ABSTRACT

To reduce the wastage of power across a load we need efficient switching. This efficient
switching can be done by using SCR. Because of the bistable characteristics of semiconductor
devices, whereby they can be switched on and off, and the efficiency of gate control to trigger
such devices, the SCRs are ideally suited for many industrial applications. SCRs have got
specific advantages over saturable core reactors and gas tubes owing to their compactness,
reliability, low losses, and speedy turn-on and turn-off. The bistable states (conducting and non-
conducting) of the SCR and the property that enables fast transition from one state to the other
are made use of in the control of power in both ac and dc circuits. In ac circuits the SCR can be
turned-on by the gate at any angle with respect to applied voltage. This angle is called the
firing angle and power control is obtained by varying the firing angle. This is known as phase
control. Power control in dc circuits is obtained by varying the duration of on-time and off-time
of the device and such a mode of operation is called on-off control or chopper control.



SCOPE



This mini project report documents the analysis and simulation of power controlling by u
the conversion scheme (AC/DC/AC converter) using MULTISIM simulation software.

This report basically separated into several parts. Firstly, a general introduction of
different types of switches and characteristics of SCR. Secondly, brief introduction of methods
of power control. Thirdly, the designing of power circuit and control circuit and the AC/DC/AC
converter is analyzed.

INDEX

Contents: PAGE NO.

CHAPTER: 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER: 2
2.0 About power electronics 2
2.1 Applications of power electronics 3
2.2 Classification of switches 3
2.3 Different types of power electronic switches 4

CHAPTER: 3
3.0 Introduction of SCR 9
3.1 Characteristics of SCR 10
3.2 Advantages of SCR among other switches 11




CHAPTER: 4
4.0 Triggering methods of SCR 16
4.1 Why pulse triggering is preferred? 17
4.2 Ratings of SCR 18


CHAPTER: 5
5.0 Resistance triggering circuit 20
5.1 Resistance triggering circuit 21

CHAPTER:6
6.0 Power electronic converters 22
6.1 Performance factors 24
6.2 AC- voltage controller 29
6.3 Design procedure 30


CHAPTER: 7
7.0 MULTISIM simulation circuit 32
7.1 Running simulation 33
7.2 Results 34




Conclusion 35


ABBRIVATIONS
SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier

GTO Gate Turn-Off thyristor

IGBT Integrated Gate Bipolar Transistor

BJT Bipolar junction transistor

MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor













LIST OF TABLES

Table: 6.2-Data sheet of SCR 2N2577

Table :7.2-Data sheet of TYN 612
LIST OF FIGURES
Page no
Fig : 3.0: V-I characteristics of SCR 13
Figs: 3.1: Comparison of different switches 15


Fig: 3.2: Resistance triggering circuit 20
Fig: 3.3: Resistance capacitance triggering circuit 21

Fig 4.1: Full wave AC voltage controller 29
Fig.7.1: MULTISIM simulation circuit 32


























CHAPTER: 1

1.0 Introduction

Switch has great importance in any electronic circuit. A power electronic switch integrates a
combination of power electronic components or power semiconductors and a driver for the
actively switchable power semiconductors. The operation of switch will effect of entire operation
of circuit. The first fundamental principle which you should remember forever is that power
efficiency dictates that switches be used as control devices. The second fundamental principle,
which is of equal importance, is that all high-power controls or converters are simply switching
matrices. The switch should consume less power during turn on and turn off. And it should be
controlled easily. By switching we can get converter and inverter operations. The switching will
affect the efficiency of output .Hence selection of switch is very important.



























CHAPTER: 2


2.0 About Power Electronics

As the technology for the power semiconductor devices and integrated circuit develops, the
potential for applications of power electronics become wider. There are already many power
semiconductor devices that are commercially available, however the development in this
direction is continuing.

Power Electronics defined as the application of solid state (devices) electronics for the control
and conversion of electric power.

Power electronics and converters utilizing them made a head start when the first device the
Silicon Controlled Rectifier was proposed by Bell Labs and commercially produced by General
Electric in the earlier fifties. The first very high power electronic devices were mercury arc
valves. The Mercury Arc Rectifiers were well in use by that time and the robust and compact
SCR first started replacing it in the rectifiers and cycloconverters. All of the important
parameters of the electrical waveform are subject to regulation or conversion by solid-state
power devices, including effective voltage, effective current, frequency, and/or power factor.
Often the control of electrical power is desired simply as a means for controlling some non-
electrical parameter. For example, drives for controlling the speed of a motor. In other
applications, power electronics is used to control the temperature of an oven, the rate of an
electrochemical refining process, the intensity of lighting, etc. The design of power electronics
equipment involves interactions with the source and the load, and utilizes small-signal electronic
control circuits as well as power devices. Therefore power electronics draws upon, and indeed
depends upon all of the other areas of electrical engineering.

