STRUCTURALDESIGNOFACANTILEVEREDBUILDING

Piesenteu by


KarineMarielleCharlebois







Foi the obtention of

NSc in Aichitectuie, 0ibanism anu Builuing Sciences
(Specialisation Aichitectuial Engineeiing)







Technische 0niveisiteit Belft
Novembei 2u11
2

MastersThesis:

StructuralDesignofaCantileveredBuilding

Author:
K.N. Chailebois

FirstMentor:
N.F. Asselbeigs
Faculty of Aichitectuie T0 Belft

SecondMentor:
N.W. Kameiling
Faculty of Aichitectuie T0 Belft

ExternalExaminor:
B. vitnei
Faculty of Aichitectuie T0 Belft




S

TABLEOFCONTENT

1 SUMMARY 2
2 DESIGNAPPROACHOVERVIEWOFBUILDINGSSTRUCTURE 3
2.1 SECONDARYSTRUCTUREAPPROACH 2
2.2 PRIMARYCANTILEVEREDSTRUCTUREAPPROACH 3
2.3 CONTROLOFREACTIONFORCESATSUPPORTS 6
2.4 STABILITYSTRATEGY 7
3 LOADINGCALCULATIONS 9
3.1 LiveLoadsonFloors 10
3.2 WindLoads 11
4 MATERIALPROPERTIES 14
5 FIRECONSIDERATIONS 14
6 FLOORDESIGN 15
6.1 FloorSlabSelection 15
6.1.1 Sm Span 16
6.1.2 6m Span 16
6.1.S Flooi Slab Selection Summaiy 17
6.2 BeamCalculations 17
6.2.1 Noment Capacities anu Beflections 18
6.2.2 Lateial Toisional Buckling 19
6.2.S Noment Capacity of Composite Sections 2u
6.2.4 Beflection of Composite Sections 22
6.3 BeamSelectionShearConnectionSlabBeam(Compositeaction) 25
6.4 BeamSelectionNoShearConnectionSlabBeam 26
6.5 Summary 28
7 MAINTRUSSESDESIGN 29
7.1 LoadCasesandCorrespondingBendingMomentandShearForce
DiagramsofCantileveredBeam 29
7.1.1 Loau Case 1: Live Loau Along Whole Length 29
7.1.2 Loau Case 2: Live Loau on Cantilevei 0nly Su
7.1.S Loau Case S: Live Loau on Backspan 0nly Su
7.1.4 Summaiy S1
7.2 MainTrussesPatternSelection 31
7.2.1 Bowe Tiuss 6m Bays S2
7.2.2 Bowe Tiuss Sm Bays SS
7.2.S Biamonu Tiuss 6m Bays S4
7.2.4 Biamonu Tiuss Sm Bays SS
7.2.S Pattein Auopteu anu Final Flooi Selection S6
7.3 CombinedTrusses 36
7.4 WholeCantileveredStructureCheck 38
7.4.1 Initial Nembei Sizes S8
7.4.2 Beflection S9
7.4.S Stiuctuie with Reuuceu Nembei Sizes 4u
7.5 STABILITYCHECKS 43
7.S.1 Loauing cases consiueieu 4S
7.S.2 Results 44
7.S.S 0ptimisation 48
8 CONCLUSION 48
4

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 49
10 ANNEXA 50
10.1 Calculationoffloorbeamcompositeaction 50
1u.1.1 Loauing Su
1u.1.2 Besign Noments S1
1u.1.S Noment Capacities S1
1u.1.4 Beflections SS
10.2 CalculationoffloorbeamNoshearconnection 54
1u.2.1 Loauing SS
1u.2.2 Besign Noments SS
1u.2.S Noment Capacities S6
1u.2.4 Beflections S7



















































2

1 SUMMARY

The Aichitectuial Engineeiing giauuation pioject piesenteu in this iepoit hau foi main focus the integiation of the aichitectuial issues
associateu with the uesign of a mixeuuse builuing in a highuensity uiban context with the technical aspects ielateu to veiy laige cantileveieu
stiuctuies. Fiom an aichitectuial point of view, the pioposeu builuing aims to ieinstate a connection between all paits of Spaainwouue by pioviuing a
new cential hub wheie all foims of tianspoits (iail, bus, peuestiian, cycle, vehiculai anu maiitime tiaffics) meet in a highuensity aiea with 24h
activity. The main builuing the heait of this new hub captuies the essence of the new uevelopment with its auuitoiiums foi confeiences anu film
piojections, exhibition halls, shops, offices, meeting iooms as well as its tiain station hall anu bus station anu even iowing facilities (figuie 1). The
spiial configuiation of the 42mlong cantileveieu stiuctuie seateu on a plinth (figuie 2) above Spaainwouues new tiain station is maue possible
by the uevelopment of a unique way of combining steel tiusses anu this foimeu the coie of the technical analysis pait of the giauuation pioject.

This iepoit explains the geneial stiuctuial appioach auopteu to suppoit this 42mlong cantileveieu builuing anu insuie its stability. Then, the
calculation methous useu anu iesults obtaineu foi the main stiuctuial elements aie piesenteu. These aie baseu on the Euiocoues anu the
coiiesponuing National Annexes foi The Netheilanus.

Figure1ExternalviewofbuildingFigure2LongitudinalsectionUppercantileveredstructureseatedonplinth(purple)
S

2 DESIGNAPPROACHOVERVIEWOFBUILDINGSSTRUCTURE


The appioach useu to uesign the cantileveieu builuing consists of two main paits:

1) Beteimination of the natuie anu configuiation of the main stiuctuial elements.

2) Sizing of the membeis with hanu calculations anu finite element analyses in accoiuance to the Euiocoues. Checks foi stiesses anu ueflections foi
the woist loauing cases.

Figuie S shows in a schematic mannei the main steps of the uesign piocess with the coiiesponuing sections of this iepoit. In the fiist stage,
possible flooi constiuction types weie selecteu foi fuithei stuuy as well as the geneial configuiation of the uppei cantileveieu stiuctuie of the
builuing. Then, an appioach to eliminate any possible uplift foice at the suppoits was uevelopeu in paiallel with a stiategy to insuie the stability of
the whole stiuctuie.

Calculations weie then peifoimeu in oiuei to select anu iefine the uesign of the stiuctuie anu ueteimine the sizes of the main elements. Fiist of
all, the live anu ueau loaus encounteieu weie ueteimineu baseu on the type of spaces anu mateiials useu. Knowing the oveiall uimensions of the
stiuctuie, vaiious flooi options coulu be founu which hau vaiious oveiall uepths anu constiuction methous. A uefinitive choice iegaiuing the flooi
system was not maue at this stage but this gave a moie piecise iuea of the ueau loaus which woulu neeu to be suppoiteu as well as the oveiall uepth of
the flooi which woulu connect to the main stiuctuie.

The piimaiy cantileveieu stiuctuie was then uesigneu fiom the stuuy of a cantileveieu beam, to the inuiviuual tiusses anu the whole uppei
stiuctuie at ultimate anu seivice limit states. The uimensions of the main stiuctuie, a final uecision was then maue iegaiuing the flooi system to be
useu.

Finally, the lowei stiuctuie (the plinth) was auueu to the cantileveieu pait of the builuing anu checks weie peifoimeu to make suie no uplift
foices weie encounteieu at the suppoits foi the woist loauing cases incluuing tiansveise loaus anu that the stiuctuie woulu be stable. 0nce again,
maximum stiesses anu ueflections weie veiifieu.





4


Figure3Diagramofthestructuraldesignprocess
2

2.1 SECONDARYSTRUCTUREAPPROACH

Because the builuing has a veiy laige 42mlong anu Sstoieyhigh
cantilevei, it was impoitant to make uecisions which woulu minimize
the weight (ueau loau) of the stiuctuie, thus ieuucing as much as
possible the stiesses, ueflections anu theiefoie the stiuctuial membeis
sizes.

Foi this ieason, a composite flooi system was selecteu as it iesults
in a much lightei constiuction than an allconciete solution. This type
of flooi system also ieuuces the constiuction peiious. A composite ueck
slab consists in a piofileu galvanizeu uecking spanning between
suppoit beams anu act as the peimanent foimwoik foi the ieinfoiceu
conciete slab. 0nuei seivice loauing, aftei the conciete has set, the
uecking acts compositely with the conciete slab (figuie 4). In oiuei to
ieuuce the oveiall uepth, it is also possible to place the uecking
between the beams, also eliminating the possibility of composite action
between the conciete slab anu the beams (figuie S). Both options have
been stuuieu.


Figure4Floorstructurewithsteeldecking[6]

Figure5Slabwithinbeamdepth[6]

The metal uecking has amongst otheis the following ioles |1j:

1) Suppoits the loau of wet conciete uuiing constiuction
2) Acts as a woiking platfoim
S) Tiansfeis inplane loaus by uiaphiagm action to the veitical
biacing oi sheai walls
4) Stabilizes the beams against lateial toisional buckling if fixeu
with sheai stuus to the top flange anu at an angle of at least 4S
S) Bistiibutes shiinkage stiains pieventing seiious ciacking


The main economy sought in builuings is speeu of constiuction anu
foi this ieason slabs anu beams aie geneially uesigneu to be
unpioppeu uuiing constiuction. Bowevei, this ieuuces the spans that
can be achieveu. Foi this paiticulai builuing, unpioppeu constiuction is
also sought to ieuuce the extent of tempoiaiy woiks above the iailway
tiacks anu uistuibance to the tiain seivice.

S


Figure6Proppeddeckingduringconstruction[6]



2.2 PRIMARYCANTILEVEREDSTRUCTUREAPPROACH

The piimaiy cantileveieu stiuctuie sitting on the plinth is maue
of a seiies of steel tiusses. Naximum stiffness is achieveu by keeping
the iatio cantileveibackspan as small as possible anu having the
maximum tiuss uepth. In this case, the site constiaints anu the shape of
the builuing which hau to be achieveu uictateu these values.

Fiist of all, a cantileveibackspan iatio of 1 was pioviueu, placing
the foui coies on the outei euges of the plinth. This allows foi a cai
paik fiee of veiy laige veitical suppoits within the plinth anu a column
fiee platfoim aiea aiounu the iailway tiacks. Both the cantilevei anu
backspan have a length of 42m.

Then, because the cantileveieu uppei stiuctuie hau to have a
spiial shape, it was not possible to use tiusses which weie the full
uepth of the uppei stiuctuie, i.e. Sstoiey high. Paiis of 1stoiey high
weie theiefoie useu to cieate the uesiieu shape. As it was expecteu that
ueflections woulu be a majoi issue, it was impoitant to finu a way to
limit them. This has been uone by simply connecting the enus of the
uppei anu lowei tiusses togethei with a steel tie. This piinciple was
initially uevelopeu when both tiusses aie in the same plane. In oiuei to
achieve the spiial shape, the suppoit points weie connecteu to uiffeient
siues of the coies, iotating both tiusses about the steel ties connecting
them (figuie 7).


