ACADEMIC WRITING

T he f ol lo w i ng ar e s o m e of th e m ost c o m m on ex pr es si o ns wh ic h c a n b e us e d in ac a d e mic t ex ts . I IN T R O D U C I N G 1. I ntr o d u ci n g a p a per/ arti cle/ t h esi s/ dis ser ta ti o n In this p ap er I/ w e w ou ld lik e to .../i nte n d to .../atte m pt t o .../pr op os e to ... I wi ll ex a m i ne t h e pr ev io us l ite rat ur e c o nc er ni ng .../s urv ey th e pr ese nt s tate of o ur k n o wl ed g e .../p ut for w a rd a fi rst a pp rox i m ati on of .../ass u m e Xs t he ory of .../re p ort an ex pe ri m e nt wh i c h i nv es t ig at es... T his i nv es ti g atio n is c o nc e rn e d m ai nly w it h/d e als wit h esta bl is h in g ... Pa rtic ul ar atte nti on is foc us s ed o n ... T his arti c l e d es c r ib es t w o ex p eri m e nts de ali n g wit h ... X is a to pic w hic h offer s a v ar iety of c h al l en g es. T his arti c l e a dd re s ses t he q ues t io n of t o w h at ex t ent .../th e to pic of... A n u m b er of diff er e nt fac t ors hav e be en p ro pos e d to ex pl ai n ... By w ay of i ntr o duc t io n, ... T he f irs t th in g t hat ne e ds to be s ai d is ... F or t he p ur pos e of this t he s is , I/ we ... X wi ll not be ex pl or ed in t his t hes is. A( n) c o m p aris o n/ev al u ati on/ an aly sis of (a ll th es e a pp ro ac he s ) w ou ld re qu ir e fa r m or e sp ac e th an is av ai la bl e h er e /fal ls o uts i d e th e s co p e of this w ork . 2. I ntr o d u ci n g a c h a p ter/ s ec ti o n C h apt er X p re s e nts a c riti q ue of .../p ays p artic ul ar atte nti o n to .../ focus es on a n u m b er of pr o bl e ms of t h eo ry .. ./s urv eys t he (s m a ll) a m o u nt of pr evi ou s w ork w h ic h h as ref er re d t o .../co nta ins a .../ ex p lo re s th e effects o f ... In c h a pte r/s ec t io n X, I u n de rtak e a c o m p re he ns i ve s ur vey of t he lite r atu r e on t he t o pic. My p ur pos e he re is to c ritic ise/s urv ey/ ex a m in e th e l ite rat ur e. In this s ec ti o n I wil l (s ha ll ) dis c us s br ief ly ... and t h en I w ill disc us s/ ex a m i ne m o re c los el y ... /an d p r op os e a p rov is i on al t ax o n o my f or ... C h apt er X o utl in es .../In c ha pt er X, I o utli ne t he w ay s in w hi c h ... In s ec t io n X, I i nt en d to p oi nt o ut th at this ac co u nt/a na lys is / d es cr ipti o n /c ha ract er isat io n/s y s t e m is in a de q uat e, si nc e .../i n th at .../b ec a us e ... In this s ec ti o n, I sh all ex a mi n e va ri ous p o ints of vie w ... F irs t, i n ( 1. 2), I s ha ll l o ok at ... In pa rt t wo (2. 2), I w ill ex a mi n e a lte rn ativ es to ... In th e first pa rt of t he c h apt er (1. 1), I i nte nd t o l ook at ... In p art t w o (1. 2), I s h al l c o m p ar e/s urv ey/...u n de rtak e a c o m p re h ens iv e s ur v ey of th e lite rat ur e on t he t op ic . In this c h apt er, I w ill t ake a c l os er l o ok at ... Sec t io n X co nc er ns its elf wit h th e r el ati o n shi p b et w ee n ...