Power electronics have already found an important place in modern technology and are now used
in a great variety of high-power product, including heat controls, light controls, electric motor
control, power supplies, vehicle propulsion system and high voltage direct current (HVDC)
systems.




2.1Applications of Power Electronics:

Switch mode power supplies (SMPS).
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
Photo-voltaic and fuel-cell power conversion systems
Photo-voltaic and fuel-cell power conversion systems
Heating and lighting, including high frequency illumination control.

Induction heating.
DC and AC servo drives.
High efficiency industrial/commercial drives.
Electric vehicle applications.
Electric traction.
Renewable Energy systems.




2.2Classification of switches:
1) Un controlled switches
2) Semi controlled switches
3) Fully controlled switches

Un controlled switches:
Switches always conduct whenever a forward polarity of voltage is applied to their terminals.
Type 1 switches are known as rectifiers or diodes.

Semi controlled switches:
Switches do not conduct forward current until commanded to do so by a control signal.
Therefore Type 2 switches behave as Type 1 switches and continue to conduct as long as
forward current flows. Type 2 switches are known as thyristors (the full official name is reverse
blocking triode thyristor) or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs).

Fully controlled switches:
Switches can not only turn on forward conduction when commanded by the control signal, but
can also interrupt conduction upon command without waiting for reverse polarity to be applied.
Power transistors and gate controlled switches exhibit Type 3 behavior. By artificial circuit
means, thyristors can also be force commutated to operate as Type 3 switches.






2.3Different types of Electronic Switches:


DIODE:



Uni-polar, uncontrolled, switching device used in applications such as rectification and circuit
directional current control. Reverse voltage blocking device, commonly modeled as a switch in
series with a voltage source, usually 0.7 VDC. The model can be enhanced to include a junction
resistance, in order to accurately predict the diode voltage drop across the diode with respect to
current flow.

SCR:


This semi-controlled device turns on when a gate pulse is present and the anode is positive
compared to the cathode. When a gate pulse is present, the device operates like a standard diode.
When the anode is negative compared to the cathode, the device turns off and blocks positive or
negative voltages present. The gate voltage does not allow the device to turn off.

GTO:

The gate turn-off thyristor, unlike an SCR, can be turned on and off with a gate pulse. One issue
with the device is that turn off gate voltages are usually larger and require more current than turn
on levels. This turn off voltage is a negative voltage from gate to source, usually it only needs to
be present for a short time, but the magnitude s on the order of 1/3 of the anode current. A
snubber circuit is required in order to provide a usable switching curve for this device. Without
the snubber circuit, the GTO cannot be used for turning inductive loads off. These devices,
because of developments in IGCT technology are not very popular in the power electronics
realm. They are considered controlled, uni-polar and bi-polar voltage blocking.

TRIAC:

The triac is a device that is essentially an integrated pair of phase-controlled thyristors connected
in inverse-parallel on the same chip. Like an SCR, when a voltage pulse is present on the gate
terminal, the device turns on. The main difference between an SCR and a Triac is that both the
positive and negative cycle can be turned on independently of each other, using a positive or
negative gate pulse. Similar to an SCR, once the device is turned on, the device cannot be turned
off. This device is considered bi-polar and reverse voltage blocking.

BJT:

N-P-N P-N-P
The BJT cannot be used at high power; they are slower and have more resistive losses when
compared to MOSFET type devices. In order to carry high current,

BJTs must have relatively large base currents, thus these devices have high power losses when
compared to MOSFET devices. BJTs along with MOSFETs are also considered unipolar and do
not block reverse voltage very well, unless installed in pairs with protection diodes. Generally,
BJTs are not utilized in power

Electronics switching circuits because of the I
2
R losses associated with on resistance and base
current requirements. BJTs have lower current gains in high power packages, thus requiring
them to be setup in Darlington configurations in order to handle the currents required by power
electronic circuits. Because of these multiple transistor configurations, switching times are in the
hundreds of nanoseconds to microseconds. Devices have voltage ratings which max out around
1500 V and fairly high current ratings. They can also be paralleled in order to increase power
handling, but must be limited to around 5 devices for current sharing.