Figure7Strategyusedforcombinedcantileveredtrusses

Finally, the wiuth of the builuing being appioximately SSm, a way
of limiting the flooi spans hau to be founu in oiuei to ieuuce theii
uepth anu weight as much as possible. This has been achieveu
thiough the layout of the paiis of combineu tiusses. This way, a tiuss
may stait at the euge of the builuing at one enu anu be locateu at its
centie at the othei enu. The uppei anuoi lowei floois can then sit oi
hang fiom this tiuss. The following figuies show the exact layout of the
main tiusses suppoiteu by foui coies as well as the columns anu
hangeis foi the floois in the uppei cantileveieu stiuctuie.




4


Figure8Maintrussesatthird(partfourth)floorplinthlevel


Figure9Maintrussesatfifth(andsixth)floor


Figure10Thirdfloorplan(plinthlevel)



S


Figure11Fourthfloorplan





Figure12Fifthfloorplan



6


Figure13Sixthfloorplan


2.3 CONTROLOFREACTIONFORCESATSUPPORTS


0ne of the main issues which may aiise when builuing a
cantileveieu stiuctuie is the piesence of uplift foices at the back
suppoits. 0plift foices at the founuations have to be avoiueu as they
iequiie veiy costly anu timeconsuming systems. They can be
eliminateu by incieasing the uownwaiu loau on the suppoits. This can
be uone eithei by auuing mateiial on the coies (foi example conciete
coies with thickei walls), oi by uesigning the stiuctuie of the builuing
in such a way that the loaus aie uiiecteu as much as possible towaius
the main suppoits. The lattei option was useu as it makes a moie
efficient use of the mateiials.

The plinth is the key element in eliminating the uplift foices at the
back suppoits. Initially, the stiuctuie of the plinth was almost
inuepenuent fiom the uppei stiuctuie; the floois weie sitting on a
seiies of columns which tiansfeiieu the loaus uiiectly to the giounu.
This iesulteu in low ieactions at the main coie suppoits. These
ieactions weie incieaseu simply by flipping the stiuctuie upsiue
uown, i.e. by hanging the floois of the plinth fiom the backspan of the
uppei cantileveieu stiuctuie (figuie 14). This way the flooi spans of the
cai paik iemain faiily small, limiting theii uepth, but the loauing
tiansfeiieu to the main suppoits is gieatly incieaseu, eliminating any
uplift foice.

7


Figure14Strategytoeliminateupliftforcesatsupports



Figure15Sketchofplinthfloorshungfromcantileveredstructure



2.4 STABILITYSTRATEGY

The main suppoit oi coies have to be uesigneu to limit theii
ueflection at the top, to which aie uiiectly ielateu the maximum
stiesses. This ueflection has thiee components:

1) Bue to tempeiatuie vaiiations
2) Flexion uue to siue winus
S) Toision which is uictateu by the centie of stiffness position in
ielation to the winu loau iesultant

Fiist of all, the uppei steel stiuctuie will expanu (mainly
longituuinally) oi contiact unuei tempeiatuie vaiiations, inuucing
stiesses into the veitical suppoits. These stiesses can be minimizeu by
stiategically aujusting the stiffness of the suppoits. In this case, the
laigest stiffness in the longituuinal uiiection has been placeu at the
fiont suppoits anu the lowest one at the back, allowing foi a fiee
movement of the uppei stiuctuie (figuie 16).


Figure16Strategyfortemperatureonly



8

Then, the ueflection uue to the lateial winu loau is inveisely
piopoitional to the stiffness of the suppoits in the winu uiiection.
Because we have to catei foi winus coming fiom all uiiections, we have
to pioviue auequate biacing foi all loauing cases (figuie 17).


Figure17Strategyforflexionduetolateralwindloads

The total ueflection is also uue to the toision of the stiuctuie in
plan. The intensity of the moment is equal to the value FL, wheie F is
the winu iesultant, anu L the uistance between this foice anu the centie
of stiffness of the stiuctuie. The moment is minimizeu by ieuucing as
much as possible the uistance L, i.e. by placing the maximum stiffness
neai the iesultant F which is at the geometiic centie anu the fiont
suppoits of the builuing in this case (figuie 18).


Figure18Torsionduetolateralwindloads

The final configuiation of the suppoits was ueteimineu by
combining the stiategies ielateu to tempeiatuie vaiiations as well as
flexion anu toision uue to winu loauings (figuie 19). At the back
suppoits, the stiffness is pioviueu in the tiansveise uiiection. 0n the
othei hanu, biacing is piesent in both tiansveise anu longituuinal
uiiections, hence an oveiall stiffness which is gieatei than at the back
suppoits. This way, the levei aim L is ieuuceu, minimizing the toision
anu ueflections uue to lateial winu loauing.



Figure19Combinationofstrategiesfortemperature,flexionandtorsion


Figuie 2u shows the final configuiation foi the coie stiuctuie.
The walls coiiesponuing to the ones maikeu on figuie 19 aie biaceu
with steel membeis. In oiuei to fuithei impiove the stiffness unuei the
lateial winu loaus applieu on the laige siue of the builuing, two poital
fiames have been cieateu at the fiont anu back suppoits by combining
the paiis of veitical tiusses in the coies with a tiuss fiom the main
uppei stiuctuie. This way, by linking the enus foi the veitical tiusses,
we combine theii stiffness anu ieuuce the ueflections, as has been uone
foi the uppei cantileveieu stiuctuie.

9


Figure20Configurationofverticaltrussesincores













3 LOADINGCALCULATIONS


The limit state uesign philosophy is useu foi stiuctuial uesign in
Euiope, on which aie baseu the Euiocoues. This philosophy consiueis
two limit states:

1) Ultimatelimitstate(stressescheck)ULS:
The collapse of all oi pait of the stiuctuie

2) Serviceabilitylimitstate(deflectionscheck)SLS:
A state befoie collapse at which uefoimation, appeaiance oi
conuition of the stiuctuie becomes unacceptable oi cause
uiscomfoit to useis

To satisfy the ultimate state iequiiements, it must be shown that
theie is an auequate maigin of safety against collapse of any significant
element of the stiuctuie foi the woist combination of loauing anu
mateiial piopeities that can occui.

Accoiuing to the Euiocoue, these states have to be checkeu foi
vaiious uesign situations |Sj:

1) Persistentdesignsituations:
Refeis to the conuition of noimal use

2) Transientdesignsituations:
Tempoiaiy conuitions, foi example uuiing constiuction

3) Accidentaldesignsituations:
Exceptional conuitions applicable to the stiuctuie oi its
exposuie, e.g. to fiie, explosion, impact oi the consequences of
localizeu failuie


1u

Theiefoie, foi each uesign situation, both limit states have to be
checkeu when applying to the vaiious types of loauings the
coiiesponuing safety factois pioviueu in the Euiocoue.

The Euiocoue classifies the loaus baseu on theii vaiiation in time:

1) Permanentactions(G):
Selfweight of stiuctuies anu fixeu equipment

2) Variableactions(Q):
Imposeu (live) loaus on builuing floois, beams anu ioofs, winu
actions oi snow loaus

3) Accidentalactions(A):
Explosions oi impact fiom vehicles

In this case, to simplify the calculations, only the peimanent anu
vaiiable actions will be consiueieu.

The applieu loau foi limit state checks puiposes is calculateu using
the following foimula:

W =
g
u +
q
Q

With the safety factois fiom the table X below:

CASE PERM.ACTIONS

g
VARIABLEACTIONS

Unfavourable Favourable
0LS 1,SS 1,S u
SLS 1 1 u
Table1Safetyfactors[3]


3.1 LiveLoadsonFloors

The live loaus on floois (vaiiable actions) values aie founu in the
National Annex of the Euiocoue 1



Table2Imposedloadsonfloorstable6.2EC1[4]

Table3Imposedvehicleloadingtable6.8EC1[4]

11

Table 4 summaiizes the vaiiable loaus on floois useu foi this
paiticulai builuing.

SPACETYPE CATEGORYOFUSE LIVELOAD
[kN/m
2
]
0ffices
Neeting iooms
B 2,S
Auuitoiiums C2 4
Exhibition hall CS S
Restauiant
Caf
C1 4
Shops B1 4
Cai paik u S
Table4Liveloadsonfloorsused

3.2 WindLoads


The winu loau acting on the builuing can be calculateu using
Euiocoue 1, pait 14 |Sj anu its coiiesponuing National Annex foi The
Netheilanus. To simplify the pioblem, we will only consiuei the
tiansveise winu loau acting on the winuwaiu veitical faaues anu
ignoie the succion foices on the ioofs anu leewaiu faaues.

As one might expect, the winu loau will uepenu on the winu
velocity, which in tuin uepenus amongst othei things on the
oiientation of the faaue accoiuing the pievailing winu uiiection, the
teiiain ioughness, the exposuie anu altituue. All these vaiiables aie
taken into account in the Euiocoue when calculating the winu piessuie.

The builuing has a height of h=SSm anu a length of appioximately
b=84m. Because h<b, the Euiocoue iecommenus using a constant winu
piessuie along the whole height of the builuing with z=h=SSm as
shown on the figuie below.


Figure21WindprofileEC1[5]

1) Calculateterrainroughnessfactor

The builuing is locateu in an uiban aiea, a teiiain categoiy III.

c
r
(z) = k
r
ln _
z
z
0
] foi z
mIn
z z
max



wheie:

z
0
ioughness length = u,Sm
z
0,II
u,2m (teiiain categoiy II, table S)
z
mIn
minimum height table S = 7m
z
max
2uum
k
r
= u,19 [
z
0
0,05

0,07
: teiiain factoi = u,22S


Bence:

c
r
(SS) = u,22S ln[
35
0,5
= u,947

12


Table5Terraincategoriesandparameters,table4.1EC1[12]


2) Calculatemeanwindvelocity

v
m
(z) = c
r
(z) c
0
(z) v
b,0


wheie:

c
r
(z) ioughness factoi given by eq. 2 = u,947
c
0
(z) oiogiaphy factoi = 1,u
v
b,0
funuamental winu velocity fiom National Annex Table
NB.1 foi zone II = 27,u ms
2


Bence:

v
m
(17,S) = u,947 1,u 27 = 2S,S7 ms



Figure22Windzonesandcorrespondingwindspeeds[12]







1S

3) Calculatewindturbulenceintensity

I
v
(z) =
k
I
c
0
(z) ln(z z
0
)
foi z
mIn
z z
max



wheie:

k
I
tuibulence factoi = 1,u
c
0
(z) oiogiaphy factoi = 1,u
z
0
ioughness length = u,S

Bence:

I
v
(SS) =
1,u
1,u ln(SS u,S )
= u,2SS


4) Calculatepeakvelocitypressure

q
p
(z) = |1 + 7 I
v
(z)]
1
2
v
m
2
(z)

wheie :

aii uensity = 1,2S kgm
3

I
v
(z) tuibulence calculate with eq. 4 = u,2SS
v
m
(z) meanwinu velocity fiom eq. S = 2S,S7 ms

The chaiacteiistic winu loau useu is theiefoie:

q
p
(17,S) = |1 +7 u,2SS]
1
2
1,2S 2S,S7
2
= 1, 8 hNm
2

This value is almost equal to the maximum (inuicative) winu
piessuie in Table NB.4 of the National Annex of Euiocoue 1 foi a SSm
high builuing in an uiban aiea.


