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C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

AN INTELLIGENT SYSTEM: DECISION PROBLEM STRUCTURING


PROCESS V1.0

Dianne Cheong Lee Mei

Faculty of Information Technology and Quantitative Sciences,


Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA
Email: dianne789@salam.uitm.edu.my

ABSTRACT

In essence, decision problem structuring is a process for arranging the inputs from participants in ways
that make sense to frame the problem that is characterised by high levels of complexity, uncertainty,
and conflict. A person must create a structure for the problem prior to subsequent evaluation of the
different action options. A problem that is well-structured is a problem half-solved is an oft-quoted
statement which is highly pertinent to the use of any form of modelling the process. Decision support
systems aid and enhance the decision making but not the structuring of the problem.
This intelligent system is designed to track the decision problem structuring process and the analysis
of each input from the participants. The system enables an individual to respond to the situational
problem or reply to an earlier respondent. Some heuristics are involved in the analysis of text
responses. The system is currently implemented as a prototype with a seven-stage user interface and
an inference engine accessing the knowledge base and archives.
The knowledge base is built from the analysis of the brainstorming and journaling by four groups of
participants in six different case studies in Management Information Systems specifics. These case
studies have a resonance with issues that most organizations are facing. The brainstorming was
conducted in an online collaborative environment where the participants’ styles and varied ways of
working are not inhibited nor obstructed. The analysis that has been developed from each group for
each case study is consolidated to form the knowledge base.
The system archives the input and the respective analysis. This process enables the participants to
review inputs in ways that makes sense to structure the problem. It enables group interaction,
encourages participatory problem structuring and analysis, and generates shared understanding.

Keywords: intelligent system, decision problem structuring, tracking inputs, decision problem
structuring process, problem structuring and analysis

1. INTRODUCTION

The ability to think and understand, to solve problems, and to make decisions is a measure of intelligence.
Decision problem structuring is the most difficult and the most important because the structure of the
problem can condition the quality of choice (Baston, 2008). The structure is part of the data, something
that has been given by the market rules, or the social and organizational systems. Conceptualization of the
problem is related to the decision problem structuring process. Decision support systems aid and enhance
the decision-making but not the structuring of the problem. They are computer-based information systems
designed to help managers select one of many alternative solutions to a semi-structured problem (Oz,
2004, p.485). A decision support system is modeled upon the process of identifying the goals, and
chooses the alternatives that contribute most to those goals. It only orientates the problem in a way that
helps solve the problem of choice amongst alternatives. Conversely, the structuring process is the initial
representation or conceptualization of a problem. It is crucial to the subsequent treatment of the decision
problem (Keys, 2007; Mitroff, 1974).
This paper presents an intelligent system that is modeled upon the decision problem structuring
process and the analysis of each input from the participants in brainstorming. It enables group interaction,
Paper number: 7072732
C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

