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The tensile test

Scheme of a typical stress strain curve of a deep-drawing steel.

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STRAIN HARDENING
When a metallic material overcomes the yield strength and it enters in the plastic field, the lattice planes slip as a consequence of the dislocations movement. After a first step of planes slip, the number of the dislocations increase and they start to interfere each other (jog) inducing a pile up. In such a condition, the load necessary to continue to deform the material increases, as evidenced in the stress-strain curve. Therefore, when a metallic material is deformed, it manifests a higher strength. This phenomenon is called:

STRAIN HARDENING
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STRAIN HARDENING COEFFICIENT

The behaviour in the plastic zone can be described in a simplified way from the Hollomon equation:

= K n
The n coefficient ranges from 0 to 1. If it is 0, the equation is:

=K
So deformation without strain hardening (brittle crack). If n is 1, the equation is:

=K
In this case there is a straight line with a rate equal to K (infinite toughness).

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

AND

P = A At Pmax dP=0=dA + dA d/ = -dA/A (eq.1) V=AL= cost dV=0=dAL + AdL dA/A = -dL/L = -d (eq.2) Thus combining (eq.1) and (eq.2) it can be obtained:

d/d =
In case of plastic strain the equation is:

= Kn
and substituting: And then:

nKn-1 = Kn n=

This mathematical relationship indicates that it is possible to have a material with high strain , if such material has a high n.
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ERIKSEN TEST
a

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THE COEFFICIENT OF ANISOTROPY

In the tensile test is normally detected the 1 strain. If 2 and 3 are also measured , the ratio 2/3 can be calculated. Such ratio is a constant for every material and is indicated with the r letter; it is called

r
3 2

COEFFICIENT OF ANISOTROPY

r = 2/3 = shrinkage/depth decrease = ln

b b 0 a a 0

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Typical values of cold drawn steels

STEEL
FeP01 FeP04 FeP06 High strength

Rp02 (MPa)
220280 180210 160200 275500

Rm (MPa)
300410 270350 270340 400650

E (%)
2833 3842 4044 1530

r avg.
1.01.2 1.51.9 1.92.2 0.91.1

n avg.
0.180.20 0.200.22 0.220.24 0.150.19

E.I.
9.510 10.511 1112.2 79

L.D.R.
2.192.23 2.232.31 2.312.44 1.82.2

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DEEP DRAWING AND HIGH STRENGTH STEELS

A deep drawing steel must have high toughness and ductility properties (to guarantee the deformability in the die) and good strength properties (to ensure high properties in use). Generally if there is an increase of strength properties a decrease in deformability is observed; instead in this case the increase or mechanical properties in directly connected to deforming process. These materials have therefore the double advantage to be particularly deformable during deep drawing process and increase their mechanical properties when are in use. Traditionally and for a long time were used for this purpose (and actually too) low carbon and Ti steel: the ferritic matrix of these steels can guarantee a good deformability, while the deep drawing can induce the strain hardening. In automotive company, the aim is the weight reduction to reduce fuel consumption. For this reason the market has imposed the use of different materials, which adopt alternative strengthening mechanism, maintaining good deformability. As a consequence, reduced depth can be used without reducing the in use affordability.
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MILD STEEL. Traditional not alloyed steel with low carbon (C<0.10%) adopted
for cold forming operations. The increase of mechanical properties derive from the plastic deformation in deep drawing operations.

FeP04

FeP04 steel annealed. Equiaxed ferritic grains. (X100)

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INTERSTITIAL FREE.

Traditional not alloyed steel with low carbon and Ti higher than 0,3%. The titanium has high attitude for carbide and nitride formation. The C and N content in solid reduction is therefore reduced, favouring the ferrite existence and the cold forming operations. The increase of mechanical properties in a consequence of the strain hardening.

FeP06

X500 in orig.

X3000 in orig

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BAKE HARDENING.

Not alloyed steel coil with low C percentage produced adopting parameters (chemical composition, rolling temperature, annealing) to reduce carbides precipitation at room temperature and to increase it at the cataphoresis process temperature. High deformability in cold forming and an increase of mechanical properties during the cook of painting, induced from a fine carbide precipitation.