Figure23Indicativemaximumwindpressureasafunctionofthebuildingheight[12]


14

4 MATERIALPROPERTIES

The table below lists the steel anu lightweight conciete piopeities
useu in the calculations.

PROPERTY STEEL CONCRETEC40
Youngs mouulus E |Nmm
2
j 21uuuu 1uuuu
(longteim)
Sheai mouulus u |Nmm
2
j 8u77u
Stiength |Nmm
2
j f
y
= SSS f
cu
= 4u
Table6Materialproperties

In an attempt to ieuuce as much as possible the ueau loaus anu
the size of the loau beaiing elements, lightweight conciete (appiox. 17
kNm
2
) has been chosen insteau of noimal conciete (appiox. 24
kNm
2
). This lowei uensity is achieveu by using lightweight aggiegates
which aie typically expanueu shale, clay oi slate mateiials that have
been fiieu in a iotaiy kiln to uevelop a poious stiuctuie. The stiuctuial
lightweight conciete mixtuies can theiefoie be uesigneu to achieve
similai stiengths, mechanical piopeities anu uuiability as noimal
conciete.

In builuings, stiuctuial lightweight conciete pioviues a highei
fiieiateu conciete stiuctuie. It also benefits fiom eneigy conseivation
consiueiations as it pioviues highei Rvalues foi impioveu insulation
piopeities.

Finally, even though lightweight conciete is geneially moie
expensive than its noimal equivalent, the highei cost is geneially offset
by size ieuuction of stiuctuial elements, less ieinfoicing steel anu
ieuuceu volume of conciete, iesulting in lowei cost oveiall.



5 FIRECONSIDERATIONS

Although a full assessment of the behavioui of the stiuctuie in fiie
is beyonu the scope of this pioject, some uesign uecisions weie maue
with this eventuality in minu.

The stiength of all mateiials ieuuces as theii tempeiatuie
incieases anu this is paiticulaily tiue foi steel. It begins to lose stiength
at about 2uuC anu continues to lose stiength at an incieasing iate up
to a tempeiatuie of about 7SuC when the iate of stiength loss flattens
off. This ielationship is shown in the figuie below.




Figure24Strengthretentionfactorforsteelathightemperatures[1]


1S

In eveiy countiy, all builuings theiefoie have to comply with
builuing iegulations which aie aimeu at ieuucing the uangei foi people
who aie in oi aiounu the builuing when a fiie occuis, by containing the
fiie anu ensuiing the stability of the stiuctuie foi sufficient time to
allow the occupants to ieach safety. The uegiee of fiie iesistance
iequiieu of a stiuctuial membei is goveineu by the function, the
builuing height anu whethei oi not spiinkleis aie installeu.

Fiie iesistance piovisions aie expiesseu in units of time: 1, 1.S anu
S houis in The Netheilanus. It is impoitant to note that these times aie
not allowable escape times foi builuing occupants oi even suivival
times foi the stiuctuie. They aie simply a way of giauing uiffeient
categoiies of builuings by fiie loau, fiom those in which a fiie is likely to
be ielatively small, such as lowiise offices, to those in which a fiie
might iesult in a majoi conflagiation.

vaiious fiie piotection methous anu piouucts aie available
uepenuing on the type of stiuctuial element consiueieu (flooi beam oi
slab, columns, etc) anu the fiie iating iequiieu.

In the piesent case, the main steel tiusses which aie locateu on the
insiue of the builuing will be piotecteu with a 2h intumescent paint.
When exposeu to fiie, the paint expanus to foim a tough chai baiiiei
that the fiie cannot penetiate, thus keeping the steel at a lowei
tempeiatuie anu limiting its ueflection unuei high tempeiatuies.

Spiayapplieu piotection is useu aiounu the peiimetei of the flooi
beams. It is the cheapest fiiepiotection methou with the fastest
application. Bowevei, the appeaiance is pooi anu a suspenueu ceiling
will be iequiieu also foi acoustic peifoimance puiposes.





6 FLOORDESIGN


Bepenuing on the main tiusses pattein useu, it woulu be possible
to pioviue main steel beams eveiy S oi 6m, uictating the span of the
flooi slabs. These uistances coiiesponu appioximately to the maximum
unpioppeu spans which can be achieveu with slim anu ueep uecks anu
also give acceptable membei angles in the tiuss to be efficient. Each
flooi span woulu iequiie a specific tiuss

The calculations below have been peifoimeu foi the woist flooi
location, i.e. wheie the live loauing anu cleai span necessaiy aie
maximum. This is locateu in the exhibition hall wheie a live loau of
SkNm
2
anu a maximum span of 1Sm neeu to be cateieu foi.

6.1 FloorSlabSelection

The flooi slabs uepth weie fiist selecteu in oiuei to know the
magnituue of ueau loau both uuiing constiuction anu seivice that the
main beams woulu have to suppoit. This was achieveu simply by using
the tables pioviueu by Coius, the manufactuiei of the steel uecking.
The spans pioviueu foi each casescenaiio insuie that the stiesses anu
ueflections in the slab anu ueck iemain within peimissible limits uuiing
anu aftei constiuction.

Foi both Sm anu 6m spans, the selection was maue baseu on the
following ciiteiia:

Single span slab anu ueck
2h fiie iating
No tempoiaiy piops uuiing constiuction
Live loau of S kNm
2

Lightweight conciete

16

6.1.1 3mSpan


Table7SpantableforComflor60withlightweightconcrete[6]


Table8Weightofconcretetableforvariousfloorslabdepths[6]

6.1.2 6mSpan



Table9SpantableforComflor225withlightweightconcrete[6]


Table10Weightofconcretetableforvariousfloorslabdepths[6]

17

6.1.3 FloorSlabSelectionSummary

The table below summaiizes the flooi types anu coiiesponuing
ueau loaus which aie going to be useu in the following calculations.


DEADLOAD
Beam
spacing
[m]
Floortype During
construction
(wetconcrete)
[kN/m
2
]
Duringservice
(dryconcrete)
[kN/m
2
]
Sm ComFloi 6u
u,9mm thick steel
uecking
18umm ueep conciete
slab
2,74 2,S9
6m Comfloi 22S
2umm uia iebais
SuSmm ueep conciete
slab
2,S4 2,41
Table11Floortypeanddeadloadsummary

6.2 BeamCalculations

Theie aie two ways of connecting the steel ueck to the suppoiting
steel beams. Each of these has an effect on the total flooi uepth anu the
stiuctuial behavioui of the beams at vaiious stages of the constiuction
anu use.

In the fiist case, the steel uecking is connecteu to the top flange of
the beams via sheai stuus. By iestiaining the compiession flange, the
uecking pievents lateial toisional buckling of the beams a
phenomenon explaineu in a latei section uuiing anu aftei
constiuction, incieasing its moment capacity anu theiefoie size
iequiieu. Bowevei, placing the slab on top of the beams contiibutes to
inciease the oveiall flooi uepth.



Figure25Slabfixedtotopflange[6]





18

The seconu solution stuuieu is wheie the slab is placeu within the
uepth of the beams with the intention of ieuucing the oveiall flooi
uepth. Bowevei, in this case, the beams can be pione to lateial
toisional buckling uuiing constiuction, thus iequiiing a laige section
size.




Figure26Slabwithinbeamdepth[6]

Both casescenaiios aie stuuieu in the following sections foi Sm
anu 6m spans to finu out the smallest flooi uepth which can be
achieveu.









6.2.1 MomentCapacitiesandDeflections

The minimum moment capacities anu maximum alloweu
ueflections of the beams weie fiist calculateu uuiing constiuction anu
seivice knowing the ueau anu live loaus as well as the span (1Sm).

The moment capacity was simply calculateu using the foimula
foi a simply suppoiteu beam unuei a unifoimly uistiibuteu loau.

N
mIdspan
=
WL
8

Wheie:

W: total loau
L : beam span

The total loau is calculateu using eq.1 anu the necessaiy factois
of safety. Buiing constiuction, only the weight of the wet conciete is
taken into account whilst uuiing seivice both the weight of the conciete
slab anu the live loau of SkNm
2
. The loauing is also uepenuent on the
spacing of the main beams; beams at Sm spacing have to suppoit half
the flooi aiea of beams at 6m spacing.

Finally, in all cases, the maximum ueflection alloweu is L2Su,
thus 6umm. values calculateu foi all cases aie piesenteu in the table
below.


DURINGCONSTRUCTION DURINGSERVICE
Beam
spacing
[m]
Moment
capacity
required
[kN.m]
Max
deflection
allowed
[mm]
Moment
capacity
required
[kN.m]
Max
deflection
allowed
[mm]
Sm S12,1u 6u 927,8S 6u
6m S78,64 6u 1814,6S 6u
Table12Momentcapacitiesrequiredandallowedmaxdeflectionspermitted
19

6.2.2 LateralTorsionalBuckling

0pen sections such as Ibeams have low lateial benuing anu
toisional stiffnesses compaieu to theii veitical benuing stiffness.
Whenevei a slenuei element is loaueu in a stiff plane, theie is always a
tenuency foi it to fail in a moie flexible plane (lateial toisional
buckling). Squaie anu ciiculai beams aie not susceptible to lateial
toisional buckling.

It is impoitant to iemembei that uuiing eiection the beam may
ieceive less suppoit foi example fiom floois oi biacings anu this
conuition may piove to be the ciitical uesign case.



Figure27Lateraltorsionalbuckling[7]

A beam maue fiom an open section anu not being fully
iestiaineu will have a lowei moment capacity anu this has to be taken
into consiueiation. Lateial toisional buckling being a faiily complex
phenomenon, the best way to intiouuce it in the calculations of the
stiuctuies is to follow the methou given in the Euiocoue S. The steps
aie piesenteu below. In oiuei to acceleiate the uesign piocess anu
stuuy vaiious solutions, this was piogiammeu in an Excel spieausheet.
1) CalculatetheelasticcriticalmomentM
cr

N
cr
= C
1

2
EI
z
L
2
__
I
w
I
z
+
L
2
uI
t

2
EI
z
+ (C
2
z
g
)
2
- C
2
z
g
_


Wheie:

I
z
: seconu moment about the weak axis
I
t
: toision constant
I
w
: waiping constant
L: beam length between lateial iestiaints
Z
g
: uistance between the point of loau application anu neutial axis
C
1
: 1,127
C
2
: u,4S4



2) Calculatethedimensionlessslenderness
LT

LT
= _
W
y
f
y
N
cr


Wheie:
W
y
: plastic moment of section about the stiong axis
f
y
: yielu stiength of steel
N
ci
: elastic ciitical moment foi lateial toisional buckling



2u

3) Calculatethelateraltorsionalbucklingfactor

LT
=
1

LT
+
_

LT
2
-

LT
2
but _

LT
1

LT

1

LT
2

LT
= u,S j1 +
LT
(

LT
-

LT0
) +

LT
2
[

Wheie:

LT
: lateial toisional buckling factoi foi iolleu sections

LTu
: u,4
: u,7S

LT
: impeifection factoi (table 6.S ECS, see annex)


4) Calculatethemomentcapacityofthebeam

The moment capacity is then calculateu with

N
b,Rd
=
LT
W
y
f
y



If theies no possibility of lateial toisional buckling, X
LT
= 1.