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Sec t io n X is dev ote d t o ... , w hil e s ecti on Y c o ns i d ers ... T his s ec ti on dr a ws o n .../w ill f oc us o n ... In this s ec ti o n we t ur n ou r att ent io n to ... T he g en er al o bj ectiv e of t his c ha pte r wi ll be t o ... In this c h apt er I w ill c o ns i de r A v er y b ri efl y an d B in rat h er m or e det ai l. 3. I ntr o d u ci n g n e w i de a s/a d di n g i nf or m ati o n

A fu rth er m et ho d ol og ic a l p ro bl e m c o nce rn s ... T he f or e go in g d is c us s i on c a n b e s u m m ar i s ed in t hr ee p oi nts: ... T ho u gh X w ill not b e d ea lt wit h h er e/i n th i s pa p er/c ha pte r/th esi s , it is pr op er t o n ot e i n p as si n g th at .../w ort h m ent io ni n g th at ... F or t he s ak e of c o m pl ete n ess , it is nec es s ary t o ... T w o ad dit io na l p oi nts ne e d to be m a de a b out ... J ust to c o m pli c at e m atte rs stil l furt h er, ... T his l e ad s to th e qu esti o n of w het h er ... T his i s n ot th e p lac e fo r s uc h a fu ll ty po lo gy , b ut ... A fu rth er diffic ulty w ith st u dyi ng X is ... T he ar e a w hic h p res e nts ev e n mo r e diff ic ulty is ... A s ec o nd n otio n t hat m ay pl ay a n i m p ort a nt r ol e in X is ... Bef or e go in g o n t o mo r e su bs ta ntiv e m att ers , ... 4. O ff eri n g ac k n o wl e d g em e n ts

T his t hes is /p a pe r/a rticl e c ou ld n ot h av e b ee n pr od uc ed w ith o ut th e inv al ua bl e he lp of ... /a X -y ea r- gr ant f ro m ... T his w or k o w es a g o od de al t o ... I m us t ac k n o wl e dg e a d ebt t o .../ my m os t ov e r w he l mi n g d e bt to .../ my in de bt ed ne s s to ... I/w e s h o ul d a ls o lik e to exp re ss my/o u r in de bt ed ne ss to ... My / o ur t ha nk s to M r X, wh o ..., a nd t o M r Y, fo r his e nd les s /c o nsta nt s up p ort/ gu id a nce ... An d my f in al t ha nk s / gr atit ud e g o( es ) to ... I a m/ w e a re pa rtic ul ar ly a w a re of my/ ou r de bt to M r X, a nd t o a less e r ex te nt, ... I (als o w ant t o) t ha nk th e st aff of th e D ep art m e nt ... /my c ol le a gu es/ my s up er v is or f or h is /th ei r h el pf ul c r itic is m /p ati enc e a n d e nc ou ra g e m ent/ be in g s o h el pfu l/u n de rs ta n di ng. I a m/ w e a re als o g r atef ul to M r X fo r p rov i di ng m e/ us wit h ... I/w e m us t h er e r ec or d my / ou r a p pr eci ati o n of t he ass ist a nce giv e n to m e/ us by ... R E VIE W I N G T H E LI T E R A T U R E 1. Re vi ewi n g ot h er p e o pl es w or k/i de a s

II

A r evi e w of th e lit er atu re s h o ws /r ev ea ls t hat ... X m ak es it c l ea r th at ... /tak es t h e p os iti o n th at ... /is co nce r ne d wit h ... / has s u gg es t ed t hat ... /s tat es/cl ai m s /a rg u es/say s/p oi nts o ut th at ... /is c ent ra lly i nv olv e d in ... /d e als i n w h at h e/ s he c al ls ...