POWER MOSFET:

The main benefit of the power MOSFET is that the base current for BJT is large compared to
almost zero for MOSFET gate current. Since the MOSFET is a depletion channel device,
voltage, not current is necessary to create a conduction path from drain to source. The gate does
not contribute to either drain or source current. Turn on gate current is essentially zero with the
only power dissipated at the gate coming during switching. Losses in MOSFETs are largely
attributed to on-resistance. The calculations show a direct correlation to drain source on-
resistance and the device blocking voltage rating, BV
dss
.
Switching times range from tens of nanoseconds to a few hundred microseconds, depending on
the device. MOSFET drain source resistances increase as more current flows through the device.
As frequencies increase the losses increase as well, making BJTs more attractive. Power
MOSFETs can be paralleled in order to increase switching current and therefore overall
switching power. Nominal voltages for MOSFET switching devices range from a few volts to a
little over 1000 V, with currents up to about 100 A or so. Newer devices may have higher
operational characteristics. MOSFET devices are not bi-directional, nor are they reverse voltage
blocking.
IGBT:
These devices have the best characteristics of MOSFETs and BJTs. Like MOSFET devices, the
insulated gate bipolar transistor has high gate impedance, thus low gate current requirements.
Like BJTs, this device has low on state voltage drop, thus low power loss across the switch in
operating mode. Similar to the GTO, the IGBT can be used to block both positive and negative
voltages. Operating currents are fairly high, in excess of 1500 A and switching voltage up to
3000 V. The IGBT has reduced input capacitance compared to MOSFET devices which
improves the Miller feedback effect during high dv/dt turn on and turn off.



IGBT


























CHAPTER: 3

3.0Introduction of SCR

Shockley diodes are curious devices, but rather limited in application. Their usefulness may be
expanded, however, by equipping them with another means of latching. In doing so, each
becomes true amplifying devices (if only in an on/off mode), and we refer to these as silicon-
controlled rectifiers, or SCRs.





If an SCR's gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley diode. It may be
latched by breakover voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of voltage rise between anode and
cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout is accomplished by reducing current until one
or both internal transistors fall into cutoff mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because
the gate terminal connects directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an
alternative means to latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the
lower transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so that it no
longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current to initiate latch-
up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR from cathode to anode, so
the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification.
This method of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most common
way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually chosen so that their
breakover voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to be experienced from the power
source, so that it can be turned on only by an intentional voltage pulse applied to the gate.
It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by directly shorting their gate
and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering" the gate with a negative voltage (in
reference to the cathode), so that the lower transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is
"sometimes" possible because it involves shunting all of the upper transistor's collector current
past the lower transistor's base. This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of
an SCR difficult at best.




3.1Comparison of different switches:


3.2Advantages of SCR among other switches:

It has high power ratings. The ability of an SCR to control large currents to a load by means of
small gate current makes the device very useful in switching and control applications. Because of
the bistable characteristics of semiconductor devices, whereby they can be switched on and off,
and the efficiency of gate control to trigger such devices, the SCRs are ideally suited for many
industrial applications. SCRs have got specific advantages over saturable core reactors and gas
tubes owing to their compactness, reliability, low losses, and speedy turn-on and turn-off.
In some ac circuits it is necessary to apply the voltage to the load when the instantaneous value
of this voltage is going through the zero value. This is to avoid a high rate of increase of current
in case of purely resistive loads such as lighting and furnace loads, and thereby reduce the
generation of radio noise and hot-spot temperatures in the device carrying the load current. By
using SCR we can do this.
SCRs can be employed for protecting other equipment from over-voltages owing to their fast
switching action. The SCR employed for protection is connected in parallel with the load.
Whenever the voltage exceeds a specified limit, the gate of the SCR will get energized and
trigger the SCR. A large current will be drawn from the supply mains and voltage across the load
will be reduced.
