Finally, the beam will be auequate at 0LS if its uesign moment (fiom
table 12) is lowei than N
b,Ru






6.2.3 MomentCapacityofCompositeSections

When the slab is placeu on the top flange of the suppoiting beam
anu fixeu to it via sheai stuus, it acts compositely with the beam to
suppoit the loaus. Foi this ieason, it geneially leaus to shallowei beams
anu lowei ueflections than the noncomposite equivalent configuiation.
The Euiocoue 4 is useu to calculate the moment capacity of composite
sections |9j.

The fiist step is to finu out wheie the neutial axis of the
composite section lies, in the slab oi in the beam. This is uone by
calculating the stiength of each component:

R
c
= u,4S A
c
f
cu


wheie:

R
c
: slab stiength (foice)
A
c
: aiea of the conciete slab
f
cu
: conciete stiength (stiess)


Then the stiength of the beam is given by:

R
s
= u,9S A
s
f
y


wheie:

R
s
: beams stiength (foice)
A
s
: section aiea of the beam
f
y
: steel stiength (stiess)




21

1) IfR
c
>R
s
theneutralaxisliesintheconcreteslab

The moment capacity is then equal to:

N
pI,Rd
= R
s
_h
I
+
h
2
-
R
s
R
c
h
I
2
]

Wheie:

h
f
: slab uepth
h : beam uepth


Figure28Neutralaxisintheslab










2) IfR
c
=R
s
theneutralaxisliesattheinterface

N
pI,Rd
= R
s
_
h
2
+
h
I
2
]


Figure29Neutralaxisatinterface

3) IfR
c
<R
s
&R
c
>R
w
theneutralaxisisinthetopflange

N
pI,Rd
= R
s
h
2
+ R
c
_
h
I
2
+
t
I
2
]
Wheie:

t
f
: top flange thickness

Figure30Neutralaxisinthetopflange
22

4) IfR
c
<R
w
theneutralaxisisintheweb

N
pI,Rd
= u,9Sf
y
W
y
+ R
c
_
h
2
+
h
I
2
] -
R
c
2
R
w
h
4

Wheie:

W
y
: steel section plastic mouulus about stiong axis
R
w
: stiength of the top flange (foice)

Figure31Neutralaxisintheweb

6.2.4 DeflectionofCompositeSections

Fiist of all, in such sections, the effect of shearlag has to be taken
into account. This phenomenon consists in the actual longituuinal
compiessive benuing stiess in the conciete slab vaiying as shown in
the figuie below. The maximum value is at the beamslab inteisection
anu its minimum value miuway between beams anu this is inconsistent
with simple benuing theoiy in which it is assumeu that plane sections
iemain plane.


Figure32Compressionstressdistributioninconcreteslab[10]


This vaiiation of benuing stiess is uue to inplane sheai stiesses
in the slab iesulting fiom the uiffeience of the inplane stiffness of the
slab at the beam positions (welliestiaineu by the sheai connectois)
anu miuway between the giiueis (wheie it is less iestiaineu). These
uiffeiences uistoit what woulu otheiwise be a unifoim uistiibution of
compiessive stiess.

Euiocoue 4 ueals with this pioblem by intiouucing the concept
of effective wiuth b
eff
. It is noimally taken as span8 on each siue of the
beam (but not gieatei than half of the uistance to the next aujacent
beam. Thus foi inteinal beams:

b
eff
= 2 x L8

2S

The uiscoveiy of sheai lag was maue uuiing testing of steel
sections unuei benuing in the elastic iange, anu it is theiefoie
ieasonable to assume that it applies only within that iange. The
effective wiuth is thus only useu foi the calculation of the section
piopeities foi ueteimining seiviceability (ueflections) limits only.
0theiwise, foi moment capacity calculations, the actual slab wiuth is
useu.

In oiuei to calculate the ueflection, the section piopeities of the
combineu conciete slab anu beam have to be founu. 0ne must fiist finu
the uepth of the neutial axis which may occui in the slab oi in the steel
beam. This is uone by compaiing the left hau siue (LBS) with the iight
hanu siue (RBS) of this equation:

A
s
(u - h
I
) = (A
s

c
) h
I
2

Wheie:

u: uistance of the beams neutial axis fiom top of slab
A
s
: section aiea of steel beam
h
f
: slab uepth

e
= E
steel
E
conciete
: mouulai iatio

Figure33Definitions





1) IfLHS<RHStheneutralaxisliesintheslab

The uepth of the neutial axis is founu by solving the following
quauiatic equation:

x
c
2
+ Kx
c
- Ku = u

K = 2
c
A
s
b
c




Figure34Neutralaxisintheslab

The seconu moment of aiea is then equal to:

I = I
s
+ _
b
c
x
c
3
S
c
_ + A
s
(u - x
c
)
2












24

2) IfLHS>RHStheneutralaxisliesinthebeam

x
c
=
Ku + h
I
2
K + 2h
I


I = I
s
+ A
s
u
s
2
+
I
c

c
+ A
c

u
c
2

c



Figure35Neutralaxisinthebeam


Finally, the ueflection is calculateu with the foimula foi a simply
suppoiteu beam unuei a unifoimlyuistiibuteu loau:

o
mdspun
=
SwI
3
S84E
stccI
I


The maximum ueflection alloweu in beam span2Su = 6umm












































2S


6.3 BeamSelectionShearConnectionSlabBeam(Compositeaction)

In the fiist case stuuieu, the ueck is fixeu to the top flange foi the steel beams, eliminating the possibility of lateial toisional buckling both uuiing
anu aftei constiuction. With the methou uesciibeu in sections 6.2.1 to 6.2.S, the minimum beam (anu flooi) uepth coulu be calculateu foi flooi spans
of Sm anu 6m. Foi each case, two options aie pioposeu: without anu with piecambei of the beams. The figuie below illustiates this methou with a
simply suppoiteu beam. Without piecambei, the final ueflection measuieu is equal to the sum of the ueflections uue to the ueau anu live loaus. By
piebenuing the beam with a ueflection in the opposite uiiection anu of equal intensity to the ueflection uue to the ueau loau, we can eliminate the
ueau loau effect. Inueeu, aftei all the ueau loaus aie applieu, the beam exhibits no ueflection, it is stiaight. Theiefoie, as shown in the table below,
piecambeiing gives to possibility of using shallowei beams. The gain in flooi uepth veisus the inciease of woikmanship to piecambei the beams then
has to be assesseu in oiuei to make a uecision iegaiuing the best option.



Figure36Precamberingmethod
26


DURINGCONSTRUCTION DURINGSERVICE
Beam
spacing
[m]
Beam Momentcapacity

[kN.m]
Deflection
(deadloadonly)
[mm]
Total
floordepth
[mm]
Beam Momentcapacity

[kN.m]
Deflection
(deadloadonly)
[mm]
Total
floordepth
[mm]
3m BE 18u N S1S,61 S44,8 S8u BE 18u N 889,1S 167,6
(S7,2)
S8u
BE Suu N 1447,69 4S,6 S2u BE 24u N 1SS6,48 81,1
(27,67)
4Su

BE Suu N 28u2,u9 44,9
(1S,16)
S2u
6m BE 24u N 7S1,S4 196,9 S7S BE 24u N 24S9,S7 7S,7
(24,6)
S7S
BE S6u N 1771,1u S6,4 7uu BE S6u N 411S,87 S7,S
(12,2)
7uu

LEuENB
Noment capacity too low oi
ueflection too high
Noment capacity auequate anu
ueflection auequate with piecambei
Noment capacity auequate anu
ueflection auequate


The calculation methou is applieu in uetail foi the BE Suu N beam (Sm spacing) in section 1u.1. The same pioceuuie was useu to finu the othei beam
sizes.
6.4 BeamSelectionNoShearConnectionSlabBeam

By placing the steel uecking within the beams uepth, it coulu be possible to ieuuce the oveiall flooi uepth. Bowevei, because the steel uecking is
not fixeu to the top flange of the beams, lateial toisional buckling can occui uuiing constiuction befoie the conciete slab is set. With the piesent flooi
configuiation, theie aie two options to pievent lateial toisional buckling: incieasing the beam sizes oi using a seconuaiy beam which is pioviuing a
lateial iestiaint at miuspan of the main beams. Both options have been stuuieu anu the iesults aie piesenteu in the table below. Piecambeiing of the
beams has also been taken into consiueiation.

It can be seen that foi both Sm anu 6m flooi spans, placing a tiansveise seconuaiy beam to pievent lateial toisional buckling uuiing
constiuction is uoesnt pioviue any benefits. Inueeu, in all cases, the beam uepths have to be incieaseu anyway in oiuei to have a sufficient moment
capacity oi acceptable ueflection uuiing seivice. As pieuicteu, a shallowei flooi is obtaineu with a span of Sm insteau of 6m.
27



DURINGCONSTRUCTION DURINGSERVICE
Beam
spacing
[m]
Lateral
restraint
[m]
Beam Moment
capacity
[kN.m]
Deflection
(deadloadonly)
[mm]
Floordepth

[mm]
Beam Moment
capacity
[kN.m]
Deflection
(deadloadonly)
[mm]
Floordepth

[mm]
3m

Nolateral
restraint

BE 22u N SS1,69 176,6 24u BE 22u N SuS,7S 489,S

(167,S)
24u
BE Suu N 1126,SS 4S,6 S4u BE Suu N 1447,69 12u,7
(41,2)
S4u
1lateral
restraint
(midspan)
BE 22u N 428,84 176,6 24u BE S6u N 1771,1 84,2
(28,7)
S9S
BE Suu N 1126,SS 4S,6 S4u BE 4Su N 2247,S S4,S
(18,S)
478
6m

Nolateral
restraint
BE 26u N 6S2,9 1S2,8 29u BE 24u N 7S1,S4 S74,S
(186,7)
27u
BE S6u N 128S,1 S6,4 S9S BE 26u N 896,u2 44S,7
(14S)
29u
BE S6u N 1771,u9 164,4
(SS,S)
S9S
1lateral
restraint
(midspan)
BE 24u N 664,97 197,u 27u BE 4uu N 1977,71 1S4,1
(4S,6)
4S2
BE S6u N 128S,1u S6,4 S9S BE Suu N 2S18,S7 86,2
(28,u)
S72
BE 6uu N S114,u6 S8,79
(19,11)
62u

LEuENB
Noment capacity too low oi
ueflection too high
Noment capacity auequate anu
ueflection auequate with piecambei
Noment capacity auequate anu
ueflection auequate


Betaileu calculation pioceuuie piesenteu in section 1u.2 foi beam BE 4Su N with Sm spacing.


