 124 127 127 128 130 130 131 134 135 135 137 138 140 140 141 143 145 146 147 148 149 151 152 152 153 153 153 154 154 155 156 157

Orice Discharge Coefcient

CHAPTER 6

Venturi Meter and Standard Nozzles

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

Introduction Essential Background Equations Design Details Commercially Available Devices Installation Effects Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter Conclusions

CHAPTER 7

Critical Flow Venturi Nozzle

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11

Introduction Design Details of a Practical Flowmeter Installation Practical Equations Discharge Coefcient C Critical Flow Function C Design Considerations Measurement Uncertainty Example Industrial and Other Experience Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications Chapter Conclusions

CHAPTER 8

Other Momentum-Sensing Meters

8.1 8.2

Introduction Variable Area Meter 8.2.1 Operating Principle and Background 8.2.2 Design Variations 8.2.3 Remote Readout Methods 8.2.4 Design Features 8.2.5 Calibration and Sources of Error

CONTENTS

8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14

8.2.6 Installation 8.2.7 Unsteady and Pulsating Flows 8.2.8 Industrial Types, Ranges, and Performance 8.2.9 Computational Analysis of the Variable Area Flowmeter 8.2.10 Applications Spring-Loaded Diaphragm (Variable Area) Meters Target (Drag Plate) Meter Integral Orice Meters Dall Tubes and Devices that Approximate to Venturis and Nozzles Wedge and V-Cone Designs Differential Devices with a Flow Measurement Mechanism in the Bypass Slotted Orice Plate Pipework Features Inlets Pipework Features Bend or Elbow Used as a Meter Averaging Pitot Laminar or Viscous Flowmeters Chapter Conclusions
APPENDIX 8.A History, Equations, and Accuracy Classes for the VA Meter 8.A.1 Some History 8.A.2 Equations 8.A.3 Accuracy Classes

157 158 158 159 159 159 162 163 163 165 167 168 168 169 170 173 176 177 177 178 180 182 182 182 183 184 184 184 185 185 187 189 190 190 191 192 194 194 196 197 197

CHAPTER 9

Positive Displacement Flowmeters

9.1

9.2

9.3

Introduction 9.1.1 Background 9.1.2 Qualitative Description of Operation Principal Designs of Liquid Meters 9.2.1 Nutating Disk Meter 9.2.2 Oscillating Circular Piston Meter 9.2.3 Multirotor Meters 9.2.4 Oval Gear Meter 9.2.5 Sliding Vane Meters 9.2.6 Helical Rotor Meter 9.2.7 Reciprocating Piston Meters 9.2.8 Precision Gear Flowmeters Calibration, Environmental Compensation, and Other Factors Relating to the Accuracy of Liquid Flowmeters 9.3.1 Calibration Systems 9.3.2 Clearances 9.3.3 Leakage Through the Clearance Gap Between Vane and Wall 9.3.4 Slippage Tests 9.3.5 The Effects of Temperature and Pressure Changes 9.3.6 The Effects of Gas in Solution

CONTENTS

xi

9.4 9.5

9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

Accuracy and Calibration Principal Designs of Gas Meters 9.5.1 Wet Gas Meter 9.5.2 Diaphragm Meter 9.5.3 Rotary Positive Displacement Gas Meter Positive Displacement Meters for Multiphase Flows Meter Using Liquid Plugs to Measure Low Flows Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter Conclusions
APPENDIX 9.A

198 199 199 200 202 203 205 205 206 207 207 209 210 210 211 213 215 215 215 215 216 221 221 223 224 224 225 225 226 227 228 228 229 231 232 232 232 233 233 234 234 234 235 236 236 236

9.A.1 9.A.2 9.A.3 9.A.4 9.A.5 9.A.6

CHAPTER 10

Theory for a Sliding Vane Meter Flowmeter Equation Expansion of the Flowmeter Due to Temperature Pressure Effects Meter Orientation Analysis of Calibrators Application of Equations to a Typical Meter