4.0 Triggering methods of SCR

Forward Voltage Triggering:
In this method when anode to cathode forward voltage is increased with gate circuit open, then
the reverse bias junction J
2
will have a avalanche breakdown at a voltage called forward break
over voltage V
BO
. At this voltage thyristor or SCR changes from OFF state to ON state. The
forward voltage drop across the SCR during ON state is of the order of 1 to 1.5V and increases
slightly with increase in the load current.
Thermal Triggering (Temperature Triggering):
Width of the depletion layer of the thyristor decreases on increasing the junction temperature.
Thus in the SCR when the voltage applied is very near to the breakdown voltage, the device can
be triggered by increasing its junction temperature. By applying the temperature to certain
extent, a situation comes when the reverse biased junction collapse making the device to
conduct. This method of triggering the thyristor by heating is known as the Thermal Triggering
process

Radiation Triggering (Light Triggering):
Thyristors are bombarded with energy particles such as neutrons and protons. Light energy is
focused on the depletion region results in the formation of charge carriers. This lead to
instantaneous flow of current with in the device and the triggering of the device.
dv/dt Triggering:
In this method of triggering if the applied rate of change of voltage is large, then the device will
turn on even though the voltage appearing across the device is small. We know that when SCR is
applied with forward voltage across the anode and cathode, junctions j
1
and j
3
will be in forward
bias and junction j
2
will be in reverse bias. This reverse biased junction j
2
will have the
characteristics of the capacitor due to the charges exist across the junction. If the forward voltage
is suddenly applied a charging current will flow tending to turn on the SCR. This magnitude of
the charging current depends on the rate of change of applied voltage.
Gate Triggering:
This is the most commonly used method for triggering the SCR or thyristor. For gate triggering a
signal is applied across the gate and cathode of the device. By applying a positive signal at the
gate terminal of the SCR it will be triggered much before the specified break over voltage. Three
types of signals can be used for triggering the SCR. They are either dc signal, ac signal or pulse
signal.
DC Gate triggering:
In this type of triggering a dc voltage of proper magnitude and polarity is applied between the
gate and cathode such that gate becomes positive with respect to the cathode. When the applied
voltage is sufficient to produce required gate current the device starts conducting
CHAPTER: 4

AC Gate triggering:
ac source is most commonly used triggering source for thyristor for ac applications.
Advantages:
Have the advantages than dc source such as power isolation between the power and the control
circuits and firing angle can be controlled by changing the phase angle of the control signal.
Drawback:
Gate drive is maintained for one half cycle of the device is turned ON.
Severe reverse voltage is applied across gate and cathode during negative half cycle.
The drawback of this scheme is that a separate transformer is required to step down the ac supply
increasing the cost

4.1Why Pulse Gate Triggering?:
This is the most popular method for triggering the SCR. In this method gate drive consists of
single pulse appearing periodically or sequence of high frequency pulses. This is known as
carrier frequency gating. A pulse transformer is used for isolation. The main advantage of this
method is there is no need to apply continuous gate signal and hence gate losses are very much
reduced. Electrical isolation is also provided between the main device supply and its gating
signals.


4.2Ratings of SCR:
Current ratings of an SCR:
The current carrying capability of an SCR is solely determined by the junction temperature.
Except in case of surge currents, in no other case the junction temperature is permitted to exceed
the permissible value. Some of the current ratings used in industry to specify the device are given
below.
i) Forward Current Rating:
The maximum value of anode current, that an SCR can handle safely (without any damage), is
called the forward current rating. The usual current rating of SCRs is from about 30 A to 100 A.
In case the current exceeds the forward current rating, the SCR may get damaged due to
intensive heating at the junctions.
ii) On-state Current:
When the device is in conduction, it carries a load current determined by the supply voltage and
the load. On-state current is defined in terms of average and rms values.
I
Tav
is the average value of maximum continuous sinusoidal on-state current (frequency 40-60
Hz, conduction angle 180) which should not be exceeded even with intensive cooling. The
temperature at which the current is permissible has to be mentioned. It is this current which
determines the application of device.
I
Trms
is the rms value of maximum continuous sinusoidal on-state current (frequency 40-60 Hz,
conduction angle 180) which should not be exceeded even with intensive cooling.
Latching Current:
It is the minimum device current, which must be attained by the device, before the gate drive is
removed while turning-on, for maintaining it into conduc tion.
Holding Current:
It is the minimum on-state current required to keep the SCR in conducting state without
any gate drive. Its usual value is 5 m A.
(v) Surge Current:
It is the maximum admissible peak value of a sinusoidal half cycle of 10 ms duration at a
frequency of 50 Hz. The value is specified at a given junction temperature.
During maximum surge on-state current the junction temperature is exceeded though
temporarily and forward blocking capabilities are lost for a short period. The maximum
surge on-state current should only occur occasionally.
(vi) I
2
t Value:
I
2
t value is the time integral of the square of the maximum sinusiodal on-state current. This is
usually specified for 3 ms and 10 ms, and determines the thermal rating of the device.