28

6.5 Summary

Table 1S summaiizes the possible flooi solutions with anu without piecambei of the beams foi flooi spans of Sm anu 6m. Foi all cases,
piecambeiing the beams leaus to a flooi uepth ieuuction of 8 to 18%. The shallowest flooi (S9Smm) is obtaineu foi a span of Sm when the steel
uecking is placeu within the beams uepth. This solution iequiies the maximum woikmanship; the beams have to be piecambeieu anu the Sm spacing
uoubles the numbei of beams to be installeu. Baving the flooi slab between the beams also ieuuces the space available to the seivice uucts.

If a uepth of S9Smm foi the top anu bottom choius of the main stiuctuie tiusses (to which to flooi beams connect) is not possible, the flooi
uepth is then not the uiiving element foi the oveiall visual aspect of the builuing stiuctuie. In this case, it uoes not make sense to involve moie
woikmanship to get a shallowei flooi. We might then opt foi a 6m span with uecking on top of the beams without piecambeiing, which gives a uepth
of 7uumm anu maximum space foi the seivice uucts. The final uecision iegaiuing the flooi solution will theiefoie be maue when the tiuss pattein anu
tiuss membei sizes will be known.

WITHOUTPRECAMBER WITHPRECAMBER
Floor
construction
type
Beam
spacing
[m]
Beam

Maximumdeflection
duringservice
[mm]
Floor
depth
[mm]
Beam Precamberat
constructionstage
[mm]
Maximumdeflection
duringservice
[mm]
Floor
depth
[mm]
With sheai
connection
Sm BE Suu N 44,9 S2u BE 24u N 27,7 SS,4 4Su
6m BE S6u N S7,S 7uu BE 24u N 24,6 S1,1 S7S
Without sheai
connection
Sm BE 4Su N S4,S 478 BE S6u N 28,7 SS,4 S9S
6m BE 6uu N S9,8 62u BE Suu N 28,u S8,2 S72
Table13Floorconfigurationssummary











29

7 MAINTRUSSESDESIGN

The appioach useu to uesign the main tiusses was to stait with a
simple mouel of a cantileveieu beam with vaiious loauing conuitions
anu then to giauually inciease the complexity of the pioblem until the
whole stiuctuie of the builuing was consiueieu.

The stuuies have been maue with Autouesks Robot Stiuctuial
Analysis Piofessional 2u11, which allows to peifoim compiehensive
analysis of laige anu complex stiuctuies.

7.1 LoadCasesandCorrespondingBendingMomentand
ShearForceDiagramsofCantileveredBeam


The magnituue of the benuing moments anu sheai foices in a
tiuss as well as its suppoit ieactions will vaiy uepenuing on the loauing
uistiibution along its length. 0bviously the ueau loaus will be constant,
but the live loaus will vaiy in position uuiing the use of the builuing.
Some loauing patteins will cause highei benuing moments anu sheai
foices than otheis.

The benuing moments anu sheai foice uiagiams have been
calculateu foi the thiee main loauing cases on a simply suppoiteu
cantileveieu beam anu these will be then useu to make initial
estimations of the membei sizes foi moie uetaileu analysis.

In all cases, the tiuss has to suppoit 2 times 2umwiuth of floois.
A value of 2,6 kNm
2
has been useu as ueau loau anu S,u kNm
2
foi live
loaus. The cantilevei anu backspan both measuie 42m. Factois of safety
of 1,SS anu 1,S have been useu foi ueau anu live loaus iespectively.



Bence:

Beau Loau 0BL = (1,SS x 2,6) x 2u x 2 = 14u kNm
Live Loau 0BL = (1,S x S) x 2u x 2 = Suu kNm


7.1.1 LoadCase1:LiveLoadAlongWholeLength

With a live loau anu ueau loau along the whole length of the
beam, we obtain the following benuing moment anu sheai foice
uiagiams. Foices aie in kN anu moments in kN.m.



Figure37Supportreactionsforloadcase1


Figure38Bendingmomentdiagramforloadcase1


Figure39Shearforcediagramforloadcase1
Su

7.1.2 LoadCase2:LiveLoadonCantileverOnly

Foi the seconu loau case, the live loau is placeu only on the
cantilevei.



Figure40Supportreactionsforloadcase2


Figure41Bendingmomentdiagramforloadcase2


Figure42Shearforcediagramforloadcase2








7.1.3 LoadCase3:LiveLoadonBackspanOnly

Finally, foi the last loau case, the live loau in locateu on the
backspan only.



Figure43Supportreactionsforloadcase3


Figure44Bendingmomentdiagramforloadcase3


Figure45Shearforcediagramforloadcase3












S1

7.1.4 Summary

The table below piesents the ieactions as well as the ciitical
benuing moments anu sheai foices foi all thiee loau cases stuuieu.


LOAD
CASE
FRONT
SUPPORT
BACK
SUPPORT
BACKSPAN
Reaction
|kNj
1 S696u u NA
2 Su66u 6Suu (uplift) NA
S 18u6u 6Suu NA
Benuing
moment
|kN.mj
1 S88u8u
(hogging)
u vaiies
(hogging)
2 S88u8u
(hogging)
u vaiies
(hogging)
S 12S48u
(hogging)
u 4S1u2
(sagging)
Sheai foice
|kNj
1 1848u u vaiies
()
2 1848u 6Suu vaiies
()
S 1218u 6Suu vaiies
(+ anu )
Table14Reactions,bendingmomentsandshearforcesforallloadcases

Fiistly, the maximum ieaction is always locateu in the fiont
suppoits, neai the cantilevei; the highest value being ieacheu when full
live anu ueau loaus aie applieu on both the cantilevei anu backspan.
Foi all loau cases, the fiont suppoits will be in compiession, which is
the uesiieu situation. Bowevei, an uplift foice can be founu on the back
suppoits when the live loau is applieu on the cantilevei only. This
woulu iequiie anchoiing the founuations at this location a moie
expensive anu labouiintensive solution which shoulu iueally be
avoiueu. When iefining the analysis, the live loaus will be applieu moie
piecisely accoiuing to the type of space anu this might coiiect this
pioblem. If not, fuithei actions coulu be taken such as incieasing the
weight of the back coies.
Then, as expecteu, foi all loau cases, the maximum moment anu
sheai foices aie also locateu at the fiont suppoits. It is impoitant to
note that although a hogging moment is always founu on the cantilevei,
the backspan can expeiience both hogging anu sagging moments
uepenuing on the loau case. This will have implications on the type of
tiuss pattein which is going to be the most efficient, thus iequiiing the
smallest membei sizes anu leaus to the smallest ueflections.

The ielationship between the loau case, tiuss pattein, foices in
membeis anu ueflections is theiefoie stuuieu in the next section.

7.2 MainTrussesPatternSelection

The aim of this stuuy is to ueteimine how the tiuss pattein may
influence the foices in its membeis anu the ueflection magnituue. 0nce
again, a cantilevei of 42m with a backspan of the same length was useu.
This coiiesponus to the laigest cantilevei in the actual builuing. The
same loauings as foi the cantileveieu beam weie useu (2,6 kNm
2
ueau
loau fiom flooi anu S kNm
2
live loau). These loauings weie applieu as
equivalent noual foices on the tiuss, explaining the slight uisciepancies
in the ieaction magnituues. 0nly when the live loau is placeu solely on
the cantilevei (loaucase 2) was consiueieu as this leau to the maximum
benuing moment, sheai foice anu ueflection.

The tiuss has a Smheight anu bays of Sm oi 6mlength, which
coiiesponus to the possible flooi spans.






S2

7.2.1 HoweTruss6mBays

The Bowe tiuss was chosen as is can be uesigneu in such a way
that the uiagonals aie always in tension anu can theiefoie have a
minimal section aiea.

Initial calculations weie maue manually to finu membei sizes
which coulu then be aujusteu to meet the final stiess anu ueflection
iequiiements if iequiieu.

Fiom the pievious cantileveieu beam stuuy, we have:

N
max
= S88u8u kN.m
v
max
= Su66u kN

Knowing that the height of the tiuss is h = Sm, the maximum
compiession foice in the choiu at the fiont suppoit can be
appioximateu by:

F
max
= N
max
h = S88u8u S = 77616 kN


Then, the membei shoulu have a sufficient size to pievent
buckling anu yielu of steel. The minimum seconu moment of aiea I
iequiieu to pievent buckling is (fiom the Eulei foimula):

F
max
=

2
EI
L
c
2


Wheie:

E: Youngs mouulus of steel = 21u uPa
L
e
: effective length of choiu = 1 x 6m = 6m (pinneupinneu)

Bence:

I
mIn
=
7616uuu x 6
2

2
(21u x 1u
9
)
= 1,S4 x 1u
-4
m
4



To pievent yielu of steel, the minimum section aiea is:

A
mIn
=
F
max
f
y
=
77616uuu
SSS
= 2186S7 mm
2


Lets say we use a squaie section of 9uux9uumm with a 7umm
thick wall, which has the following section piopeities:

A = 2S24uu mm
2

I = 2,68 x 1u
2
m
4

Knowing that the uiagonals aie at an angle of S9.8 uegiees fom
the hoiizontal, the maximum tensile foice in a uiagonal is:

F
uiag
= v
max
sinS9,8 = 47928 kN

The aiea iequiieu to pievent yielu is:

A
mIn
=
F
dIag
f
y
=
47928uuu
SSS
= 1SSuu8 mm
2


This gives a soliu iou of uiametei 41Smm

0sing these section piopeities, we get the following iesults:




SS



Figure46SupportreactionsforHowetrusswith6mbays


Figure47MaximummemberstressesforHowetrusswith6mbays


Figure48DisplacementsforHowetrusswith6mbays

The stiesses aie slightly too high but the membeis sections will
be kept as it is foi this stuuy. They will be aujusteu when two tiusses
aie tieu togethei at theii enus, iesulting in uiffeient stiesses anu
ueflections.




7.2.2 HoweTruss3mBays

The bay size was then ieuuceu by half to Sm in oiuei to see if
this iesulteu in a significant ieuuction in stiesses anu ueflection.

The top anu bottom choius iemain the same. Bowevei, the angle of the
uiagonals being incieaseu to S9 uegiees, we have a new tensile foice of:

F
uiag
= v
max
sinS9= SS769 kN

The aiea iequiieu to pievent yielu is:

A
mIn
=
F
dIag
f
y
=
SS769uuu
SSS
= 1uu7S8 mm
2


This gives a soliu iou of uiametei S6umm



Figure49SupportreactionsforHowetrusswith3mbays

S4


Figure50MaximummemberstressesforHowetrusswith3mbays


Figure51DisplacementsforHowetrusswith3mbays

The maximum axial stiesses in the choius aie almost the same
anu the ueflection is slightly incieaseu by uoubling the numbei of
uiagonal elements. It is theiefoie piefeiable to use 6m bays which will
iequiie a lot less woikmanship anu gives a lightei aspect.


