Mathematical Induction Mathematical Induction

p.1

Theorem 1 ( Principle of Mathematical Induction) Suppose A is a subset of with the properties : [1a] 1 A ; [1b] k A implies k +1 A. Then A = N. Theorem 2 ( The Strong Principle of Mathematical Induction) Suppose A is a subset of with the properties : [2a] 1 A ; [2b] {1, 2,, k } A implies k +1 A. Then A = N.

In the applications, if we want to prove some statements regarding natural numbers, we may assume P[n] is the statement that the positive integer n has property P. Then , follow the following two steps: [Step I] Prove that P[1] is true. [Step II] Prove that P[k] P[k+1]. Here, we assume that A= { n : P[n] is true } . Then the [Step I] say: 1 A; and [Step II] say: k A implies k +1 A. By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we have A = N. Thus means: n P[n] is true. Sometimes, we might need to use Theorem 2 to prove that n P[n] is true. We shall follow the following two steps: [Step I] Prove that P[1] is true. [Step II] * : Prove that n k P[k] P[k+1]. In the following , we shall use Mathematical Induction ( or other methods) to prove some identities. We also use : LHS and RHS to denote the left hand side of and the right hand side of the formula under discussion.

Mathematical Induction Theorem 3 ( Well-ordering Principle )

p.2

If A is a non-empty set, then there is a minimum number m in A. Proof: Assume , in the contrary, there exist a non-empty subset A of which has no minimum number. Let B : = - A. Then either B = or B . But, for the case B = , we have A = , and has minimum number 1, a contradiction to the assumption that the set A has no minimum number. Thus,
- A = B .

Now, since 1 is the minimum positive number in , and A has no minimum number in it, 1 B. Assume that { 1,2,, k} B. Then
k +1 a

{ 1,2,, k} A = . This implies:

for all a A.

Since the set A contains no minimum number, k+1 is not a member of A. This means:
k + 1 B.

By the Strong Mathematical Induction,

-A = B=

Thus, A is a empty set. This contradict to the assumption that A is a non-empty set. Therefore, we have prove the conclusion: any non-empty subset of has a minimum number.

Mathematical Induction

p.3

Theorem 4
n

j
j=1

n(n + 1) 2

for all positive integer n.

(1)

Proof:
n

Let P[n] : =

j
j=1

n(n + 1) 2

For the case n = 1, LHS = 1 and RHS = 1i(1 + 1) =1 . 2

Thus, P[1] is true.

k

Assume that P[k] is true: For the case n = k+1,

k +1 k

j
j=1

k(k + 1) . 2

LHS =

j
j=1

j
j=1

+ (k+1)

k(k + 1) + (k +1) 2 k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1) 2 =

by the induction assumption (k + 2)(k + 1) 2

(k + 1 + 1)(k + 1) (n + 1)(n) = 2 2 n(n + 1) = RHS. 2

Thus, P[k] P[k+1]. Applying Mathematical Induction, n P[n] is true.

Mathematical Induction

p.4

Theorem 5
n

j
j=1

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6

for all positive integer n.

(2)

Proof:
n

Let P[n]:= [Step 1]

j
j=1

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6

n = 1. and RHS = 1i(1 + 1)(2i1 + 1) = 1 = LHS. 6

LHS = 12 = 1

Hence P[1] is true.

k

[Step 2 ]

Assume that P[k] is true, i.e.

j
j=1

k(k + 1)(2k + 1) . 6

Then, for n = k+1,

k +1 k 2

LHS =

j
j=1

j
j=1

+ (k + 1)2 =

k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + (k + 1) 2 6

k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1) 2 k +1 = i{k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)} 6 6 k +1 i{2k 2 + k + 6k + 6} 6

k +1 k +1 i{2k 2 + 7k + 6} = i{(k + 2)(2k + 3)} 6 6 n i{(n + 1)(2n + 1)} 6

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = RHS. 6 Hence, P[k] is true P[k+1] is true. = Applying the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

Mathematical Induction
n

p.5

j
j=1

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6

for all positive integer n.