(vii) Critical Rate of Rise of Current:
The maximum rate of increase of current during on-state which the SCR can tolerate is called the
critical rate of rise of current for the device. This is specified at maximum junction temperature.
During initial period of turning-on, only a small area near the gate conducts the anode current. If
the current increases too fast, localised overheating may take place. This is called the hole
storage effect. Due to localised heating the device may get permanently damaged. To-day
devices are available which can withstand rate of rise of current upto 200-250 A/microsecond,
however in application this rate is hardly allowed to exceed beyond 5-10 A/micro
second.Protection against dI/dt is provided by series inductor.

Voltage Ratings:
The device voltage rating is a measure of the maximum voltage which can be applied across the
device without causing a breakdown in the junction area. The different voltage ratings of SCR
are given as below:
(i)Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage:
This is the peak voltage that the thyristor can block in the forward direction. It is defined at the
maximum permissible junction temperature with gate circuit open or with a specified biasing
resistance between gate and cathode terminals.
(ii)Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage:
This is the peak reverse voltage that the thyristor can bear without breakdown at the maximum
permissible junction temerature. When this rating is sustianlly exceeded,the device may be
destroyed by junction breakdown.
(iii)Non-Repetitive Peak Reverse Voltage:
This is the maximum transient reverse voltage that can be safely blocked by the
thyristor.Transient reverse voltage rating can be raised by inserting a didoe of equal current
rating in series with the thyristor.
(iv)Forward dv/dt Rating:
When the rate of increae of forward voltage is higher in comparison to the specified maximum
value,it can cause switching from the off-state to the on-state.Beacause gate pulse triggeringis
generally used for the turn on of a thyristor,the dv/dt results in unscheduled turn on of a
thyristor.This technique of switching is to be avoided beacuse this can lead to the destruction of
the thyristor through high local current density. Due to this, the dv/dt rating is specified either by
linear or exponential waveform.


























CHAPTER:5

5.0Resistance Triggering circuit:




The above circuit is similar in design to the DC SCR circuit except for the omission of an
additional OFF switch and the inclusion of diode D
1
which prevents reverse bias being applied
to the Gate. During the positive half-cycle of the sinusoidal waveform, the device is forward
biased but with switch S
1
open, zero gate current is applied to the thyristor and it remains OFF.
On the negative half-cycle, the device is reverse biased and will remain OFF regardless of the
condition of switch S
1
.
If switch S
1
is closed, at the beginning of each positive half-cycle the thyristor is fully OFF but
shortly after there will be sufficient positive trigger voltage and therefore current present at the
Gate to turn the thyristor and the lamp ON. The thyristor is now latched-ON for the duration
of the positive half-cycle and will automatically turn OFF again when the positive half-cycle
ends and the Anode current falls below the holding current value. During the next negative half-
cycle the device is fully OFF anyway until the following positive half-cycle when the process
repeats itself and the thyristor conducts again as long as the switch is closed. Then in this
condition the lamp will receive only half of the available power from the AC source as the
thyristor acts like a rectifying diode, and conducts current only during the positive half-cycles
when it is forward biased. The thyristor continues to supply half power to the lamp until the
switch is opened.
If it were possible to rapidly turn switch S
1
ON and OFF, so that the thyristor received its Gate
signal at the peak (90
o
) point of each positive half-cycle, the device would only conduct for
one half of the positive half-cycle. In other words, conduction would only take place during one-
half of one-half of a sine wave and this condition would cause the lamp to receive one-fourth
or a quarter of the total power available from the AC source. By accurately varying the timing
relationship between the Gate pulse and the positive half-cycle, the Thyristor could be made to
supply any percentage of power desired to the load, between 0% and 50%. Obviously, using this
circuit configuration it cannot supply more than 50% power to the lamp, because it cannot
conduct during the negative half-cycles when it is reverse biased.