7.2.3 DiamondTruss6mBays

The uiamonu pattein which has uiagonals both in tension anu
compiession was also stuuieu. This pattein gives the possibility of
using 6m bays but have connection points eveiy Sm wheie the flooi
beams can be connecteu. This way, a shallowei anu lightei flooi can be
useu.

As initial estimation, the maximum benuing moment anu sheai
foice aie still:

N
max
= S88u8u kN.m
v
max
= Su66u kN

The height of the tiuss iemaining at Sm, the top anu bottom
choiu sections calculateu foi the Bowe tiuss can still be useu
(9uumm x 9uumm x 7umm thick).


Then, the uiagonals shoulu have a sufficient size to pievent
buckling anu yielu of steel. The maximum compiession foice is
calculateu by:

F
uiag
= v
max
sinS9,8 = 47928 kN

The minimum seconu moment of aiea I iequiieu to pievent
buckling is (fiom the Eulei foimula):

F
max
=

2
EI
L
c
2


Wheie:

E: Youngs mouulus of steel = 21u uPa
L
e
: effective length of uiagonal = 1 x 7,8m = 7,8m (pinneupinneu)

Bence:

I
mIn
=
47928uuu x 7,8
2

2
(21u x 1u
9
)
= 1,41 x 1u
-3
m
4







SS

To pievent yielu of steel, the minimum section aiea is:

A
mIn
=
F
max
f
y
=
47928uuu
SSS
= 1SSuu8 mm
2


Lets say we use a soliu iou of uiametei 41Smm of with the
following section piopeities:

A = 1SS26S mm
2

I = 1,4S x 1u
S
m
4



0sing these section piopeities, we obtain the following iesults:


Figure52SupportreactionsforDiamondtrusswith6mbays


Figure53MaximummemberstressesforDiamondtrusswith6mbays


Figure54DisplacementsforDiamondtrusswith6mbays

Compaieu with the 6mbay Bowe tiuss, the ueflection is
ieuuceu by appioximately 8%.



7.2.4 DiamondTruss3mBays

As foi the Bowe tiuss, we ieuuce the bay size to Sm. The
membei sizes iemain unchangeu.



Figure55SupportreactionsforDiamondtrusswith3mbays


Figure56MaximummemberforcesforDiamondtrusswith3mbays
S6



Figure57DisplacementsforDiamondtrusswith3mbays

Reuucing the bay size by half has no positive effect. The stiesses
anu ueflection even inciease uue to the auueu weight of the auuitional
membeis.

7.2.5 PatternAdoptedandFinalFloorSelection

A uiamonu tiuss with 6m bays was auopteu as it piesents
ueflections which aie slightly lowei than the Bowe tiuss anu is also
piesents a moie unifoim pattein visually. The 6m uiamonu tiuss also
offeis the possibility to connect flooi beams eveiy Sm, ieuucing the
flooi slab uepth necessaiy.

Baving a fiist appioximation of the choiu uepth, it is possible to
make a final uecision iegaiuing the flooi stiuctuie. The choiu being
faiily laige with a uepth of 9uumm, it is not necessaiy to choose the
shallowest flooi. We can theiefoie select the cheapest solution which
woulu be BE Suu N beams eveiy Sm with ComFloi6u uecking fixeu to
the top flange with sheai stuus anu a 18ummueep conciete slab.
7.3 CombinedTrusses

Even though the uiamonu pattein iequiies moie woikmanship
than the Bowe tiuss in compaiison to the ueflection ieuuction, it was
selecteu uue baseu on its moie homogeneous appeaiance anu the
possibility of using smallei panes of glass foi the faaue.

Fuithei iefinement of the membei sizes has been uone by linking
two tiusses has it will be founu in the final stiuctuie. This simplifieu
mouel alloweu foi quick amenuments thanks to veiy shoit calculation
times.

Fiistly, in oiuei to assess the benefits of combining tiusses, the
same membeis weie useu as pieviously, i.e. 9uumm x 9uumm x 7umm
foi top anu bottom choius anu uiametei 41Smm iou foi the uiagonals.
The same loauings weie useu. The iesults aie illustiateu in the
following figuies.


Figure58Supportreactionsforlinkedtrusseswithinitial

S7


Figure59Maximummemberaxialstressesforlinkedtrusses


Figure60Totaldeflectionforlinkedtrusses

By linking two tiusses at theii enus, the maximum stiesses aie
ieuuceu as well as the ueflection, which is ieuuceu by neaily Su%. A
way to fuithei ieuuce the ueflection within the limit of u.uuS(2 x
cantilevei length) which is 2S,2cm is to piecambei the tiusses in the
shape opposite to the ueflection piofile unuei ueau loau only. This
coiiesponus to consiueiing the ueflection uue to live loau only. If we uo
so, we obtain the following maximum ueflection:



Figure61Totaldeflectionforprecamberedlinkedtrusses
The top anu bottom choius aie fuithei iefineu to ieuuce the
plate thickness useu anu give a moie stieamlineu piofile to the
stiuctuie. By using a tapeieu piofile foi the bottom choiu which is 1,8m
ueep at the fiont suppoit wheie the benuing moment is maximal, it is
possible to ieuuce the plate thickness to SSmm anu still have
acceptable stiesses anu ueflections.

Figure62Stressdistributionwithtaperedbottomchord


Figure63Maximumdeflectionwithtaperedbottomchord
S8

7.4 WholeCantileveredStructureCheck

With the membeis sizes calculateu in the pievious section, the
whole cantileveieu stiuctuie was checkeu foi stiesses anu ueflection.
In this case, the live loaus weie applieu moie piecisely accoiuing to the
inteinal functions baseu on the values in table 4.

7.4.1 InitialMemberSizes
7.4.1.1 AxialStresses

Foi all loau cases the maximum tensile stiess is locateu at the
fiont suppoit wheie the maximum benuing moment is locateu. A
maximum tensile stiess of 241,19 NPa was calculateu foi when the live
loau is placeu on the cantilevei only, which is well below the steels
yielu stiength of SSS NPa.

The stiuctuie is theiefoie oveiuesigneu at ultimate anu seivice
limit states. Because the choius (floois euge beams) have a minimum
uepth of 9uumm, we can use a ueepei flooi which uoes not iequiie
piecambeiing anu fix the steel uecking to the top flange of the beams
with sheai stuus. This gives a flooi uepth of S2umm with a span of Sm.
This option also offeis the maximum space foi the builuing seivices
uucts.

Figure64Maximumstresswhenliveloadappliedoncantileverandbackspan


Figure65Maximumstresswhenliveloadoncantileveronly
S9


Figure66Maximumstresswhenliveloadonbackspanonly

7.4.2 Deflection

As mentioneu pieviously, a maximum ueflection of 2S,2cm is
alloweu at the tip of the cantilevei. A ueflection of 2S,4cm when the live
loau is applieu on the cantilevei only, within the limit piesciibeu by the
Euiocoue. By piecambeiing the tiusses to compensate foi the ueau
loau, it is possible to ieuuce this ueflection to 1u cm.

Because the stiesses anu potentially the ueflections aie below the
limits, an attempt was maue to ieuuce the thickness anu size of the
membeis. This woulu leau to a lightei anu cheapei stiuctuie.


Figure67Totaldeflectionwithliveloadoncantileverandbackspan


Figure68Totaldeflectionwithliveloadoncantileveronly
4u


Figure69Totaldeflectionwithliveloadonbackspanonly

Figure70Maximumdeflectionwithprecamberingandliveloadoncantileveronly
7.4.3 StructurewithReducedMemberSizes

7.4.3.1 AxialStresses

The 42Smmuiametei uiagonals weie ieplaceu by Suumm
uiametei hollow steel tubes with 4umm thick walls. The outsiue
uimensions of the top anu bottom choius weie kept the same, but the
plate thickness was ieuuceu by neaily half to 4umm. This will gieatly
ieuuce the stiesses anu ueflection uue to the selfweight of the
stiuctuie. 0n the othei hanu, the smallei cioss sections aieas shoulu
inciease the stiesses anu ueflections.

The figuies below piesent the maximum axial stiesses
calculateu foi all loau cases. 0nce again, the maximum stiesses aie
locateu at the fiont suppoit anu have the laigest magnituue when the
live loau is placeu on the cantilevei only. In this paiticulai case, a
maximum tensile stiess of SS7,12 NPa was obtaineu, veiy neai the
yielu stiess of SSS NPa. The stiuctuie is theiefoie not oveiuesigneu
fiom a stiess point of view.















41


Figure71Maximumstresswhenliveloadappliedoncantileverandbackspan


Figure72Maximumstresswhenliveloadoncantileveronly

Figure73Maximumstresswhenliveloadonbackspanonly

7.4.3.2 Deflection

Applying the live loau only on the cantileveieu pait of the builuing
iesults in a ueflection of 2S,7cm, thus veiy close to the taiget value of
2S,2cm. Piecambeiing the tiusses ieuuces this ueflection to 1S,1cm.

Because it is veiy unlikely that this type of loauing will occui
uuiing the life of the builuing anu shoulu it happen, woulu still be
auequate at 0LS, we consiuei that a ueflection of 2S,7cm is acceptable
foi the puipose of this exeicise. Piecambeiing such a stiuctuie with
4umm thick plates woulu be veiy uifficult anu costly.


42


Figure74Totaldeflectionwithliveloadoncantileverandbackspan


Figure75Totaldeflectionwithliveloadoncantileveronly

Figure76Totaldeflectionwithliveloadonbackspanonly


Figure77Maximumdeflectionwithprecamberingandliveloadoncantileveronly
4S

7.5 STABILITYCHECKS

The last step in the uesign of the builuings stiuctuie is to check its
stability unuei vaiious loau combinations, incluuing the winu loauing
(tiansveise). As shown below, the cantileveieu stiuctuie is suppoiteu
by veitical steel tiusses. The stiesses in these shoulu not at any time
exceeu the steels yielu stiength anu the ueflection at the top be laigei
than hSuu, wheie h is the height of the veitical tiuss. veiifications aie
also maue to ensuie that the founuations uo not have to catei foi any
uplift foice.

7.5.1 Loadingcasesconsidered

The table below piesents all the loauing cases which have to be
consiueieu baseu on the Euiocoue as well as the safety factois useu.

LOADINGCASE
SAFETYFACTOR(ULS)

DeadLoad LiveLoad WindLoad

Beau + Live
1.SS
1.S u
Beau + Winu
1.SS
u 1.S
Beau + Live + Winu 1.2 1.2 1.2
Table15Loadingcasesandfactors

These 0LS factois aie useu foi the stiesses anu suppoit
ieactions checks. Foi the ueflections (SLS), no safety factoi is useu.

