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com REFERENCE 1:

Human Digestive System

Human Anatomy

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste. Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it makes its way through the body. The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals.

The Digestive Process:

1. The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules). 2. On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down. 3. In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme. 4. In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food. 5. In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals

like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon. The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

Digestive System Glossary:

anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body. appendix - a small sac located on the cecum. ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards; it is located after the cecum. bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the small intestine. cecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the cecum. chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes on to the small intestine for further digestion. descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the transverse colon and before the sigmoid colon. duodenum - the first part of the small intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from the stomach to the jejunum. epiglottis - the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going down the windpipe to the lungs. When you swallow, the epiglottis automatically closes. When you breathe, the epiglottis opens so that air can go in and out of the windpipe. esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile (a digestive chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine. ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins. jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and the ileum. liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins. mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food). pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small intestine. peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the throat into the stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you cannot control it. It is also what allows you to eat and drink while upside-down. rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted. salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains enzymes

that break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules. sigmoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the rectum. stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and enzymes. transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdomen.

REFERENCE 2: Digestive System Introduction

Digestion is the chemical breakdown of large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be used by cells. The breakdown occurs when certain specific enzymes are mixed with the food.

Enzymes involved in Digestion

1. polysaccharides maltose glucose 2. proteins peptides amino acids 3. fats fatty acids and glycerol

Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids

The process of digestion produces glucose, amino acids, glycerol, and fatty acids (see above). The energy in glucose is used to produce ATP via the reactions of glycolysis, cellular respiration, and the electron transport system (see diagram below). The body uses amino acids to construct proteins. Excess amino acids can be used to synthesize pyruvate, acetyl CoA, and alpha ketogluterate, which enters the Krebs cycle. Glycerol and fatty acids can be converted to pyruvate and Acetyl CoA and then enter cellular respiration.

1. Mouth
Chewing breaks food into smaller particles so that chemical digestion can occur faster. Enzymes Salivary amylase breaks starch (a polysaccharide) down to maltose (a disaccharide). Bicarbonate ions in saliva act as buffers, maintaining a pH between 6.5 and 7.5. Mucins (mucous) lubricate and help hold chewed food together in a clump called a bolus. The tongue contains chemical receptors in structures called taste buds. Theses are discussed in the chapter on sensory systems. The tongue is muscular and can move food. It pushes food to back where it is swallowed.

2. Pharynx

The respiratory and digestive passages meet in the pharynx. They separate posterior to the pharynx to form the esophagus (leads to the stomach) and trachea (leads to the lungs). Swallowing is accomplished by reflexes that close the opening to the trachea. When swallowing, the epiglottis covers the trachea to prevent food from entering. In the mouth, food is mixed with saliva and formed into a bolus. Peristalsis refers to rhythmic contractions that move food in the gut. Peristalsis in the esophagus moves food from the mouth to the stomach.

3. Stomach
The stomach stores up to 2 liters of food. Gastric glands within the stomach produce secretions called gastric juice. The muscular walls of the stomach contract vigorously to mix food with gastric juice, producing a mixture called chyme. Gastric juice Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which digests proteins. Pepsinogen production is stimulated by the presence of gastrin in the blood (discussed below). HCl Hydrochloric acid (HCl) converts pepsinogen to pepsin which breaks down proteins to peptides. HCl maintains a pH in the stomach of approximately 2.0. It also dissolves food and kills microorganisms. Mucous protects the stomach from HCl and pepsin. Secretion of Gastric Juice Seeing, smelling, tasting, or thinking about food can result in the secretion of gastric juice. Gastrin is a hormone that stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric juice. (See the discussion of hormones below.) Ulcer An ulcer is an irritation due to gastric juice penetrating the mucous lining of the stomach or duodenum. It is believed that ulcers are caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which, can thrive in the acid environment of the stomach. The presence of the bacteria on portions of the stomach lining prevents it from secreting mucous, making it susceptible to the digestive action of pepsin.