Remark:
n

An alternative way to derive the formula for Start with the observation :

j
j=1

is the following :

( j + 1)3 j3 = ( j3 + 3j2 + 3j + 1) j3 = 3j2 + 3j + 1 . Hence,

n n n j=1 n j=1 n j=1

{( j + 1)3 j3} =
j=1

{3j2 + 3j + 1} =
j=1 n j=1 n j=1

{3j2 } + {3j} + {1} .

n j=1

This implies:
n

(n + 1) Hence,
n

- 1 = 3 {j2 } + 3 {j} + {1} = 3 {j2 } + 3

j=1

n(n + 1) +n. 2

3 {j2 } = { (n + 1)
j=1

- 1} -

3n(n + 1) -n 2 3n(n + 1) n 2

= (n 3 + 3n 2 + 3n + 1) 1

= n 3 + 3n 2 + 2n

3n(n + 1) 1 = {2n 3 + 6n 2 + 4n (3n 2 + 3n)} 2 2

= This means:
n

1 n n {2n 3 + 3n 2 + n} = {2n 2 + 3n + 1} = {(n + 1)(2n + 1)} . 2 2 2

j
j=1

1 n n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = i {(n + 1)(2n + 1)} = . 3 2 6

Mathematical Induction

p.6

After we derive the formula the formula of

j
j=1

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) , we are able to use it to derive 6

Q(n) = 12 2 2 + 32 + .... + (1) n +1 n 2 .

(3)

For the case that n is even, let m =

n , then n = 2m, and 2

Q(n) = Q(2m) = 12 2 2 + 32 +.... (2m) 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + .... + (2m)2 2{2 2 + 42 + ... + (2m) 2 }

2m

j
j=1 2m

2i22 {12 + 22 + ... + m 2 }

m

j
j=1

8 j2
j=1

(2m)(2m + 1)(4m + 1) m(m + 1)(2m + 1) 8 6 6 m {(2m + 1)(4m + 1) 4(m + 1)(2m + 1)} 3 m {(8m 2 + 6m + 1) 4(2m 2 + 3m + 1)} 3 m {6m 3} 3 (4)

= -m(2m+1) = n(n + 1) . 2

For the case that n is odd, let m =

n 1 , then n = 2m +1. We have 2

Mathematical Induction

p.7

Q(n) = Q( 2m+1) = Q(2m) + (1) 2m +1+1 (2m + 1) 2 = - m(2m+1) + (2m+1)

2

= ( 2m+1)(-m+2m+1) = (2m+1)(m+1) = n( n 1 + 1) 2

n(n + 1) . 2 We have prove: =

Theorem 6
12 2 2 + 32 + .... + (1) n +1 n 2 = n(n + 1) { [[ n is odd]] [[n is even]]}. 2

Sometimes, we may use Mathematical Induction method to prove some inequalities. Here is an example.

Example 1 ( = #6.15 page 165 of 3rd ed.)

Show that 1 1 1 + + ... + 2 n - 1 for every positive integer. 1 2 n

Proof:
Let P[n] = n = 1. 1 = 0. 1 1 1 1 + + ... + 2 n - 1 . 1 2 n

[Step 1]

RHS - LHS = { 2 1 1 } Thus , P[1] is true.

Mathematical Induction

p.8

[Step 2] Assume that P[k] is true,. i.e. For the case n = k+1, we have RHS LHS = {2 k + 1 1} {

1 1 1 + + ... + 2 k 1 . 1 2 k

1 1 1 1 + + ... + + } 1 2 k k +1

= {2 k 1} {

1 1 1 1 + + ... + }+ 2 k +1 2 k 1 2 k k +1 1 k +1 by the induction assumption

2 k +1 2 k

1 {2(k + 1) 2 k(k + 1) 1} k +1 1 {2k + 1 2 k(k + 1)} = k +1 2 1 { k 2 + k + k 2 + k} 4 k +1 2 1 {k + k(k + 1)} 2 k +1

0. Thus, P[ k+1] is true. Applying the Principle of Mathematical induction, we have: 1 1 1 + + ... + 2 n - 1 for every positive integer. 1 2 n

{ More examples will be in other Lecture Notes. }