Turbine and Related Flowmeters

10.1

10.2

10.3

Introduction 10.1.1 Background 10.1.2 Qualitative Description of Operation 10.1.3 Basic Theory Precision Liquid Meters 10.2.1 Principal Design Components 10.2.2 Bearing Design Materials 10.2.3 Strainers 10.2.4 Materials 10.2.5 Size Ranges 10.2.6 Other Mechanical Design Features 10.2.7 Cavitation 10.2.8 Sensor Design and Performance 10.2.9 Characteristics 10.2.10 Accuracy 10.2.11 Installation 10.2.12 Maintenance 10.2.13 Viscosity, Temperature, and Pressure 10.2.14 Unsteady Flow 10.2.15 Multiphase Flow 10.2.16 Signal Processing 10.2.17 Applications 10.2.18 Advantages and Disadvantages Precision Gas Meters 10.3.1 Principal Design Components 10.3.2 Bearing Design 10.3.3 Materials 10.3.4 Size Range 10.3.5 Accuracy

xii

CONTENTS

10.4

10.5

10.6

10.3.6 Installation 10.3.7 Sensing 10.3.8 Unsteady Flow 10.3.9 Applications 10.3.10 Advantages and Disadvantages Water Meters 10.4.1 Principal Design Components 10.4.2 Bearing Design 10.4.3 Materials 10.4.4 Size Range 10.4.5 Sensing 10.4.6 Characteristics and Accuracy 10.4.7 Installation 10.4.8 Special Designs Other Propeller and Turbine Meters 10.5.1 Quantum Dynamics Flowmeter 10.5.2 Pelton Wheel Flowmeters 10.5.3 Bearingless Flowmeter 10.5.4 Vane-Type Flowmeters Chapter Conclusions
APPENDIX 10.A

237 238 238 240 241 241 241 242 243 243 243 243 244 244 244 244 244 245 245 245 246 246 251 253 253 253 254 255 257 259 260 263 264 264 264 267 267 268 269 270 271 272 272 273

10.A.1 10.A.2
CHAPTER 11

Turbine Flowmeter Theory Derivation of Turbine Flowmeter Torque Equations Transient Analysis of Gas Turbine Flowmeter

Vortex-Shedding, Swirl, and Fluidic Flowmeters

11.1 11.2 11.3

11.4

Introduction Vortex Shedding Industrial Developments of Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters 11.3.1 Experimental Evidence of Performance 11.3.2 Bluff Body Shape 11.3.3 Standardization of Bluff Body Shape 11.3.4 Sensing Options 11.3.5 Cross Correlation and Signal Interrogation Methods 11.3.6 Other Aspects Relating to Design and Manufacture 11.3.7 Accuracy 11.3.8 Installation Effects 11.3.9 Effect of Pulsation and Pipeline Vibration 11.3.10 Two-Phase Flows 11.3.11 Size and Performance Ranges and Materials in Industrial Designs 11.3.12 Computation of Flow Around Bluff Bodies 11.3.13 Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages 11.3.14 Future Developments Swirl Meter Industrial Design 11.4.1 Design and Operation 11.4.2 Accuracy and Ranges

CONTENTS

xiii

11.5

11.6 11.7

11.4.3 Materials 11.4.4 Installation Effects 11.4.5 Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages Fluidic Flowmeter 11.5.1 Design 11.5.2 Accuracy 11.5.3 Installation Effects 11.5.4 Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages Other Proposed Designs Chapter Conclusions
APPENDIX 11.A

273 273 273 274 274 275 276 276 276 276 278 278 279 282 282 282 284 286 286 289 292 293 295 296 296 297 297 297 298 299 300 300 300 300 301 301 302 302 303 303 304 305 305

11.A.1 11.A.2
CHAPTER 12

Vortex-Shedding Frequency Vortex Shedding from Cylinders Order of Magnitude Calculation of Shedding Frequency

Electromagnetic Flowmeters

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

12.5 12.6 12.7

12.8

12.9

12.10 12.11 12.12

12.13

Introduction Operating Principle Limitations of the Theory Design Details 12.4.1 Sensor or Primary Element 12.4.2 Transmitter or Secondary Element Calibration and Operation Industrial and Other Designs Installation Constraints Environmental 12.7.1 Surrounding Pipe 12.7.2 Temperature and Pressure Installation Constraints Flow Prole Caused by Upstream Pipework 12.8.1 Introduction 12.8.2 Theoretical Comparison of Meter Performance Due to Upstream Flow Distortion 12.8.3 Experimental Comparison of Meter Performance Due to Upstream Flow Distortion 12.8.4 Conclusions on Installation Requirements Installation Constraints Fluid Effects 12.9.1 Slurries 12.9.2 Change of Fluid 12.9.3 Nonuniform Conductivity Multiphase Flow Accuracy Under Normal Operation Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages 12.12.1 Applications 12.12.2 Advantages 12.12.3 Disadvantages Chapter Conclusions
APPENDIX 12.A

12.A.1

Brief Review of Theory Introduction