4. Duodenum
The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine.

Chyme enters through a sphincter. It enters in tiny spurts. At this point, proteins and carbohydrates are only partially digested and lipid digestion has not begun.

5. Pancreas
The pancreas acts as an exocrine gland by producing pancreatic juice which empties into the small intestine via a duct. The pancreas also acts as an endocrine gland to produce insulin. (See the discussion on the Islets of Langerhans or Pancreatic Islets in the chapter on the endocrine system.) Pancreatic Juice Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the acidic material from the stomach. Pancreatic amylase digests starch to maltose. Trypsin and Chymotrypsin digest proteins to peptides. Like pepsin (produced in the stomach), they are specific for certain amino acids, not all of them. They therefore produce peptides. Lipase digests fats to glycerol and fatty acids.

6. Liver
The liver produces bile which is stored in gallbladder and sent to the duodenum through a duct. Bile emulsifies fats (separates it into small droplets) so they can mix with water and be acted upon by enzymes. Other Functions of the Liver The liver detoxifies blood from intestines that it receives via the hepatic portal vein. The liver stores glucose as glycogen (animal starch) and breaks down glycogen to release glucose as needed. This storage-release process maintains a constant glucose concentration in the blood (0.1%). If glycogen and glucose run short, proteins can be converted to glucose. It produces blood proteins. It destroys old red blood cells and converts hemoglobin from these cells to bilirubin and biliverdin which are components of bile. Ammonia produced by the digestion of proteins is converted to a less toxic compound (urea) by the liver.

Hormones Involved in Digestion

The hormones listed below, like all hormones, reach their target cells by the circulatory system.

Gastrin

The presence of food in the stomach stimulates stretch receptors which relay this information to the medulla oblongata. The medulla stimulates endocrine cells in the stomach to secrete the hormone gastrin into the circulatory system. Gastrin stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric juice. This pathway of information is summarized below. stretch receptors medulla oblongata endocrine cells in the stomach gastrin circulatory system stomach secretes gastric juice

Secretin

Secretin is produced by cells of the duodenum. Its production is stimulated by acid chyme from stomach. It stimulates the pancreas to produce sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidic chyme. It also stimulates the liver to secrete bile.

CCK (cholecystokinin)

CCK production is stimulated by the presence of food in the duodenum. It stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to produce pancreatic enzymes.

GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide)

Food in the duodenum stimulates certain endocrine cells to produce GIP.

It has the opposite effects of gastrin; it inhibits gastric glands in the stomach and it inhibits the mixing and churning movement of stomach muscles. This slows the rate of stomach emptying when the duodenum contains food.

7. Small Intestine
The small intestine is approximately 3 m long. Like the stomach, it contains numerous ridges and furrows. In addition, there are numerous projections called villi that function to increase the surface area of the intestine. Individual villus cells have microvilli which greatly increase absorptive surface area. The total absorptive surface area is equivalent to 500 or 600 square meters. Each villus contains blood vessels and a lacteal (lymph vessel). Peptidases and maltase are embedded within the plasma membrane of the microvilli. Peptidases complete the digestion of peptides to amino acids. Maltase completes the digestion of disaccharides. Absorption Absorption is an important function of the small intestine. Active transport moves glucose and amino acids into the intestinal cells, then out where they are picked up by capillaries. Glycerol and fatty acids produced by the digestion of fat enter the villi by diffusion and are reassembled into fat (triglycerides). They combine with proteins and are expelled by exocytosis. They move into the lacteals for transport via the lymphatic system.

8. Large Intestine
The large intestine is also called the colon. It receives approximately 10 liters of water per day. 1.5 liters is from food and 8.5 liters is from secretions into the gut. 95% of this water is reabsorbed. The large intestine also absorbs sodium and other ions but it excretes other metallic ions into the wastes. If water is not absorbed, diarrhea can result, causing dehydration and ion loss. It absorbs vitamin K produced by colon bacteria. The last 20 cm of the large intestine is the rectum.