BH 180 or BH 220

X500 in orig. Steel BH 220 after heat treatment at 180 C for 20 min. A fine presence of carbides in ferrite is detected.
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X3000 in orig

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MICROALLOYED or HSLA: Steel coil with low C percentage and V and Nb (min. 0.015%) as alloying elements. These elements form fine precipitates at grain boundary (carbides and nitrides), induce fine grains formation and an enhancing of the strength. FeE355

X500 in orig.

X3000 in orig.

Steel FeE355 high amount of carbides (Nb) and a very fine grain size.
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DUAL PHASE: Steel with ferrite (good deformability) and almost 15% of
martensite phase.

Fe600DP
Fig. 69 microstructure of a Dual Phase steel; coarse martensite area. In Fig. 70 the martensite is homogeneously distributed. The Fig. 71 is a magnification of Fig. 70.

Fig.69

X500 in orig.

Fig 70
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X500 in orig.

Fig 71

X3000 in orig.

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TRIP: Coil steel with ferritic/bainitic/austenitic structure (it guarantee good cold
forming). During deformation a percentage of energy is used to transform a certain amount of metastable austenite in martensite; this phase enhance the mechanical properties while the residual austenite acts as energy absorber in case of violent deformation (impact).

Fe800 TRIP F

In the microstructure it is difficult to distinguish the austenite from ferrite phase.

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MULTIPHASE:

High strength steel with ferritic / bainitic /martensitic structure (high martensite content).

Fe800MP

MARTENSITIC:

Steel characterized with very high martensite percentage. They have low deformability and very high mechanical properties.

Fe1300MS

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SHEET METAL FORMING

A schematic section of a typical stamping die. The sheet contacts only the punch or the die at any point. Membrane stresses stretch the sheet over the tools.
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SHEET METAL FORMING

In order to analysed the deformability of the sheet of a metallic material, a network mesh is painted on undeformed surface. If a circle is painted, after deformation three possible conditions can be obtained:
STRETCHING, if the sheet is positive deformed in the two direction in the plane of the foil. In this case the circle is deformed as in Fig. a. ONE DIRECTION DEFOMATION, if the sheet is deformed in one direction only (Fig. b). DRAWING, if the sheet have a positive (in a direction) and a negative (in a perpendicular direction) deformation (Fig. c).
D B A

e1>0 a e2>0
Original circle

e1>0 b e2=0 c

A schematic section of a typical stamping die. A: Punch B: Die C: Blank-Holder D: Blank

e1>0 e2<0
If d0 and d are respectively the diameters before and after the deformation, it can be defined e = ( d- d0 ) / d0 . Conventionally the deformation in the direction of the main stretching axes is e1, while the minor direction is e2. Therefore always is sign of type.

Deformed circle

e1>0, while the

e2

depends on the deformation

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SHEET METAL FORMING

A schematic plot of the window of safe straining for simple paths the forminglimit diagram. With an isotropic material, the limits for 2>1 mirror those in the region where 1>2.
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Strain signatures along lines A to J and A to E in a rectangular pan.

NAKAZIMA TEST
The Nakazima test proposes to induce, on a metallic material to be deformed, all the possible types of deformations (from stretching to deep drawing). A punch with a spherical shape is adopted to deform samples of controlled geometry until the necking appearance or until the starting crack of material. The first sample has square geometry and the blank-holder on the four sides. The result is evidenced in image a. The other sample have one dimension that is progressively reduced, to increase the deep drawing effect. The different samples and results are reported in Figs. (a-e). The image e evidences a deep drawing effect of 100%. The circles evidence the deformation in the different samples.

e1>0 a e2>0
Original circle

Deformed circle

e1>0 c e2=0 c

e1>0 e2<0

e
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CURVE LIMITE DI FORMABILITA'

2,5

SAFE STRAINING CURVE

In figure are reported all the coupled values obtained in many samples after the Nakazima tests. (e1 VS e2 ). The line that connects the upper points is called SAFE STRAINING CURVE. The right side of the diagram is the stretching zone (e2 > 0), while the left side is the deep drawing zone (e2 < 0).

Sample a Sample b

SAFE STRAINING CURVE

Sample c Sample d

1,5
e1

Sample e

0,5

0 -0,5 -0,3 -0,1 e2 0,1 0,3 0,5

EXPERIMENTAL POINTS TEST OF NAKAZIMA

The safe straining curve (SSC) depend from the thickness, are a characteristic of every material and are well known or can be easily detected. They are very useful to designer to choose the more appropriate material for the different component, also from the point of view of the deformability.
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