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X 1 99 6 h as a c ha pte r o n .../dis c uss e s .../giv es a fu ll acc o unt of ... /re po rts tw o ex p er i m ents ex a m i ni n g ... /dr a ws a di stincti o n b et w ee n A a nd B / pr op os es a m et h od ac co rd in g t o w h ic h .. . / must b e cr ed ite d f or ... /c an b e c ritis ed f or ... X h as be e n r ep ort ed in d etai l i n Y 1 99 6/ m or e b ri efly i n ... T he c o rn ers t o ne of X s th eo ry is t he n oti o n of ... T he lit er atu re pr ov i d es n o i n dic ati on of ... /that X is ... Ac c or di ng t o X, ... /In Xs t er m s , ... /In X s v ie w, ... F or X, Y is /is s ee n as /is c ons id er e d as ... X ta lk s a b out Y as -i ng ... X c a lls Y th e/a ... an d th e n h e p ro ce e ds to d isc us s h o w ... T he s e s t ud ies h ave pr inc ip al ly/ m ai nly s h o w n ... T he f irs t/ a s ec o nd/t hir d s t udy c o nd uct ed i n th e l ate 19 9 0s f ou n d/ c onc lu d ed/c o nfir m e d/r ev ea le d ... A s u bs eq u ent s t ud y c o nd uc t ed in 1 99 0 o b tai ne d si m il ar fi n di ngs . T his ph e no m e n on h as b e en not e d/di scuss ed/ al lu d ed t o i n a v ari ety of c ont ex ts / by a v ar iety of i nv es t ig at ors/ w ith a va ri ety of po ints of vi e w, e.g. ... M or e det ai le d r e m ark s o n X c a n b e fo u nd in Y 1 99 6. X a p pe ars in v ar io us ac co u nts i n th e lit er atu re un d er s ev er al alte r nati ve na m es / la b els . T he r e h as b e en m uc h i nte r est re ce ntly i n ... T he f ul l r an g e of ar gu m e nts ( offe re d by .../in ...) wi ll not be rev ie w e d he re. C ert ai n s tu di es c o m pa r e th e r atin gs of A an d B. R efe r enc e is s o m eti m es m a de t o th e fa c t that ... On e of th e m aj or ar gu m e nts p r ese nte d is that ... 2. Criti cisi n g s o m e b o d y el s es w or k/i de as

T he diffic ult ies / w e ak ness es wit h X s th e ory ar e co nsi de r ab le; I wil l br ief ly m e nti on t w o: ... X h as / offer s n o th eo r etic al fr a m e w ork t o d is tin g uis h A f ro m B. X d o es n ot att ac h i m po rta nc e to .../fa ils t o g iv e a co m p let e pic t ur e of .../ m ak es th e s i m p lify i n g ass u m pti o n th at ... T his an al y sis s eri o us ly w e ake ns Xs ar g u m e nt ... On e unf ort un at e as p ec t of X is th e .../its . .. In th e X m o d el, th e m ai n p re occ u pati o n is w ith ... T his ne w ev id e nc e is at od ds w ith t he/ his/ the ir pr ev i ous st at e m ent ... I w ant t o a rg u e a ga in st this acc ou nt, a n d in fa v o ur of th e fo ll o wi n g pri nc ip le: ... I find t his ex pl an ati on m is l e ad in g. Xs ar gu m e nt c an b e e asil y co u nter e d if .. . Suc h s ug g es ti ons ar e not m uc h m or e th a n a n ecd ota l. X m ak es o ne d ou bt th e va li dity of ... Suc h def in itio ns ar e fr ustr ati ng ly va g ue. Sp ec if ic p oi nts w he r e X s ee m s to b e wr on g a re as fo ll o ws . X is r ig ht i n th e c ont ent io n th at ... /in f act conc e des t hat ... In th e we ll -k n o w n i nv es ti gati o n by X 19 9 0 an atte m pt i s ma d e to ...

3. Criti cisi n g a t h e or y/a p p r o ac h/ t he p re se n t s t at e of aff air s

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T his t he or y /v i e w is at v a ri anc e w ith t he k no w n/ ob ject ive f ac ts . T he pr o bl e m w ith X is t hat it he av ily ove r ge n er ates ... T he r e h as b e en n o d e m ons t rat io n th at th i s is in f act th e c a se. In th e X m o d el, th e m ai n p re occ u pati o n is w ith ... T he r e is n o ag re e d th eo ret ica l fr a m e w ork. A r ath er s er io us dis ad v a nta g e of Xs m et h od of r es e a rc h is ... W h er ea s th e s t u di es c it e d ab ov e ad dr es s i m po rta nt pr o bl e ms , t he y d o n ot offe r mu c h i nf or m ati o n a bo ut th e ex te nt to w hic h ... An ot he r p oi nt w he re t ra diti o na l th ink in g m ay h av e to be rev is ed is ... A g re at n u m b er of stu di es d e al w ith ho w ... It is not c le ar t o m e, h o w ev e r, ( ex a c tly) h o w/ w hy/h o w m a ny ... Oth er st u di es h av e s p ecif ic a lly s et o ut to ex a m i ne ... Littl e is k no w n a bo ut ... So f ar, not hi n g h as b e en s ai d ab out ... T he r e h as b e en m uc h ar gu m e ntat io n ab o ut ... X is a m atter t h at h as b ar ely b ee n to uc he d u p on. Yet a s u rv ey of t he lite r atur e i n dic ates t h at alt h ou g h n u m er o us stu di es hav e i nv es ti gat e d ... /s ev e ra l r evi e ws of t he lite r atu re hav e be e n writt e n (X 19 9 0, Y 19 9 1), m ost of t he s t u di es h av e n ot i nves tig at ed... It m us t b e c onc e de d t hat t his i s a n e xtre m el y co m p lex a nd c o ntr ov e rs i a l ar ea. X h as is / b ee n a b on e of c o nte nti on/ a s ub j ec t a bo ut w hic h th er e is dis ag re e m e nt. 4. C o nfr o n ti n g di ff er e nt vie w s o n a t o pi c