encourages participatory problem structuring and analysis, and generates shared understanding while
working on ill-defined situations characterized by high levels of complexity, uncertainty, and conflict.
The system enables individual to respond to the situational problem or reply to an earlier respondent.
Some heuristics are involved in the analysis of the text responses. The text responses and their respective
analysis are archived for easy retrieval. The system is currently implemented as a prototype with a 7-stage
user interface and an inference engine accessing the knowledge base and archives.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Decision-problem structuring (DPS) is a soft operational research approach to handling complex problem
situations of common interest to a group comprises top management teams. Complex problem situations
are described as ambiguous, ill-structured (Cats-Baril & Huber, 1987), messy (Courtney, 2001), wicked,
intractable, or difficult to manage (Rosenhead & Mingers, 2001; Ackoff, 1979).
Past literature informs that there are two types of research that dominate studies on problem
structuring methods: laboratory studies (for example, Joldersma & Roelofs, 2004), and field studies (for
example, Georgiou, 2008; Franco, 2006; Hector, Christensen, & Petrie, 2007). Joldersma and Roelofs
(2004) assert that laboratory studies usually investigate individuals rather than groups. The experiments
involve students whom are novices in structuring realistic problem situations. They further claim that the
laboratory studies deviate from the real-life context as the participants are usually provided with a
fictitious, well-structured problem situation in advance to suit the laboratory circumstances. In contrast,
field studies centre on impact of soft operational research methods in the real-life context. Being engaged
with the situational problem is itself a dynamic situation. Research shows that students structure complex
issues slower than the experienced experts or professionals as the latter are used to deal with situational
problems in the workplace (Dởrner, 1996; Day & Lord, 1992; Abualsamh et al., 1990; Cat-Baril & Huber,
1987).
In addition, changes in the conception of the problem are related to the type of problem structuring
process. A study conducted by Joldersma and Roelof (2004) shows four types of problem-structuring
processes: task conflict; information exchange; common interest; and common development based on the
speed of problem-structuring and conflicts about interests and values.
In the context of systemic problem solving, Ian Mitroff refers to the structuring problem when he says
that “the initial representation or conceptualisation of a problem is so crucial to its subsequent treatment
that one is tempted to say that the most important as well as the most difficult issue underlying the subject
of problem solving is precisely the problem of how to represent problems (1974, p.383).
The structuring problem is also related with the framing effect formulated by Tversky and Kahneman
(1981, 1986). They distinguish two phases in the choice process: a phase of framing and a phase of
evaluation. The first phase frames the effective actions, the contingencies and the consequences, and is
controlled by the way the choice problem is presented (Tversky & Kahneman 1986). They use the
expression “decision frame” to refer to the conception of acts, outcomes, and contingencies associated
with a particular choice.

3. METHODOLOGY

The study pursued a Web-based collaborative learning: a virtual collaborative workspace in Wiki, one of
Web 2.0 tools. Wiki, a weblog, presents a simple way to put content on the Web and a development
platform for virtual online collaboration. Fortnightly case study is being uploaded in the class wiki for
brainstorming and decision-making process. Online communication is conducted over Free Online
Groups (FrOG) hosted by Yahoo! Groups. Brainstorming is effective, both for individuals and for
groups (Parry & Gregory, 2003). In this context, effectiveness means that the ideas produced
were more unique and valuable as well as the fact that the quantity of ideas was large. By relating
the idea of brainstorming to this study, it is possible to envisage a number of modes of use. The
first is that it could be employed by a lone participant, being absent from class or have not
participated actively in wiki nor FrOG, to reflect on possible ways of shaping and setting the
Paper number: 7072732
C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

problems to be addressed. The second is that it could be employed by a team of personnel, who
are engaged, peripherally or fully, in a particular case study.
Brainstorming case studies over an online collaborative learning environment has an inherent
objective, that is, to provide students with hands-on experience with a particular case study that
has a resonance with issues the real organizations are facing. Selection of a case study is
confined to four situational characteristics of Belasco et al.’s design (1973) that decision makers
commonly and simultaneously face: ambiguous and loosely defined task; the standard against
which success is to be measured remains unstable; knowledge of the organizational and its
environment remains uncertain. Such situational characteristics assert the combination of
uncertainty, complexity and risk for brainstorming.

3.1 Case Studies

Students build up their knowledge on Management Information Systems (MIS) through case studies
(Laudon & Laudon, 2006; O’Brien, 2004; Oz, 2004). A case study is a combination of theory and
practice that helps ensure the student is ready for the workforce. The component on ethics is weaved into
the case study. According to these scholars, Laudon & Laudon (2006); O’Brien, (2004); and Oz, (2004),
case studies are a good way to hone thinking skills, technical competencies and professionalism. It cannot
be assumed that everyone has the same standards when it comes to ethics, so the viewpoints highlighted in
the cases form a common basis of discussion for everyone. Ethics is something that people do not think
about very often (Kallman & Grillo, 2004), so case study is a good way to get them to reflect on the issue.
Brainstorming case studies over an online collaborative learning environment has an inherent
objective, that is, to provide students with hands-on experience with a particular MIS specific that has a
resonance with issues the real organisations are facing. Selection of a case study is confined to four
situational characteristics of Belasco et al.’s design (1973) that decision makers commonly and
simultaneously face: ambiguous and loosely defined task; the standard against which success is to be
measured remains unstable; knowledge of the organisational and its environment remains uncertain. Such
situational characteristics assert the combination of uncertainty, complexity and risk for brainstorming.
The six case studies selected for this study is summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: Summary of Case Studies