Feces is composed of approximately 75% water and 25% solids. One-third of the solids is intestinal bacteria, 2/3s is undigested materials. The cecum is a pouch at the junction of the small intestine and large intestine. In herbivorous mammals, it is large and houses bacteria capable of digesting cellulose. In human ancestors, the cecum was larger but has been reduced by evolutionary change to form the appendix. Polyps Polyps are small growths in the epithelial lining of the colon. They can be benign or cancerous and can be removed individually. A low-fat, high-fiber diet promotes regularity and is recommended as a protection against colon cancer.

9. Appendix
The appendix is attached to cecum. Appendicitis is an infection. The appendix may swell and burst, leading to peritonitis (infection of the abdominal lining).

Summary of Digestive Enzymes

The digestive enzymes in the table below are summarized according to type of food that they digest. FOOD TYPE CARBOHYDRATES ENZYME Salivary amylase Pancreatic amylase Maltase PROTEINS Pepsin Trypsin Peptidases FATS Lipase SOURCE Salivary glands Pancreas Small intestine Stomach mucosa Pancreas Intestinal mucosa Pancreas PRODUCTS Maltose Maltose Glucose Peptides Peptides Amino acids Fatty acids and glycerol

The table below shows digestive enzymes grouped by source of the enzyme. SOURCE MOUTH (salivary glands) ENZYME Salivary amylase FOOD Polysaccharides PRODUCT Maltose

STOMACH PANCREAS

Pepsin Pancreatic amylase Trypsin Lipase

Proteins Polysaccharides Proteins Fats

Peptides Maltose Peptides Fatty acids and glycerol Glucose Amino acids

SMALL INTESTINE

Maltase Peptidases

Maltose Peptides

Why is digestion important? When we eat such things as bread, meat, and vegetables, they are not in a form that the body can use as nourishment. Our food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so that the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy. How is food digested? Digestion involves the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract, and the chemical breakdown of the large molecules of food into smaller molecules. Digestion begins in the mouth, when we chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine. The chemical process varies somewhat for different kinds of food.

REFERENCE 3: Movement of Food Through the System

The large, hollow organs of the digestive system contain muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement of organ walls can propel food and liquid and also can mix the contents within each organ. Typical movement of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine is called peristalsis. The action of peristalsis looks like an ocean wave moving through the muscle. The muscle of the organ produces a narrowing and then propels the narrowed portion slowly down the length of the organ. These waves of narrowing push the food and fluid in front of them through each hollow organ. The first major muscle movement occurs when food or liquid is swallowed. Although we are able to start swallowing by choice, once the swallow begins, it becomes involuntary and proceeds under the control of the nerves. The esophagus is the organ into which the swallowed food is pushed. It connects the throat above with the stomach below. At the junction of the esophagus and stomach, there is a ringlike valve closing the passage between the two organs. However, as the food approaches the closed ring, the surrounding muscles relax and allow the food to pass. The food then enters the stomach, which has three mechanical tasks to do. First, the stomach must store the swallowed food and liquid. This requires the muscle of the upper part of the stomach to relax and accept large volumes of swallowed material. The second job is to mix up the food, liquid, and digestive juice produced by the stomach. The lower part of the stomach mixes these materials by its muscle action. The third task of the stomach is to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine. Several factors affect emptying of the stomach, including the nature of the food (mainly its fat and protein content) and the degree of muscle action of the emptying stomach and the next

organ to receive the contents (the small intestine). As the food is digested in the small intestine and dissolved into the juices from the pancreas, liver, and intestine, the contents of the intestine are mixed and pushed forward to allow further digestion. Finally, all of the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal walls. The waste products of this process include undigested parts of the food, known as fiber, and older cells that have been shed from the mucosa. These materials are propelled into the colon, where they remain, usually for a day or two, until the feces are expelled by a bowel movement.
Production of Digestive Juices