T his f ac t c o nfl icts wit h X s p osit io n .../th e co m m o n p osit io n of m a ny w rit ers . T his f ac t c o ntr a dic ts r at he r sh ar ply t he t r ad iti on al i m p r essi on ... T his i s c l osest t o X s p os it io n. T he m a in ar g u m ent ad v a nc ed by p ro p on e nts of t his pos itio n i nv olv es ... All t h e ev id en c e po ints t o th e c orr ec t nes s of th e tra dit io n al vi e w w h er eby / ac c or di ng t o w hic h ... It has be e n s u g ges t ed, f or i ns t anc e by X 19 9 0, th at ... X m ak es c o ntr ad ic to ry cl ai m s ... /do es not ent er i nt o th e d e bat e. Ins ta nc es of dis ag re e m e nt we r e ... X a ls o diff ers fr o m Y i n ... X a p pe ars t o c o ntr ib ut e to ti p pi ng t he sc al es i n th e ot he r d ir ecti o n. T his f ac to r at l e ast ti ps th e b al a nc e t o w ar ds ... Xs res ults /fi g ur es/fi nd in gs s ee m to c onf li c t wit h ... T he c o nflic t in g r es ults of th e t wo inv esti g ati ons m ay pa rti al ly b e d u e to ... T his i s s u e is no lo n ge r i n c o nte nti o n. T he pr o bl e m bec o m es ac ut e w he n ...

5. De fi ni n g t er m s Xs def in iti on i s far f ro m b ei ng a s ettle d is sue. I/w e wi ll d efi n e X as ... X a p pe ars in v ar io us ac co u nts/i n th e lit er atu re un d er s ev er al alte r nati v e la be ls /n a m es /te r ms /c h ar acte ris ati ons.

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III

T he t er m X h as b ee n l a be ll ed in v ar io us w ays /v ar io us ly la b ell e d. By d efi nit io n, ... PE R S O N A L C O N T R I B U TI O N 1. Pr es e n ti n g y o ur i de a s

I take t he s t an d th at ... My o w n j ud g e m ent/ inf or m a l o bs e rv ati on i s that ... In r el atio n t o ..., w e h av e o bs erv e d th at ... F or br ev ity s sak e/f or s i m p lic ity s sa k e, I l i mit th e dis c us s i o n to ... An ot he r is s ue of co ns id er a bl e int er est is t he re lat io ns hi p b et w ee n A a nd B. It s ee m s / wo ul d s ee m / wo ul d be re as on a bl e to s up p ose t h at .../take ac co u nt of t he f act th at ... On s o m e oc c a si ons it s e e ms ( m o r e) s ens i bl e/p ro d uc tiv e/r eas o na bl e if ... Im pr es s i o nis ti c a lly , it s ee m s th at ... It is my c o nte nti o n th at .../I clai m t h at ... It is lik e ly th at s o m e i m po rta nt diffe re nc e s ex is t bet w e en ... I do not w ish t o g et e m br oil e d i n th e a rg u m e nt/d eb at e. I hav e n ot ex a m i ne d th is p ro bl e m in d etai l , but I w ou ld gu es s t hat ... It is rel ev a nt to o bs erv e he re t hat ... In th e a bs enc e of a ny c l ea r ev id e nc e t o th e c o ntr ary ... W e s ha ll s ti ll hav e to t ack l e th e pr ob le m o f ho w t o d iffe re nc i at e bet w e en... T he p oi nt at is s u e h er e is w h eth er ... I/w e s h al l r etu rn t o th is p oi nt sh ort ly . But bef or e pl un gi n g i nto ... it is es se nti al to .../it is p erti n ent t o p oi nt o ut that ... 2. S u p p o rti n g y o ur i d e as