Foi each loau case which incluues the winu, two winu uiiections
have been stuuieu: fiom the siue which potentially cieates the laigest
moment in plan anu fiom the back, which leaus to the laigest ieaction
ieuuction at the back suppoits. The ueau + live + winu cases aie
illustiateu below.

Figure78Dead+live+sidewindloading


Figure79Dead+live+backwindloading



44

7.5.2 Results

Foi each of the five loauing cases (two winu uiiections consiueieu),
the ieactions anu ueflections have been calculateu at vaiious points
inuicateu on the figuie below. The veitical tiusses connecting these
points aie highlighteu in gieen.


Figure80Supportpoints

As a staiting point, BE Suu N steel piofiles aie useu foi the
veitical suppoits as foi the flooi stiuctuie.

The iesults obtaineu foi the ieactions anu ueflections at the top
point of the veitical tiusses at the locations coiiesponuing to the
ieactions points aie piesenteu in table 16.

It can be obseiveu that foi all loauing cases, no uplift foice is
obtaineu at any suppoit point. Also, the ueflections of the top points of
the veitical suppoits aie lowei than the limit piesciibeu by the
Euiocoue.

In figuies 81 to 8S, the maximum ueflection of the tip of the
cantilevei foi all loau cases at SLS aie shown, this time taking into
account the configuiation of the veitical suppoits. The maximum
ueflection incieases fiom 2S,7cm to 27,Scm, 2,1 cm ovei the limit value
of 2S,2cm. Fuithei iefinements woulu be iequiieu in the thickness of
the steel elements of the tiuss as well as theii oveiall sizes shoulu be
maue. Also, the membei sizes foi the veitical tiusses woulu have to be
incieaseu. Bowevei, as the ueflection obtaineu is still veiy close to the
limit value, the actual configuiation is consiueieu at this stage
acceptable foi the puipose of this exeicise.

Finally, as shown in figuies 86 to 9u, the stiesses foi all loau
cases aie all below SSS Nmm
2
, the yielu stiength of steel.






4S

SUPPORT
POINT
TRUSS
HEIGHT
(m)
ALLOWED
DEFLECTION
(mm)
DEAD+LIVE DEAD+WIND DEAD+LIVE+WIND
SideWind BackWind SideWind BackWind
Reaction
(kN)
Beflection
(mm)
Reaction
(kN)
Beflection
(mm)
Reaction
(kN)
Beflection
(mm)
Reaction
(kN)
Beflection
(mm)
Reaction
(kN)
Beflection
(mm)
1 S8.S 77 1164.74 8 1S1S.8S 11 1S27.u2 8 1u6u.68 9 1u69.6S 9
2 S8.S 77 928.u2 14 1u8u.S1 1S 1u76.18 1S 82S.SS 14 82u.u2 14
S 28.S S7 1S17.S9 7 22S9.S2 8 227S.64 6 12S6.u8 8 1268.97 7
4 28.S S7 84S.7S 8 18SS.8S 8 1794.S4 7 8Su.u8 8 796.88 8
S 2S.S 47 1216.47 9 17S1.7S 6 1727.14 7 1142.u9 9 11S8.42 1u
6 2S.S 47 1S9u.92 1u 19u4.u4 6 184u.S8 7 1Su2.48 8 12S1.71 1u
7 2S.S 47 9u9.SS 12 2S94.8u 6 26S8.69 11 91S.7S 11 966.86 12
8 2S.S 47 7S9.4u 1u 277S.9S 6 2S9S.S4 7 917.S1 8 77S.uS 1u
9 28.S S7 1uS92.19 2S 614S.u4 12 6921.S1 16 8266.S6 2S 8887.S8 2S
1u 28.S S7 7S6S.S2 24 S472.72 12 SuSS.SS 1S 6727.1S 2S 6S77.42 2S
11 28.S S7 1u7S4.Su 46 6S71.82 17 7218.94 29 88S9.79 46 9S77.49 46
12 28.S S7 1216u.6S S8 7992.96 19 74S4.86 24 1u81S.9u S8 1uS69.4S S8
1S 28.S S7 9S28.48 17 6u96.9S 1S 6u79.74 14 8u84.uS 22 8u7u.26 2S
14 28.S S7 8uS8.S6 22 SS7S.29 1S 4949.8S 14 72S2.Su 21 67SS.74 22
1S 28.S S7 8469.67 S2 SS7S.8u 2u S99S.4u 21 6967.S8 S2 7461.46 S2
16 28.S S7 7S89.96 S4 S18S.2S 21 S1S4.S2 22 667S.9S S4 66S6.8u S4
Table16Verticalsupportreactionsanddeflections

Figure81Dead+liveloaddeflection

Figure82Dead+sidewinddeflection
46


Figure83Dead+backwinddeflection





Figure84Dead+sidewind+liveloaddeflection

Figure85Dead+backwind+liveloaddeflection





Figure86Dead+liveloadmaximumstresses
47


Figure87Dead+sidewindmaximumstresses




Figure88Dead+backwindmaximumstresses

Figure89Dead+sidewind+liveloadmaximumstresses




Figure90Dead+backwind+liveloadmaximumstresses

48

7.5.3 Optimisation

The next step, which is outsiue the scope of this pioject, woulu be
to optimize the size of all membeis of the stiuctuie. At the moment, all
membeis of the veitical tiusses in the coies aie BE Suu N, which is
ceitainly unnecessaiily laige foi the cioss biacings. The next iteiation
woulu be to take the maximum foice in one of the biaces anu
ueteimine the section aiea iequiieu to be slightly below the maximum
stiess peimitteu of SSS Nmm
2
anu then iun anothei simulation. We
woulu then check the ueflections anu stiesses anu ieaujust the membei
sizes baseu on the new axial foices. We woulu iepeat this piocess until
we aie veiy neai the maximum alloweu stiess anu ueflection, thus
having the smallest membeis necessaiy.

0bvisouly, ieuucing the membei sizes in the coies woulu iesult in
an inciease of the maximum ueflection at the tip of the cantilevei. A
stuuy woulu have to be maue to see what woulu be the cheapest
solution: piecambeiing the cantileveieu tiusses, incieasing the
membei sizes in the uppei stiuctuie oi incieasing the membei sizes in
the coie suppoits.












8 CONCLUSION

The stiuctuie of a builuing piesenting a 42mlong cantilevei with
a backspan to cantilevei iatio of 1 has been uesigneu. Bue to the
spiial shape which was uesiieu fiom an aichitectuial point of view,
the full height of the builuing coulu not be useu to span this uistance. A
unique way of combining 1stoieyhigh steel tiusses has been
uevelopeu.

The pioposeu stiuctuie has been checkeu anu uimensioneu in
teims of stiesses anu ueflection as well as foi stability baseu on the
Euiocoue using both basic hanu calculations anu finite element analysis
with Autouesk Robot Piofessional.

vaiious stuuies anu iefinements have been maue in oiuei to
obtain maximum stiesses anu ueflections which aie neai the limit
values alloweu by the Euiocoue, iesulting in a stiuctuie which is not
oveiuesigneu anu uoesnt use moie mateiial than neeueu.

Fuithei uevelopments woulu iequiie optimisation of the membei
sizes, uetaileu uesign of the connections anu also peifoim uynamics
checks on the stiuctuie.













49

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

|1j BAvIBS0N B. & 0WENS u.W., SteelDesignersManual, 6
th
euition,
2uuS, Blackwell Publishing, 1SS7 p.

|2j Bouwbesluit2003, http:www.bouwbesluitonline.nl

|Sj Eurocode:BasisofStructuralDesign,EN1990:2002

|4j Eurocode1:Actionsonstructures.Part11:Generalactions
Densities,selfweight,imposedloadsforbuildings,EN199111:2002

|Sj Eurocode1:Actionsonstructures.Part14:GeneralactionsWind
actions,EN199114:2005

|6j C0R0S, ComFlorCompositeFloorDecksbrochure.

|7j PARKE, uAR, ModuleSE1M81SteelBuildingDesign, 0niveisity of
Suiiey, 0K, 2uuu.

|8j Eurocode3:Designofsteelstructures.Part11:Generalrulesand
rulesforbuildings,EN199311:2005

|9j Eurocode4:Designofcompositesteelandconcretestructures.Part1
1:Generalrulesandrulesforbuildings,EN199411:2004

|1uj LAWS0N, N & PARKE, uAR, ModuleSE1M56SteelandComposite
BridgeDesign, 0niveisity of Suiiey, 0K, 2uu1.

|11j C0BB, F., StructuralEngineersPocketBook, Elseviei, 2uu7, SS4p.

|12j NationalAnnextoNENEN199114Eurocode1:Actionson
structuresPart14:GeneralactionsWindactions

Su

10 ANNEXA



10.1 Calculationoffloorbeamcompositeaction

This section piesents the calculations maue foi the flooi system
chosen, i.e. BE Suu N beams eveiy Sm with a span of 1Sm. A comfloi 8u
with 18umm ueep conciete slab is useu.

As uemonstiateu below, the loauing values vaiy uepenuing if it is
uuiing oi aftei constiuction. Buiing constiuction, only the ueau loau
uue to the wet conciete neeus to be consiueieu, whilst aftei
constiuction, the live loau uue to the potential aggiegation of useis was
auueu to the selfweight of the flooi system, incieasing the moment
capacity iequiieu.

10.1.1 Loading


Duringconstruction:

Q = u kNm
2

u = 2,74 kNm
2


0ltimate limit state:

W
constructIon ULS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,SS x 2,74) + (1,S x u)
= 3, 7 hNm
2

Seiviceability limit state:

W
constructIon SLS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,u x 2,74) + (1,u x u)
= 2, 74 hNm
2



Afterconstruction:

Q = S kNm
2

u = 2,S9 kNm
2


0ltimate limit state:

W
scrvIcc ULS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,SS x 2,S9) + (1,S x S)
= 11, hNm
2


Seiviceability limit state:

W
scrvIcc SLS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,u x 2,S9) + (1,u x S)
= 7, 59 hNm
2












S1

10.1.2 DesignMoments

The uesign (applieu) moments will only be useu foi the ultimate limit
state calculations.

The span is:

L = 1Sm

Duringconstruction:

N
constructIon
=
W
constructIon ULS
L
2
8

=
(S,7u x Sm) x 1S
2
8


= 312kN.m
Afterconstruction:

N
scrvIcc
=
W
scrvIcc ULS
L
2
8

=
(11,u x S) x 1S
2
8


= 928,14kN.m

10.1.3 MomentCapacities

Duringconstruction:

Because the steel ueck is fixeu to the top flange of the beam with
sheai stuus, no lateial toisional buckling is possible uuiing
constiuction. The moment capacity is theiefoie calculateu as follows:

N
b,Rd
=
LT
W
y
f
y

LT
: lateial toisional buckling factoi foi iolleu sections = 1
W
y
: plastic moment of section about the stiong axis = 4u78uuu mm
S

f
y
: yielu stiength of steel = SSS Nmm
2

Bence:

N
b,Rd
= 1 x 4u78uuu x SSS
= 1447,69kN.m>M
construction

Afterconstruction:

Aftei constiuction, the conciete of the slab will have set anu will
contiibute to the moment capacity of the flooi system. Theie is
theiefoie a composite action between the beam anu the conciete slab,
incieasing the moment capacity of the flooi.