The glands that act first are in the mouththe salivary glands. Saliva produced by these glands contains an enzyme that begins to digest the starch from food into smaller molecules. The next set of digestive glands is in the stomach lining. They produce stomach acid and an enzyme that digests protein. One of the unsolved puzzles of the digestive system is why the acid juice of the stomach does not dissolve the tissue of the stomach itself. In most people, the stomach mucosa is able to resist the juice, although food and other tissues of the body cannot. After the stomach empties the food and juice mixture into the small intestine, the juices of two other digestive organs mix with the food to continue the process of digestion. One of these organs is the pancreas. It produces a juice that contains a wide array of enzymes to break down the carbohydrate, fat, and protein in food. Other enzymes that are active in the process come from glands in the wall of the intestine or even a part of that wall. The liver produces yet another digestive juicebile. The bile is stored between meals in the gallbladder. At mealtime, it is squeezed out of the gallbladder into the bile ducts to reach the intestine and mix with the fat in our food. The bile acids dissolve the fat into the watery contents of the intestine, much like detergents that dissolve grease from a frying pan. After the fat is dissolved, it is digested by enzymes from the pancreas and the lining of the intestine.
Absorption and Transport of Nutrients

Digested molecules of food, as well as water and minerals from the diet, are absorbed from the cavity of the upper small intestine. Most absorbed materials cross the mucosa into the blood and are carried off in the bloodstream to other parts of the body for storage or further chemical change. As already noted, this part of the process varies with different types of nutrients. Carbohydrates. It is recommended that about 55 to 60 percent of total daily calories be from carbohydrates. Some of our most common foods contain mostly carbohydrates. Examples are bread, potatoes, legumes, rice, spaghetti, fruits, and vegetables. Many of these foods contain both starch and fiber. The digestible carbohydrates are broken into simpler molecules by enzymes in the saliva, in juice produced by the pancreas, and in the lining of the small intestine. Starch is digested in two steps: First, an enzyme in the saliva and pancreatic juice breaks the starch into molecules called maltose; then an enzyme in the lining of the small intestine (maltase) splits the maltose

into glucose molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. Glucose is carried through the bloodstream to the liver, where it is stored or used to provide energy for the work of the body. Table sugar is another carbohydrate that must be digested to be useful. An enzyme in the lining of the small intestine digests table sugar into glucose and fructose, each of which can be absorbed from the intestinal cavity into the blood. Milk contains yet another type of sugar, lactose, which is changed into absorbable molecules by an enzyme called lactase, also found in the intestinal lining. Protein. Foods such as meat, eggs, and beans consist of giant molecules of protein that must be digested by enzymes before they can be used to build and repair body tissues. An enzyme in the juice of the stomach starts the digestion of swallowed protein. Further digestion of the protein is completed in the small intestine. Here, several enzymes from the pancreatic juice and the lining of the intestine carry out the breakdown of huge protein molecules into small molecules called amino acids. These small molecules can be absorbed from the hollow of the small intestine into the blood and then be carried to all parts of the body to build the walls and other parts of cells. Fats. Fat molecules are a rich source of energy for the body. The first step in digestion of a fat such as butter is to dissolve it into the watery content of the intestinal cavity. The bile acids produced by the liver act as natural detergents to dissolve fat in water and allow the enzymes to break the large fat molecules into smaller molecules, some of which are fatty acids and cholesterol. The bile acids combine with the fatty acids and cholesterol and help these molecules to move into the cells of the mucosa. In these cells the small molecules are formed back into large molecules, most of which pass into vessels (called lymphatics) near the intestine. These small vessels carry the reformed fat to the veins of the chest, and the blood carries the fat to storage depots in different parts of the body. Vitamins. Another vital part of our food that is absorbed from the small intestine is the class of chemicals we call vitamins. The two different types of vitamins are classified by the fluid in which they can be dissolved: water-soluble vitamins (all the B vitamins and vitamin C) and fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, and K). Water and salt. Most of the material absorbed from the cavity of the small intestine is water in which salt is dissolved. The salt and water come from the food and liquid we swallow and the juices secreted by the many digestive glands.