My c la i m r es ts on h o w ... C o m p ar ab le/s i mi la r fi nd in gs h av e b e en re po rte d b y X 19 9 0. T he r e is , th e n, c o nsi de r ab le c i rc u mst anc i al evi de nc e to s up p ort th e pr op os al t hat ... T he s e ex a m p l es a re i m p o rta nt b ec aus e th ey p oi nt u p diffe re nc es bet w e en ... T his v ie w p oi nt/p oi nt of v ie w/ o pi ni on/ p ositi on/s ol uti on is a d he re d to by X. F ro m t h e a b ov e it c a n b e a p pr eci ate d t hat ... Str on g er evi de nc e co m e s in t h e for m of .. . Ev e n m or e po w e rfu l ev id e nce of X is to b e fo un d i n Y 1 99 0. As a lr ea dy po int e d o ut, .../As p oi nt ed o ut/state d e ar li er, ... R e ga rd in g th e is s u e of w h eth er ... 3. P ara p h ra si n g y o ur i d ea s

Or, putti n g it a n oth er w ay , ... In ot he r w or ds , ... T o p ut it diffe re ntly , ...

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4. E xe m pli fyi n g In th e first t hr ee ex a m pl es, ... In ex a m pl e ( 2), ... Ex a m p le s ( 2) to (9 ) s h o w/ rev e al/i n dic ate/ i llus t rat e/ ex h ib it/h av e/ ar e ... Ex a m p le (2 ) is t he s in gl e c as e in t he d ata of .../ill ustr ates t he s u pe ri or ity of A t o B. In th e a uth or s c or pus t his i s se en ... 5. Cr o ss -re fer e n ci n g T his s u bje ct/to pic is t re ate d i n ( gr e ate r) d ept h i n c h a pte r/sec t io n X. T he q ues t io n of X is ret ur n ed t o i n c h a pte r/s ec ti o n X. Ac c or di ng t o th e p re c e di ng s ecti o n, ... As sh o w n i n T ab le X, ... ( Fo r a n e x te ns iv e a c c o u nt/dis cuss io n of this po int of vi e w, s e e ...). ( Fo r a rg u m e nts a ga in s t this pr o pos al, s ee ...). 6. Re p o rti n g o n r e se ar c h In a s ubs e qu e nt ex p eri m e nt, ... Su bj ec ts w er e giv en ... T he n, th ey dec id e w hat q uest io ns th e s ent e nces w o ul d b e r ep li es to. R es ea rc h of th is ki nd is us u ally c o nd uct e d a lo n g th e fol lo w i ng li nes: ... A tes t ab le hy pot h esis ne e ds to be f or m u l ate d. T he s p eec h s a m pl es th at w er e us e d i n th e s tu dy w er e tak e n fr o m ... I c ons t ruc t e d/d ev is e d a pr od ucti o n ex p eri m e nt to c ont ro l th e r el ev a nt v ar ia bl es . T he s a m pl e c ont ai n ed s p eak ers re pr es e ntin g a v ar iety of l an g ua g e bac k g ro un ds . T his ap p ro ac h wil l tes t t he as s u m pti on t h at ... T he t ests w er e a d m in is te re d t o ... Ou r e x p er i m ent diff ers i n s ev e ra l as p ects/ res pe c ts fro m th at of X 1 9 90 in that ... P R ES E N T I N G FI N DI N G S 1. Pr es e n ti n g d at a T he pr es ent inv esti g ati on has s h o w n th at ... As my / ou r hy p oth es is pr e dict ed, ... As p re di cte d, th er e a p pe ar e d to be a cl e a r diff er e nce bet w e e n A an d B. Ou r i nv esti gati o n w as hy p oth es is -tes t in g, rat he r th an ex pl or ato ry i n nat ur e. T he t w e nty j ud g es w er e u na ni m o us i n t he i r ju d ge m e nts. T his ti es i n/c oi nc i des w it h s o m e r es ults o bta in e d by X. It s ee m s re as o na bl e to c o ncl ud e fr o m t he tes ts th at ... T he o nly exa m p le w h er e th e re w as s o m e do u bt was ... An a na ly s is of X s h o we d t hat ... R es po n de nts w er e m or e h esit a nt in d ea li n g wit h ....