5.1 Resistance-Capacitance Triggering Circuit:


Phase control is the most common form of thyristor AC power control and a basic phase-control
circuit can be constructed as shown above. Here the thyristors Gate voltage is derived from the
RC charging circuit via the trigger diode, D
1
.
During the positive half-cycle when the thyristor is forward biased, capacitor, C charges up via
resistor R
1
following the AC supply voltage. The Gate is activated only when the voltage at
point A has risen enough to cause the trigger diode D
1
, to conduct and the capacitor discharges
into the Gate of the thyristor turning it ON. The time duration in the positive half of the cycle
at which conduction starts is controlled by RC time constant set by the variable resistor, R
1
.
Increasing the value of R
1
has the effect of delaying the triggering voltage and current supplied
to the thyristors Gate which in turn causes a lag in the devices conduction time. As a result, the
fraction of the cycle over which the device conducts can be controlled between 0 and 180
o
,
which means that the average power dissipated by lamp can be adjusted. However, the thyristor
is a unidirectional device so only a maximum of 50% power can be supplied.
There are a variety of ways to achieve 100% full-wave AC control using thyristors. One way is
to include a single thyristor within a diode bridge rectifier circuit which converts AC to a
unidirectional current through the thyristor while the more common method is to use two
thyristors connected in inverse parallel. A more practical approach is to use a single Triac as this
device can be triggered in both directions, therefore making them suitable for AC switching
applications.












CHAPTER: 6


6.0 Power electronic converters:


STATIC CONVERTERS

Static converter is power electronic converters that can conversion of electric
power from one to another.
The static power converters perform these function of power conversion.

The Power Electronic Converter can be classified into six types:
1. Diode Rectifier
2. AC to DC Converter (Controlled Rectifier)
3. DC to DC Converter (DC Chopper)
4. AC to AC Converter (AC voltage regulator)
5. DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
6. Static Switches

Static converter is power electronic converters that can conversion of
electric power from one to another.
The static power converters perform these function of power
conversion.

The Power Electronic Converter can be classified into six types:
1. Diode Rectifier
2. AC to DC Converter (Controlled Rectifier)
3. DC to DC Converter (DC Chopper)
4. AC to AC Converter (AC voltage regulator)
5. DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
6. Static Switches


Diode Rectifiers:
A diode rectifier circuit converts AC voltage into a fixed DC voltage. The input voltage to
rectifier could be eithersingle phase or three phase.


AC to DC Converters: An AC to DC converter circuit can convert AC voltage into a DC
voltage. The DC output voltage can be controlled by varying the firing angle of the thyristors.
The AC input voltage could be a single phase or three phase.
AC to AC Converters
This converter can convert from a fixed ac input voltage into variable AC output voltage. The
output voltage is controlled by varying firing angle of TRIAC. These type converters are known
as AC voltage regulator.


DC to DC Converters
These converters can converter a fixed DC input voltage into variable DC voltage or vice versa.
The DC output voltage is controlled by varying of duty cycle.
Static Switch:
Because the power devices can be operated as static switches or contactors, the supply to these
switches could be either AC or DC and the switches are called as AC static switches or DC static
switches.

AC to DC Converters:

Single phase, half wave AC to DC converter:



As shown in Fig the single-phase half-wave rectifier uses a single thyristor to control the
load voltage. The thyristor will conduct, ON state, when the voltage vTis positive and a firing
current pulse iGis applied to the gate terminal. Delaying the firing pulse by an angle does the
control of the load voltage. The firing angle is measured from the position where a diode
would naturally conduct. In Fig.(1), the angle a is measured from the zero crossing point of the
supply voltage vs. The load is resistive and therefore current idhas the same waveform as the
load voltage. The thyristor goes to the non-conducting condition, OFF state, when the load
voltage and, consequently, the current try to reach a negative value.
The load average voltage is given by:
Where Vmax is the supply peak voltage.




AC to AC converter:






6.1 Performance Factors of AC voltage Controller:
- RMS Output (Load) Voltage
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
2 2
0
sin .
2
m O RMS
n
V V t d t
n m
t
e e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( )
2
m
S O RMS i RMS
V n
V V k V k
m n
= = =
+


( ) ( )
S O RMS i RMS
V V k V k = =

Where
( )
S i RMS
V V = = RMS value of input supply voltage.

- Duty Cycle
( ) ( )
ON ON
O ON OFF
t t nT
k
T t t m n T
= = =
+ +


Where,
( )
n
k
m n
=
+
= duty cycle (d).

- RMS Load Current

( )
( ) ( ) O RMS O RMS
O RMS
L
V V
I
Z R
= = ; for a resistive load
L
Z R = .