In oiuei to finu wheie the neutial axis of the composite section

lies, the stiength of the beam anu the conciete slab aie calculateu.

S2

Then the stiength of the steel beam is given by:

R
s
= u,9S A
s
f
y


wheie:

A
s
: section aiea of the beam = SuS1u mm
2

f
y
: steel stiength (stiess) = SSS Nmm
2

Theiefoie:
R
s
= u,9S SuS1u SSS
= 10222,05kN

Then the stiength of the web steel beam is given by:

R
w
= u,9S A
w
f
y


wheie:

A
w
: section aiea of the web = 714u mm
2

f
y
: steel stiength (stiess) = SSS Nmm
2

Theiefoie:
R
w
= u,9S 714u SSS
= 2407,97kN

The stiength of the conciete slab is:

R
c
= u,4S A
c
f
cu


wheie:

A
c
: aiea of the conciete slab = S4uuuu mm
2
f
cu
: conciete stiength (stiess) = 4u Nmm
2

Bence:

R
c
= u,4S S4uuuu 4u
=9720kN

In this case, R
c
< R
s
& R
c
> R
w
, thus the neutral axis is in the top
flange

N
pI,Rd
= R
s
h
2
+ R
c
_
h
I
2
+
t
I
2
]
Wheie:

t
f
: top flange thickness = S9 mm
h: beam uepth = S4u mm
h
f
: slab uepth = 18u mm

Theiefoie:

N
pI,Rd
= _1u222,uS x
u,S4
2
] + _972u_
u,18
2
+
u,uS9
2
]_
= 2802,09kN.m>M
service

The moment capacities uuiing seivice anu constiuction aie well above
the minimum values iequiieu. Bowevei, as will be uemonstiateu
below, the ueflections aie leauing the uesign, iequiiing ueepei flooi
beams anu incieasing the moment capacities.







SS

10.1.4 Deflections

Duringconstruction:

Buiing constiuction, only the beam will suppoit the weight of

wet conciete. The ueflection is calculateu using the foimula foi a simply
suppoiteu beam unuei 0BL:

o
mdspun
=
Sw
constuctonSLS
I
4
S84E
stccI
I


Wheie:

L: beam span = 1S m
E
steel
: steels Youngs mouulus = 21uuuu Nmm
2

I: seconu moment of aiea of beam = S92uu x 1u
4
mm
4


Theiefoie:

mIdspan
=
S x (274u x S) x 1S
4
S84 x 21u x 1u
9
x S92uu x 1u
-8


= 43,6mm<60mm

The maximum ueflection alloweu in beam span2Su = 6umm

Afterconstruction:

Fiom the calculations foi the moment capacity of the composite
section, we know that the neutial axis lies in the steel beam. Foi this
case, we use the following foimulas:

Effective wiuth:

b
eff
= 2 x L8
= 2 x 1Suuu8
= S7Summ

Because this value is gieatei than the flooi beams spacing of
Sm, we have to take:

b
eff
= Suuu mm



Figure91Definitions
With:

K = 2
c
A
s
b
cII







S4

wheie:

A
s
: section aiea of steel beam = SuS1u mm
2

e
= E
steel
E
conciete
: mouulai iatio = 21uuuu1uuuu = 21

K = 2 x 21 x SuS1uSuuu
= 424,34
Then,

x
c
=
Ku + h
I
2
K + 2h
I


Wheie:

h
f
: slab uepth = 18u mm
u = (h
s
2) + h
f
= (S4u2) + 18u = SSu mm

Bence:

x
c
=
(424,S4 x SSu) + 18u
2
424,S4 + (2 x 18u)

= 2Su,66mm

We can then calculate the seconu moment of aiea of the
composite section:

I = I
s
+ A
s
u
s
2
+
I
c

c
+ A
c

u
c
2

c


I
s
: seconu moment of aiea of the beam = S92uu x 1u
4
mm
4

I
c
: seconu moment of aiea of the slab = 12194496uu mm
4

A
s
: section aiea of the beam = SuS1u mm
2

A
c
: section aiea of the slab = S4uuuu mm
2
u
s
= u x
e
= SSu 2Su,66 = 119,S4 mm
u
c
= x
e
(h
f
2) = 2Su,66 (18u2) = 14u,66 mm

By ieplacing these values into the equation, we get:

I = 159050,83x10
4
mm
4

Finally, once again, the ueflection is calculateu with the foimula
foi a simplysuppoiteu beam unuei a unifoimlyuistiibuteu loau:

mIdspan
=
S(W
scrvIccSLS
x S)L
4
S84E
stccI
I


=
S x (7S9u x S)x 1S
4
S84 x 21u x 1u
9
x 1S9uSu,8S x 1u
-8


=44,9mm<60mm

10.2 CalculationoffloorbeamNoshearconnection

This section piesents the calculations maue foi a flooi system
without sheai connection between the steel ueck anu the beams. Theie
is theiefoie possibility of lateial toisional buckling of the beam uuiing
constiuction but this phenomenon is eliminateu uuiing seivice when
the conciete slab iestiains the compiession (top) flange of the beams.

Foi this example, BE 4Su N beams eveiy Sm with a span of 1Sm aie
useu. A comfloi 8u with 18umm ueep conciete slab is useu.

As foi the pievious flooi type, vaiious loauing intensities aie useu
uuiing constiuction anu seivice. The auuition of live loauing uuiing
seivice will neaily tiiple the moment capacity iequiieu.
SS

10.2.1 Loading


Duringconstruction:

Q = u kNm
2

u = 2,74 kNm
2



0ltimate limit state:

W
constructIon ULS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,SS x 2,74) + (1,S x u)
= 3, 7 hNm
2

Seiviceability limit state:

W
constructIon SLS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,u x 2,74) + (1,u x u)
= 2, 74 hNm
2


Afterconstruction:

Q = S kNm
2

u = 2,S9 kNm
2


0ltimate limit state:

W
scrvIcc ULS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,SS x 2,S9) + (1,S x S)
= 11, hNm
2


Seiviceability limit state:

W
scrvIcc SLS
=
g
u +
q
Q
= (1,u x 2,S9) + (1,u x S)
= 7, 59 hNm
2




10.2.2 DesignMoments

The uesign (applieu) moments will only be useu in the ultimate limit
states.

The span is:

L = 1Sm

Duringconstruction:

N
constructIon
=
W
constructIon ULS
L
2
8

=
(S,7u x Sm) x 1S
2
8


= 312kN.m

Afterconstruction:

N
scrvIcc
=
W
scrvIcc ULS
L
2
8

=
(11,u x S) x 1S
2
8


= 928,14kN.m

S6

10.2.3 MomentCapacities

Duringconstruction:

Because the steel ueck is placeu between the beams, theie is a

possibility of lateial toisional buckling of the beams, ieuucing theii
moment capacity.

Calculate the elastic ciitical moment N
ci
:


N
cr
= C
1

2
EI
z
L
2
__
I
w
I
z
+
L
2
uI
t

2
EI
z
+ (C
2
z
g
)
2
- C
2
z
g
_


Wheie:

I
z
= 19S4u x 1u
4
mm
4
I
t
= 1S29 x 1u
4
mm
4
I
w
= 92S1 x 1u
9
mm
6

L = 1Suuu mm
Z
g
= (height of beam2) = (4782) = 2S9 mm
C
1
= 1,127
C
2
= u,4S4
E = 21uuuu Nmm
2
u = 8u77u Nmm
2


Replacing these values into the foimula, we obtain:

N
ci
= 1524,20kN.m



Calculate the uimensionless slenueiness
LT
:

LT
= _
W
y
f
y
N
cr


Wheie:
W
y
= 6SS1 x 1u
S
mm
S
f
y
= SSS Nmm
2

LT
=
_
6SS1 x 1u
3
x SSS
1S24197u6S


= 1,214


Calculate the lateial toisional buckling factoi:

LT
=
1

LT
+
_

LT
2
-

LT
2
but _

LT
1

LT

1

LT
2

LT
= u,S j1 +
LT
(

LT
-

LT0
) +

LT
2
[

Wheie:

LTu
: u,4
: u,7S

LT
: impeifection factoi = u,21

S7

LT
= u,S |1 + u,21(1,214 - u,4) + (u,7S x 1,214
2
)]
= 1,138

LT
=
1
1,1S8 + 1,1S8
2
- (u,7S x 1,214
2
)

= 0,635


The moment capacity is then calculateu with

N
b,Rd
=
LT
W
y
f
y

= u,6SS x 6SS1 x 1u
S
x SSS
= 1427,17kN.m>M
construction

Afterconstruction:

Aftei constiuction, the conciete slab has set anu eliminates any
possibility of lateial toisional buckling. The factoi
LT
= 1 anu the
moment capacity uuiing seivice is simply calculateu:


N
b,Rd
=
LT
W
y
f
y

= 1 x 6SS1 x 1u
S
x SSS
= 2247,5kN.m>M
service


0nce again, the flooi uesign is uiiven by the ueflection limit, hence the
unnecessaiily high moment capacities pioviueu.






10.2.4 Deflections

Duringconstruction:

Buiing constiuction, only the beam will suppoit the weight of

wet conciete. The ueflection is calculateu using the foimula foi a simply
suppoiteu beam unuei 0BL:

o
mdspun
=
Sw
constuctonSLS
I
4
S84E
stccI
I


Wheie:

L: beam span = 1S m
E
steel
: steels Youngs mouulus = 21uuuu Nmm
2

I: seconu moment of aiea of beam = 1S1Suu x 1u
4
mm
4


Theiefoie:

mIdspan
=
S x (274u x S) x 1S
4
S84 x 21u x 1u
9
x 1S1Suu x 1u
-8


= 19,6mm<60mm

The maximum ueflection alloweu in beam span2Su = 6umm

S8

Afterconstruction:

Because theie is no sheai connection between the slab anu the
beam, only the beam will have to suppoit the ueau anu live loaus anu
the slab uoes not contiibute in ieuucing the ueflections.

The methou useu foi the ueflection calculation uuiing seivice is
theiefoie the same as uuiing constiuction, but with the auuition of live
loaus.

o
mdspun
=
Sw
scccSLS
I
4
S84E
stccI
I

L: beam span = 1S m
E
steel
: steels Youngs mouulus = 21uuuu Nmm
2

I: seconu moment of aiea of beam = 1S1Suu x 1u
4
mm
4


Theiefoie:

mIdspan
=
S x (7S9u x S) x 1S
4
S84 x 21u x 1u
9
x 1S1Suu x 1u
-8


= 54,3mm<60mm