IV

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2. A n alisi n g d at a V T he re s u lts d e m ons t rat e/cl e arly s u gg est/s ee m to s ug g est/sh o w t hat... X s u rv ey e d a n u m be r of s a m pl es an d r ep ort ed ... T he t ests on t he w h ol e co nfi r m ed m y o w n spec ul ati o ns o n t w o as pe cts : ... T his evi d enc e l ea ds us / m e to hyp ot hes is e that ... T he d ata pr es ent ed p oi nts to t he ex ist en c e of a g e ne ra l p he n o m en o n of ... I ha v e n o c o m pa rat iv e d ata wit h w hic h t o a na lys e (i n a ny d et ail ) v ar iati o ns in ... A m or e p ro b ab le ex pl an ati on is, h o w ev er, that ... W hi le d ata on X ar e l ac ki ng, s o m e d at a o n Y ar e a v a il ab le. T he pi lot t es t th us co nfi r m ed ex pe ctati o ns /s ug g est th e i de a th at ... T his i s e ntir el y in k e ep in g w ith Xs i d eas / not i n k ee pi n g wit h my fi n di ngs . T he re s u lts s u gg es t, alth o ug h th ey do n ot sho w co nc l usiv el y, th at ... T he m os t int er es ti n g fin di n g is p e rh a ps th at ... Les s s u rp ris i n g, p er h aps, is t h e fin di n g th at ... It is rel ev a nt to o bs erv e he re t hat ... T he v e ry s h ar p diffe re nc es b et w e en t he r ati ngs of X d ese rv e s o m e c o m m e nt. It w ou ld be v e ry si m pl is tic t o cl ai m t hat ... T he ev i d enc e/ ex a m p le s /di s cuss io n by n o m e ans c ov ers al l p oss i bi liti es /c as es . X m ak es o ne d ou bt th e va li dity of ... X is a sc a le/ gr a di ent r at he r th a n a dic hot o my . T he re lat io ns hi p b et w ee n A a n d B als o d e s erv es s o m e n otic e. Oth er d eta ils w hic h d es erv e s pec ia l n otic e/att ent io n a re: ... T he p oi nt for c o nce r n ( he re ) is .../ wh et he r it is ... C O N C L U D I N G/ S U M M A R I SI N G 1. C o n cl u di n g a c h a p ter/ se c ti o n/t h e sis/ di ss ert a ti o n I c onc lu d e this c h apt er w ith ... T he f in al s ec ti o n of th is c h a pte r p res e nts so m e i nfo r m al obs erv ati o ns o n... As sh o w n i n th is ch a pte r, .../the pr ec ed in g s ec t io n, ... T o su m u p w hat h as b e en s ai d i n thi s sec tio n: ... In th e co nc l usi o ns I c o m p ar e th e fi n di ngs (in t his t hes is ) w ith t he s m a ll a m ou nt of w o rk o n ... T his c o ncl us i on is i n di r ect co nflic t w ith t h at r eac h ed by X 1 99 0, w ho s ays : ... T he m at er ia l i n ex p eri m e nt X is i nsuff ici e nt to all o w any s af e co nc l usi o ns c onc e rn in g ... In c o ncl us i o n, .../T o c o nc lu d e, ... T he in es c ap a bl e co nc l us io n w hic h e m e rg es fr o m w hat I hav e s ai d is th at ...

2. S u m m arisi n g m ai n p oi n ts Su m m a r is i ng, it s e e ms to m e t hat ... T o su m m a r is e, .../In s u m, .../In s u m m a ry, .../To s u m u p, ... As th e e xp er i m ents ha v e be e n r ep ort e d e l se w he re, t he pr es ent s urv ey w ill b e v e ry b ri ef.