Case Study No. Title Synopsis


1 Radio frequency Identification RFID tags attached to or embedded
(RFID) in items. An ethical issue is what
happens to the RFID tags. If they
are not removed after check-out, it
is possible for people to track your
whereabouts, which may be
considered an invasion of privacy.
Removing these tags costs money
and takes time which is an added
burden to retailers.

2 Late delivery of software A company is commissioned to


develop a software for a client but
is late in delivery. The company is
in a dilemma: To install the
software that is not fully tested or
to inform the client.

Paper number: 7072732


C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

3 Cyber-slacking The Internet provides all kinds of


productivity –frittering distractions:
instant messaging socializing; e-
bay; pornography; and sports
scores. Some of the risks are
harassment, discrimination,
copyright infringement, lawsuits,
and loss of intellectual property.
How do you remedy cyber-
slacking?

4 Ethical issues relating to supply Conducting a supply chain


chain solutions management may result in the need
to lay off, retrain, or transfer
employees. Other ethical issues
involve sharing of personal
information and computer
programs which were designed for
personal use on the job.

5 Online ticket bookings Technology is challenging age-old


paradigm and threaten comfort
levels of the travel agents:
communication, prospect for new
business, presentation of products
and services, negotiation, close and
service customers for repeat and
referral business. Yet sales staff
must maintain balance and the
human touch in their selling and
relationship. Travel agents are in a
dilemma over click-and-mortar or
brick-and-mortar business model to
sell their holiday packages.

6 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth Technology The role of the hotel manager is


in the hotel industry assumed to decide on the next
course of action as a number of
hotels offer their guests Wi-Fi
Internet access in public areas and
meeting rooms. Some hotels are
providing guests with Bluetooth-
enabled phones that can
communicate with access points
located throughout the hotel.

3.2 Theoretical Sampling

A non-representative sample with the aim of making key comparisons and testing and developing
theoretical propositions towards the phenomenon of decision problem structuring process is employed.
Theoretical sampling means selecting groups to study on the basis of their relevance to the research
Paper number: 7072732
C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

questions, theoretical position and analytical framework and the explanation or account which the
researcher is developing. Theoretical sampling is concerned with constructing a sample which is
meaningful theoretically, because it builds in certain characteristics or criteria which help to develop and
test the researcher’s theory and explanation on decision-problem structuring in case studies by people with
non-work related experience.

Thus, to best understand this phenomenon, the selection of participants is purposive: the study drew
upon a large sample size of four groups that were of homogenous ethnicity. These undergraduates were
pursuing a program that will eventually lead them into a managerial position either in the corporate world
or the public sector of employment. Group 1 and 2 were selected to help develop the theory or
explanation, and group 3 and 4 were to test it. The theoretical sampling is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Theoretical Sampling

Group Case study # Composition Program


1 1, 4, 6 35 (12M, 23F) Bachelor of Science in
Hotel Management
2 1, 4, 6 19 (19F) Bachelor of Corporate
Administration
3 1, 2, 3, 4 26 (6M, 20F) Law Foundation
(MOHE)
4 1, 2, 3, 4 27 (10M, 17F) Law Foundation
(MOHE)

The selection of case groups is constituted by the accessibility of the researcher who is their lecturer.
The case groups are attempts at replication. Replication requires certain homogeneity of cases on which
the general applicability of the evidence obtained may be tested. The selection criteria are characterised
by assumptions about the similarity of the case groups under investigation. The case groups can be
extended and supplemented on the basis of the particular level of knowledge achieved. The concrete
technique of sampling in the latter case may therefore be modified during the investigation in line with
considerations of relevance . Among the participants from each group may comprise negative instance,
such as those with related work experience. These instances will show that they do not fit with the
research idea or which the researcher is developing. In this respect, the brainstorming session of the
particular case study may be influenced. Subsequently, it may affect the behaviour in decision-problem
structuring of the case study.