- Output AC (Load) Power

( )
2
O L O RMS
P I R =


- Input Power Factor


output load power
input supply volt amperes
O O
S S
P P
PF
VA V I
= = =


( )
( ) ( )
2
L O RMS
i RMS in RMS
I R
PF
V I

;
( )
S in RMS
I I = =RMS input supply current.

The input supply current is same as the load current
in O L
I I I = =

Hence, RMS supply current = RMS load current;
( ) ( ) in RMS O RMS
I I = .

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
L O RMS O RMS i RMS
i RMS in RMS i RMS i RMS
I R V V k
PF k
V I V V

= = = =

n
PF k
m n
= =
+


- The Average Current of Thyristor
( ) T Avg
I

0 t
2t 3t et
I
m
n
m
i
T
Waveform of Thyristor Current


( )
( )
( )
0
sin .
2
m T Avg
n
I I t d t
m n
t
e e
t
=
+
}


( )
( )
( )
0
sin .
2
m
T Avg
nI
I t d t
m n
t
e e
t
=
+
}


( )
( )
0
cos
2
m
T Avg
nI
I t
m n
t
e
t
(
=
(
+



( )
( )
| | cos cos0
2
m
T Avg
nI
I
m n
t
t
= +
+


( )
( )
( ) 1 1
2
m
T Avg
nI
I
m n t
= + (

+


( )
( )
| | 2
2
m T Avg
n
I I
m n t
=
+


( )
( )
.
m m
T Avg
I n k I
I
m n t t
= =
+


( ) ( )
duty cycle
ON
ON OFF
t n
k
t t n m
= = =
+ +


( )
( )
.
m m
T Avg
I n k I
I
m n t t
= =
+
,

Where
m
m
L
V
I
R
= = maximum or peak thyristor current.

- RMS Current of Thyristor
( ) T RMS
I
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2 2
0
sin .
2
m T RMS
n
I I t d t
n m
t
e e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
2
0
sin .
2
m
T RMS
nI
I t d t
n m
t
e e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
0
1 cos 2
2 2
m
T RMS
t nI
I d t
n m
t
e
e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
2
0 0
cos 2 .
4
m
T RMS
nI
I d t t d t
n m
t t
e e e
t
(
=
( `
+
(
)
} }


( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
0 0
sin 2
2 4
m
T RMS
nI t
I t
n m
t t
e
e
t
(
| |
=
( ` |
+
\ .
(
)


( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
sin 2 sin0
0
4 2
m
T RMS
nI
I
n m
t
t
t
(
| |
=
` (
|
+
\ . )



( )
( )
{ }
1
2 2
0 0
4
m
T RMS
nI
I
n m
t
t
(
=
(
+



( )
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2 2 2
4 4
m m
T RMS
nI nI
I
n m n m
t
t
( (
= =
( (
+ +



( )
( ) 2 2
m m
T RMS
I I n
I k
m n
= =
+


( )
2
m
T RMS
I
I k =

6.2 Full wave AC voltage controller:





Circuit operation:

Potentiometer R controls the angle of conduction of the two SCRs.
The greater the resistance of the pot, lesser will be the voltage across capacitors C1 and
C2.
During positive half cycle capacitor C2 gets charged through diode D1, pot R, and diode
D4.

When the capacitor gets fully charged it discharges through Zener diode Z.
This gives a pulse to the primary and thereby secondary of the transformer T2.
Thus SCR2, which is forward biased, is turned on and conducts through load RL.
During negative half cycle similar action takes place due to charging of capacitor C1 and
SCR1 is triggered.
Thus power to a load is controlled by using SCRs.




For SCR 2N2577

Vgt=3.5V Igt=40mA

6.3Design procedure:

RC>=50*(T/2)=157/W

R<<(Vs-Vc)/Igt

R<<(Vs-Vgt-Vd)/Igt

R<<(230-3.5)/40mA

R<<5.6625K ohms

R~=5Kohms

RC~=0.5

5kohm*C~=0.5 C~=0.1uF


Zener Diode:
It operates in reverse bias mode it maintain constant gate triggering voltage across SCR.


Pulse transformer:
It is the 1:1 transformer it isolates the control circuit from power circuit.























CHAPTER: 7




7.1MULTISIM simulation circuit:













































7.2Results:
































































































CONCLUSION: