Natural Numbers(N): Natural Numbers are counting numbers from 1,2,3,4,5,................ N = {1,2,3,4,5,................

} Whole Numbers (W): Whole numbers are natural numbers including zero. They are 0,1,2,3,4,5,............... W = {0,1,2,3,4,5,..............} W=0+N Positive Numbers: Positive numbers are, 1,2 ,3 ,4 ,5................. Positive Numbers: {1, 2, 3, . . .} Negative Numbers: Negative numbers are, ............-3, -2, -1. Negative integers: { . . . -3, -2, -1} Integers (Z):

Whole Numbers together with negative numbers. Integers are set containing the positive numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...., and negative numbers,............-3, -2, -1, together with zero. Zero is neither positive nor negative, but is both. In other words, Integers are defined as set of whole numbers and their opposites. Z = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .....}

Rational Numbers (Q):

All numbers of the form , where a and b are integers (but b cannot be zero) Rational numbers include fractions: * Proper Fraction: Numbers smaller than 1 eg: 1/2 or 3/4 * Improper Fraction: Numbers greater than 1 eg: 5/2 * Mixed Fraction: 2 1/2 = 5/2 1

Powers and square roots may be rational numbers if their standard form is a rational number. In rational numbers the denominator cannot be zero

Example: 2 can be expressed in the form of p/q as 2/1 -13/9 = -1.444....... 8-2 = 0.015625 (16)/3 = 4/3 = 1.333... 4 = 2 1/2 = 0. 5 ----- Rational (terminates) 2/3 = 0.6666666.......Rational (repeats) 5/11 = 0.454545......Rational (repeats) Irrational Numbers Q1:

Cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers. As decimals they never repeat or terminate (rationals always do one or the other) They go on for ever or infinity.

Example: 2, 3, 7, 8 square root of 2 = 2 = 1. 41421356......Irrational (never repeats or terminates) pi = = 22/7 = 3.14159265....... Irrational (never repeats or terminates) Real Numbers R:

Real Numbers are every number, irrational or rational. Any number that you can find on the number line. It is a number required to label any point on the number line; or it is a number that names the distance of any point from 0. R = Q + Q1 Natural Numbers are Whole Numbers, which are Integers, which are Rational Numbers, which are Real Numbers. Irrational Numbers are Real Numbers, but not all Real Numbers are Irrational Numbers.

Examples: 0.45 3.1415926535................... 3.14159 0 rational real irrational, real rational, real whole, integer, rational, real

5/3 1 2/3 = 5/3 2 = 1. 41421356...... -81 = -9 -9/3 25 = 5 9/3 = 3 -3/4 = 3.1428571... 3.144444.......

rational, real rational, real irrational, real integer, rational, real rational, real natural, whole, integer, rational, real natural, whole, integer, rational, real rational, real irrational, real rational, real (since it is a repeating decimal)

The number system consists of natural numbers, whole numbers, integers, rational numbers and irrational numbers. Real and imaginary numbers also form part of the entire set of numbers. What we will study in this chapter : 1. 2. 3. 4. Rational 5. Real Numbers Natural Whole and Irrational Numbers Numbers Integers Numbers

1. Natural Numbers The numbers 1,2,3,4,5.etc. are called Natural numbers.. Each number is equidistant from each other by the unit number 1. The set of natural numbers can be represented by a set {1,2,3,4.} or by a number line.

The results of all operations done on the natural numbers will again be a natural number. The number line extends to infinity, which is denoted as . 2. Whole Numbers If we include 0 in the set of natural numbers, then the set of numbers is called whole numbers. The set is shown as {0,1,2,3,4..}. Whole numbers can also be shown on the number line, with the starting number as zero. All operations involving whole numbers will again give rise to another whole number. With the introduction of 0, one has to remember that multiplication of any number with 0 is always 0, division with 0 is infinity ( ). Division of 0 with 0 is an indeterminate quantity. 3

3. Integers The set of integers consists of all natural numbers, zero and the negative of all natural numbers. The set of integers can be represented as a set { -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,,4.} On the number line, the integers can be shown as given below :

The number line for the integers extends from - to + . Operations of all integers are also integers. With negative integers, one has to be a bit careful as 1 > 2, but with natural numbers 1 < 2. 4. Rational and Irrational Numbers Rational numbers form the next higher step for the system of numbers. All integers separate from each other by a unit number 1. But there could be numbers less than 1 in between two numbers on the number line. Such numbers are called fractions. For example 1/2 will fall at the exact mid point between 0 and 1 on the number line. Similarly a number 3/2 will be at the exact mid point between 1 and 2.

Thus the set of rational numbers includes all integers and all fractions. It has to be borne in mind that fractions of numbers can have recurring digits, For example 8/3 = 2.6666, which is written as 2.6. Even these numbers can be represented on the number line. But there are other numbers such as = 22/7, 2, 3, 5, 7 , etc. which cannot be represented as recurring decimal integers. These are called irrational numbers. The more significant decimal places that can be accommodated, the more closer to value of the fraction one is able to obtain. Since it is practically not feasible to write all the decimals, the number is truncated to the required significant decimal place that is needed for calculations. Irrational numbers are also represented on the number line. All operations with irrational numbers again belong to the set of rational or irrational numbers and the number line. 5. Real Numbers Real numbers consist of all rational and irrational numbers. Any appropriate point on the number line and vice versa gives real numbers. The set of real numbers thus consists of each and every point on the number line. In addition to real numbers there are imaginary numbers like the square root of negative numbers. Imaginary numbers also form an entire set, but this set is represented by a plane, where the X-axis gives the real part of the number 4

and the Y-axis gives the imaginary part of the number. Further explanation of imaginary numbers is beyond the scope of this syllabus.

Divisors, factors and multiples of integers; common divisor, greatest common divisor, common multiple, least common multiple, division algorithm, Euclids algorithm, unique factorization theorem
a divides b. We say an integer a divides an integer b (written "a | b") if there
exists an integer c such that b = ac. When a | b we say that a is a factor of b, a is a divisor of b, or b is a multiple of a. Example. 2 | 10 since 10 = 25 . The integer 10 is a multiple of 2. Note the following: 3 divides 0 and, in general, a | 0 for all a I . Why? It follows as a direct consequence of the above definition since 0 = a0 . This is a case of a result that would not be expected from the general concept of b as being a multiple of a, but which follows as a consequence of the axiomatic style definition. Theorem 1. If a | b and a | c then a | (bx + cy) for all integers x,y.

Prime number. An integer p which is not 0 or +1 and is divisible by no integers

except +1 and +p.

Common divisor of two or more quantities. A quantity which is a

factor of each of the quantities. A common divisor of 10, 15, and 75 is 5; a common divisor of x2 - y2 and x2 - 2xy + y2 is x - y , since x2 - y2 = (x - y)(x + y) and x2 - 2xy + y2 = (x - y)2. Syn. common factor, greatest common measure.

Greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of two or more quantities. A

common divisor that is divisible by all other common divisors. For positive integers, the greatest common divisor is the largest of all common divisors e.g. the common divisors of 30 and 42 are 2, 3, and 6, the largest being the greatest common divisor 6. If we consider negative integers the common divisors of 24 and 60 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. and the greatest common divisors are 12. Syn. greatest common factor, greatest common measure. The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by (a,b).

Common multiple of two or more quantities. A quantity which is a

multiple of each of two or more given quantities. The number 6 is a common multiple of 2 and 3. x2 - 1 is a common multiple of x - 1 and x + 1.

Least common multiple (l.c.m.) of two or more quantities. The

least quantity that is exactly divisible by each of the given quantities; 12 is the l.c.m. of 2, 3, 4, and 6. The l.c.m. of a set of algebraic quantities is the product of all their distinct prime factors, each taken the greatest number of times it occurs in any one of the quantities; the l.c.m. of x2 - 1 and x2 - 2x + 1 is (x - 1)2(x + 1) . Tech. The l.c.m. of a set of quantities is a common multiple of the quantities which divides every common multiple of them.

Division Algorithm. For any integer a and any positive integer b, there exist
unique integers q and r such that a = bq + r, 0 r<b

The integer a is the dividend, b is the divisor, q is the quotient and r is the remainder. [Note. This theorem could be stated differently as the quotient a/b equals q plus a remainder of r which explains the terminology.] For polynomials, the division algorithm states that, for any polynomial f and any non-constant polynomial g, there exist unique polynomials q and r such

where either r = 0 or the degree of r is less than the degree of g. The polynomials f, g, q, and r are the dividend, divisor, quotient, and remainder.

Euclids algorithm. A method of finding the greatest common divisor (g.c.d.)

of two numbers one number is divided by the other, then the second by the remainder, the first remainder by the second remainder, the second by the third, etc. When exact division is finally reached, the last divisor is the greatest common divisor of the given numbers (integers). In algebra, the same process can be applied to polynomials. E.g., to find the greatest common divisor of 12 and 20, we have 20 12 is 1 with remainder 8; 12 8 is 1 with remainder 4; and 8 4 = 2; hence 4 is the g.c.d.

Theorem 2. Any two integers a 0 and b 0 have a positive greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) which can be expressed as a linear combination of a and b in the form d = au + bv for integers u and v. Theorem 3. If p is a prime, then p | ab implies p | a or p | b. Theorem 4. If p is a prime and if p is a divisor of the product integers, then p is a divisor of at least one of these integers. of n

Relatively prime integers. Two integers a and b are said to be relatively

prime if (a,b) = 1.

The unique factorization Theorem. Every integer

factorization, except for order, into a product of primes

has a unique

Sometimes, it is useful to restrict our attention over non-negative real numbers only. For this purpose, we define numerical or non-negative value of a real number which we call an absolute value or modulus of the real number. Absolute Value: The absolute value of a real number, number denoted by , is the real according as a positive, negative, or zero.

i.e. From the definition of absolute value of a real number, we have Example: (1) (2) (3) Example: (1) , . , ,

(2) Example: (1) (2) , .

Example: If , then .

Solution: We have

Example:

For all real number, Solution:

and

, and , we have

Here, for all real numbers

Absolute Value of a Number

Introduction and definition

Complex numbers have been introduced to allow for solutions of certain equations that have no real solution: the equation

has no real solution x, since the square of x is 0 or positive, so x2 + 1 cannot be zero. Complex numbers are a solution to this problem. The idea is to enhance the real numbers by introducing a non-real number i whose square is 1, so that x = i and x = i are the two solutions to the preceding equation.

[edit] Definition
A complex number is an expression of the form

where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit, satisfying i2 = -1. For example, 3.5 + 2i is a complex number. The real number a of the complex number z = a + bi is called the real part of z and the real number b is the imaginary part.[2] They are denoted Re(z) or (z) and Im(z) or (z), respectively. For example,

Some authors write a+ib instead of a+bi. In some disciplines (in particular, electrical engineering, where i is a symbol for current), in order to avoid notational conflict, the imaginary unit i is instead written as j, so complex numbers are written as a + bj or a + jb. A real number a can usually be regarded as a complex number with an imaginary part of zero, that is to say, a + 0i. However the sets are defined differently and have slightly different operations defined, for instance comparison operations are not defined for complex numbers. Complex numbers whose real part is zero, that is to say, those of the form 0 + bi, are called imaginary numbers. It is common to write a for a + 0i and bi for 0 + bi. Moreover, when b is negative, it is common to write a bi instead of a + (b)i, for example 3 4i instead of 3 + (4)i. The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C or .

[edit] The complex plane

Main article: Complex plane

Figure 1: A complex number plotted as a point (red) and position vector (blue) on an Argand diagram; a + bi is the rectangular expression of the point. A complex number can be viewed as a point or position vector in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system called the complex plane or Argand diagram (see Pedoe 1988 and Solomentsev 2001), named after Jean-Robert Argand. The numbers are conventionally plotted using the real part as the horizontal component, and imaginary part as vertical (see Figure 1). These two values used to identify a given complex number are therefore called its Cartesian, rectangular, or algebraic form. The defining characteristic of a position vector is that it has magnitude and direction. These are emphasised in a complex number's polar form and it turns out notably that the operations of addition and multiplication take on a very natural geometric character when complex numbers are viewed as position vectors: addition corresponds to vector addition while multiplication corresponds to multiplying their magnitudes and adding their arguments (i.e. the angles they make with the x axis). Viewed in this way the multiplication of a complex number by i corresponds to rotating a complex number anticlockwise through 90 about the origin.

Conjugation

Geometric representation of z and its conjugate in the complex plane

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The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + yi is defined to be x yi. It is denoted or . Geometrically, is the "reflection" of z about the real axis. In particular, conjugating twice gives the original complex number: . The real and imaginary parts of a complex number can be extracted using the conjugate:

Moreover, a complex number is real if and only if it equals its conjugate. Conjugation distributes over the standard arithmetic operations:

The reciprocal of a nonzero complex number z = x + yi is given by

This formula can be used to compute the multiplicative inverse of a complex number if it is given in rectangular coordinates. Inversive geometry, a branch of geometry studying more general reflections than ones about a line, can also be expressed in terms of complex numbers.

[edit] Addition and subtraction

Addition of two complex numbers can be done geometrically by constructing a parallelogram. Complex numbers are added by adding the real and imaginary parts of the summands. That is to say:

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Similarly, subtraction is defined by

Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex plane, the addition has the following geometric interpretation: the sum of two complex numbers A and B, interpreted as points of the complex plane, is the point X obtained by building a parallelogram three of whose vertices are 0, A and B. Equivalently, X is the point such that the triangles with vertices 0, A, B, and X, B, A, are congruent.

[edit] Multiplication and division

The multiplication of two complex numbers is defined by the following formula:

In particular, the square of the imaginary unit is 1:

The preceding definition of multiplication of general complex numbers is the natural way of extending this fundamental property of the imaginary unit. Indeed, treating i as a variable, the formula follows from this (distributive law) (commutative law of additionthe order of the summands can be changed) (commutative law of multiplicationthe order of the factors can be changed) (fundamental property of the imaginary unit). The division of two complex numbers is defined in terms of complex multiplication, which is described above, and real division:

Division can be defined in this way because of the following observation:

As shown earlier, c di is the complex conjugate of the denominator c + di. The real part c and the imaginary part d of the denominator must not both be zero for division to be defined.

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[edit] Square root

The square roots of a + bi (with b 0) are , where

and

where sgn is the signum function. This can be seen by squaring

[4][5]

to obtain

a + bi. Here is called the modulus of a + bi, and the square root with non-negative real part is called the principal square root.

Absolute value and argument

Another way of encoding points in the complex plane other than using the x- and ycoordinates is to use the distance of a point P to O, the point whose coordinates are (0, 0) (origin), and the angle of the line through P and O. This idea leads to the polar form of complex numbers. The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex number z = x+yi is

If z is a real number (i.e., y = 0), then r = |x|. In general, by Pythagoras' theorem, r is the distance of the point P representing the complex number z to the origin. The argument or phase of z is the angle of the radius OP with the positive real axis, and is written as arg(z). As with the modulus, the argument can be found from the rectangular form x + iy:[6]

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The argument and modulus r locate a point on an Argand diagram; r(cos ) or rei are polar expressions of the point

+ isin

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