Data were collected through a variety of methods: unstructured and semi-structured interviewing,
journaling, and observation.

3.3 Journaling
According to Creswell (2005), journaling represents a good source for text (word) data for a qualitative
study. It provides the advantage of being in the language and words of the participants, who have usually
given thoughtful attention to them. Thus, journaling is complete, authentic and an accurate source.
Journals are also ready for analysis without the necessary transcription.
Participants were to download the discussion thread of each case study in a dialectic journal. A
dialectic journal allows for a reflection between what the participant observes and his or her reaction to it
(Moon, 2006). On one column, the participant pastes a quote, fact, or incident from the discussion thread
in the Wiki, and in the corresponding column, he writes his reactions, reflection and analysis to the first
entry. This affords the participant an organised way to document and analyze their experience.

Paper number: 7072732


C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The exploratory component of this study was based on the analysis of the participants’ perceptions,
understanding, and expectations while brainstorming the six case studies. The analysis was aggregated
into a model of decision-problem structuring process with a seven-stage user interface of which six stages
are shown in Figure 1.

I II

III IV

V VI

Figure 1: Decision Problem Structuring Process Interfaces for an Intelligent System


Paper number: 7072732
C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

Stage I A user presents a situation or an issue for brainstorming. Alternatively, the user can select a
case study from a file for practice.

Stage II A subsequent user sees the case study. He can response to it by pressing the ‘reply’ button.

Stage III A user types in his response. He can either delete his or an earlier response with the ‘clear’
button. The button ‘submit reply’ will evoke the analysis of his response.

Stage IV The analysis of the input is shown alongside the user entry. Any user can reply to a particular
earlier response by pressing the ‘Reply to Entry#’ button or see what is in the archives.
Alternatively, the user can clear the earlier entry to type his input.

Stage VI The ‘Archives’ button displays current and previous entries with the respective analysis in a
chronological order.

The intelligence of this system is reflected in the analysis of the inputs to the case study and its ability
to track the decision problem structuring process. Some heuristics are involved in the analysis of the text
responses. The analysis that has been developed from each group for each case study is consolidated to
form the knowledge base. A sample of the analysis is shown below.

Table 3: Sample Analysis

I think installing software that is not fully tested will put the company at risk. The
software may not work at all and it will jeopardize the reputation of the company.
This will also affect the credibility of the company. Surviving in this business will be
slim. To me, this is a question of honesty and trust. A client has come to the
company engaging our expertise in designing software. They are entrusting us with
an important task, and we just disappoint them.
(CS#2 Entry #1)
Rater1 Rater2 Refined Category
Explaining a concern Justifying an opinion Expressing a concern

The posted entries without grammatical or other ‘tidying up’ were given to two independent raters
who were adequately familiar in categorizing the entries of the brainstorming and had been trained to be
consistent. The aim is to measure the level of agreement between the two raters on each of the entry
posted on the virtual, collaborative workspace. The stronger the agreement between the raters, the more
confident one can be that the categories are reliable and consistent. The two raters were also engaged in
the follow-up process of studying the causes for disagreement and improving the consistency of the
categories used. For this study, 79% (>70%) agreement is acceptable.

The system archives the input and the respective analysis. This process enables the participants to
review inputs in ways that makes sense to structure the problem. It enables group interaction, encourages
participatory problem structuring and analysis, and generates shared understanding.

5. CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents a prototype of the intended system that will provide an alternative environment for
decision problem structuring. The work on categorizing of the analysis of the participants’ inputs to the
case studies is still ongoing and constantly being refined. The system potentially involves virtual
brainstorming of controversial issues, novice decision makers, and managerial team.
Paper number: 7072732
C S S R 0 8’ 0 9 14 - 15 March 2009
C O N F E R E N C E ON S C I E N T I F I C & S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

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