Family a social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and

d raising of children. Kinship a social bond based on blood, marriage, or adoption. Throughout the world, families form around marriage. Cultural norms and laws identify people as suitable or unsuitable marriage partners. Endogamy marriage between people of the same social category. Exogamy marriage between people of different social categories. In industrial societies, laws prescribe monogamy. Polygamy marriage that unites three or more. Just as societies regulate mate selection, they designate where a couple resides. In preindustrial societies, most newlyweds live with one set of parents. Patrilocality a married couple lives with or near the husbands family. Matrilocality a married couple lives with or near the wifes family. Descent the system by which members of a society trace kinship over generations. Patrilineal descent tracing kinship through men. Matrilineal descent tracing kinship through women. Bilateral descent tracing kinship through both men and women. Functionalist Theory About Families : The family performs several vital tasks: (1) Socialization (2) Regulation of sexual activity. (3) Social Placement. (4) Material and Emotional Security. Society depends on families. Conflict Theory About Families: Conflict theorists point out how the family perpetuates social inequality: (1) Property and inheritance.(2) Patriarchy(3) Racial and ethnic inequality. Family plays a role in social stratification. Feminist perspectives. Micro-Level Analysis: This approach explores how individuals shape and experience family life. Family living offers an opportunity for intimacy. Family members share activities and build emotional bonds. Courtship and marriage may be seen as forms of negotiation. Stages of Family Life: In courtship our culture celebrates romantic love. Our culture gives the young an idealized picture of marriage. Adults in the United States identify raising children as one of lifes greatest joys. Increasing life expectancy means that couples are likely to remain married for a long t ime. US Families: What women think they can hope for in marriage is linked to their social class. Regardless of race, every marriage is actually two different relationships: a womans marriage and a mans marriage. Few marriages are composed of two equal partners. Married men live longer than single men. Percentage Never Married: More men have not been married. Number of single parent families: Increasing. Problems in Family Life: The United States has one of the highest divorce rate in the world. Four out of five people who divorce, remarry. Since 1970, there is a significant increase in the number of single parent families Historically, the law defined women as the property of men. Domestic violence was once considered a private, family matter. Alternate Family Forms: Twenty-nine percent of families with children under age eighteen have only one parent in the home. Cohabitation the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple. People cohabitate to insure marital compatibility. Gay marriage controversies. New Reproductive Technology: Within a decade, 2 to 3 percent of births in high-income nations may be the result of new reproductive technologies. Test-tube babies are the products of in vitro fertilization. These techniques eventually may help reduce the incidence of birth defects. Evolution Of Divorce: Increasing divorce rates in the 1970s. Stable after 1990s. Factors influencing the probability of getting divorced: Parental divorce, cohabitation before marriage, Premarital childbearing, Marriage at early age, childless marriage, low income/education. Asian families: strong extended families, low fertility and low divorce rates. Native American families: strong kinship ties, high rates of intermarriage rates, high divorce rates. African American families: high rates of out of marriage births, high number of female headed households. Hispanic families: strong extended families, differences between first and second generation. Deviance nonconformity to a given set of norms that are accepted by the society. Crime the violation of a societys formally enacted criminal law. Sanction reaction to deviance, meant to ensure that the person/group complies with a certain norm Durkheim there is no society without deviance. Deviance helps us define what is and what is not acceptable in a society. Social control society tends to regulate peoples thought and behavior. The criminal justice system a formal response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of the law. Deviance is more than a matter of individual choice or personal failing. How a society defines deviance depends on how society is organized. Biological Perspective: Cesare Lombroso argued that criminals could be identified by physical traits. Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck suggested that powerfully built sons grow up less sensitive toward others. There is no conclusive evidence linking genetics to criminality. Personality Factors: Psychological explanations focus on individual abnormality. Psychopaths were defined as emotionless characters who enjoys violence for its own sake. Crimes are very diverse, and it is difficult to establish what psychological traits link all the people who commit crimes. Functionalist Theories: Anomie (Durkheim): in modern societies, traditional norms and standards become weaker and are not replaced by new ones. People are less constraint than in a traditional society (anonymity, individualism, nonconformity). Functions (deviance): Adaptive function: it introduces new ideas and it promotes the social change Boundary maintenance: it reinforces the norms. Merton argued that excessive dev whether a society provides the means to achieve cultural goals. The conflict between US cultures emphasis on wealth and the limited opportunity some groups have in getting ahead gives rise to crime. Deviant Subcultures: Cohen argues that the creation of delinquent subcultures (gangs) offer an alternative to the mainstream system of norms and values, celebrating the deviance and acts of nonconformity. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin: delinquency is most pronounced in lower class youths because they have the least opportunity to achieve the goals stated by the society. Immediate deprivation is a powerful factor in pushing people toward crime.Labeling theory deviance results from how others respond to the persons actions. Primary deviance has little effect on a persons self-concept. Secondary deviance a person begins to take on a deviant identity. Conflict Theory about Deviance : Deviance is a result of the social inequality existing in a society (Nordic countries). The norms of the society reflect the interests of the rich and the powerful. White-collar crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupation. Corporate crime the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf. Organized crime a business supplying illegal goods or services. Control Theory: Deviance occurs anytime there is an imbalance between the impulses to commit crimes and the social/physical controls that deter it. Hirschi: people make calculated decisions about whether to engage in criminal activity. Broken Windows Theory : Any sign of social disorder in community encourages more crime to flourish. In the late 1980s and 1990s, this theory was used as a basis for new policing strategies proactive policing. Minor crimes were severely punished.Hate crime a criminal act against a person or persons property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias. Gender is an important variable crimes are much more often committed by men. Women use much less violence, and commit mostly small scale offenses. In some societies, men often escape direct responsibility for actions that victimize women. Crime: Crime consists of the act itself, and the criminal intent. Crimes against the person direct violence or the threat of violence against others. Victimless crimes there are no readily apparent victims. The crime rate is two to four times higher than what official reports indicate. The Criminal Justice System: T he criminal justice system is societys formal system of social control. The police serve as the primary point of contact between the population and the system. 90% of criminal cases are resolved prior to court appearance through plea bargaining. The oldest justification for punishment is the publics craving for revenge.Ethnicity cultural practices and outlooks of a given community that have emerged historically and tend to set people apart. Race a range of physical variations among human beings. Although race involves highlighting biological traits, it is socially constructed. Situational ethnicity: choosing a particular ethnic identity Symbolic ethnicity: assimilated ethnic groups might keep some cultural aspects of their culture Factors Influencing Race Distribution: Migration Levels (how many people immigrate?) Composition (where do they come from?) Differential Fertitlity: Number of children born by women from various racial and ethnic groups. Migration: any permanent change in residence. International migrants: people who cross at least one political border when they move to other residence Internal migrants: people who move within the same country. A migrant is, at the same time, an out migrant (emigrant, for the region s/he left) and an in-migrant (immigrant, for the region where he moves). UN defines a long term immigrant as a person who arrive in a country during a year and stays there more than 1 year. Restrictive laws of migration influence migration. East West migration in Europe, general South- North migration. Important political events: the collapse of the Berlin Wall. Migration to US: out migration and in migration. Refugee : any person who is outside his or her country of nationality and is u nable or unwilling to return to that country because of persecution or a well- founded fear of persecution An asylee is a refugee who is already in the country to which they are applying for admission, whereas a refugee is outside of country at the time of application Forced migration: There are at least 50 million people that has been forced to migrate. Slavery: it is a form of migration, it has existed within various human societies and even nowadays slave trading is still in place in Sudan, sub-Saharan Africa. Refugees : 14 million refugees in the world in 2000, refugees from Palestine represent the largest group, although most of these people were born in refugee status. Measuring Migration: Administrative data (number of visas issues, number of people who are citizens residing abroad), Surveys, Border apprehensions. Flow of migrants - number of people who move from (emigrants) or to (immigrants) a country Stock of migrants: number of people who live, at a certain moment, in a country. Selectivity by age : young adults (20-29) are far more likely to migrate than people at any other ages. Selectivity by gender: men are most likely to outnumber women among migrants in Africa and Asia, whereas women are as likely or more likely to be migrants in Europe, North America, Latin America and Caribbean. The Neoclassical Economic Approach: There are significant discrepancies in wages between various countries. People tend to move from countries with low wages to countries with high wages. The New Household Economics of Migration: The decisions about migration are often made in the context of what is best for an entire family, not for a single person, migration is a way to diversify the familys sources of income. World Systems Theory: There are core and peripheral nations, peripheral nations send migrants to the core nations. Migration is a natural result of capitalist development. Dual Labor market theory (pull theory): There are two kinds of economic sectors: primary and secondary. Primary sector hires educated people, pays them well, offers them security and benefits. Secondary sector: low wages, instability. Migrants are needed for the secondary sector. Network theory: Network theory argues that migrants establish interpersonal ties that increase the likelihood of international migration. Institutional theory: Once started, migration may be perpetuated by institutions that facilitate and profit from the continued flow of migration. Cumulative causation: Each act of migration changes the likelihood of subsequent decisions .US Migration History: First migrants: mostly coming from Western Europe (UK, later Germany and Nordic countries). Beginning of the 19th century: Irish immigration. Late 19th century/beginning of the 20th century: people coming from Southern and Eastern Europe (Greeks, Polish, Russians, Italians, Jewish). Nowadays: most US immigrants come from Latin American countries and Asian countries.