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VI VII

S U G GE S TI N G N E W R E S E A R C H A R E A S/ F U T U R E W O R K An i m po rta nt tas k f or f utu re res e arc h wi ll be ... F in al ly , I s h all s u gg est fu rth er ar e as of r e sea rc h th at se e m pa rtic ul ar ly pr o mi s i ng. An ot he r p ro p os a l wh ic h mi ght m e rit fu rth e r res e arc h is ... F urt he r i nv es tig ati o n s h o ul d s h o w w h eth e r .... Ob v i ous ly , a gr eat d ea l of r es ea rc h is n e e de d to t est th es e hy p oth es es/ in dic ati ons / pr e dic ti o ns . T his i n det er m i nat e ar ea ne e ds to be c la ss ifie d b y furt h er r es ea rc h. T his not io n ne ed s furt h er i nv esti gat io n. It is pos s ib le t h at c a ref ul i nv esti gat io n m a y s ho w th at ... A v e ry p r o mis in g ap pl ic at io n of X is ... M or e r es ea rc h is n e ed e d th at i nvest ig at es the r el ati o ns h ip b et we e n ... It is ho p ed t hat m o re res e arc h i nv e s tig ati ng t he re lat io ns hi p b et w ee n A an d B wil l fo ll o w. R es ea rc h is n e ed e d th at furt h er i nv es ti gat es th e sp ec ific w ays i n w hic h.../ the be h av i ou r of ... It is s till/it re m a ins an o pe n qu esti on as t o wh at exte nt/ w het he r ... T he q ues t io n s ti ll r e m ai ns , h o w ev er, w het he r ... S H O WI N G U N E X P E C T E D FI N DI N G S U nfo rtu n ate ly , thi n gs a re n ot as s i m pl e as this. Ad m itt ed ly , .../Ar gu a bly , ... T his ex a m pl e di s tu rbs t he g en er al is at io n. So m e w h at s u r pri ns i n gly, ... On t h e ot he r h a nd, it is o bs erv ab le/ q uest i on a bl e ... Gr a ntin g t hat X is / ar e ... it is a lso evi d ent that ... T he dist inc t io n ( dr a w n) b et we e n A a nd B i s ofte n p ro bl e m atic a nd fre qu e ntly c aus es ...

VIII

MI S C E L L A N E O U S

Q U A N T I TI ES : All s p ec if ic qu ant iti es s ho ul d b e d en ote d by fi g ur es: 4 i n., 3 k g., 8 0 , 1 99 6. Ot h er n u m b ers up t o 1 0 0 s h ou ld b e d en ot ed by wo rd s: fou r m e n, t we nty s ub jec ts , f orty -fiv e ex p er i m ents; but 1 03 b ook s, 2 28 b oys . Us e w or ds r at he r th an f ig ur es to s t art a s ent e nce. Q U O T A TI O N S : Us e si n gl e qu ot es , wit h do u bl e qu ot es fo r q uot ati on s w ith in q u otat io ns . G iv e i n p ar e nth es e s th e n a m e of th e aut h or a n d the y ea r of pu bl ic at io n, a nd w h er e re lev a nt the pa g e(s ) ref er re d to, e. g. ... ( Cr utte nd e n 19 8 6)..., or ... Cr utt en d en (1 98 6: 92 ).... B R A C K E T S : R ou nd b ra c k ets () a re us e d for p ar ent he sis. Sq u ar e br ac k ets [ ] ar e us e d f or a uth ors ins ert io ns a nd c o m m e nts, e.g. T he 1 9 42 [sic ] d is cov e ry by C ol u m bus ... BI B LI O G R A P H Y A N D R E F E R E N C E S: T h er e ar e s ev er al f or m s f o r ref er enc es in bi bl io gr a ph ie s . B o ok titl es can b e un d erl in e d o r it al iciz ed, b ut

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artic le tit les ar e wr itte n in i nv ert ed c o m m as. H er e, it is wo rth i ncl u di ng t h e nu m b er of the is s u e a nd pa g es . O ne of t he m os t c o m m o n pr ac tic es in th e U K is as f oll o ws: C rutt en d en, A. (1 99 6). Int o nati o n. S eco nd e dit io n. Ca m b ri dg e: Ca m b ri d g e U niv er s ity P r ess . Bo li ng er, D. L. ( 1 98 5). T w o v i e ws of ac c ent. Jo ur n al of Li n gu istics , 21, 7 912 3. La d d, D. R. (1 9 81 ). O n i nt on ati o na l u ni ve rsa ls . I n T. M y e rs, J. L av e r an d J . An d ers on ( eds. ), T he c o gn itiv e r e pr ese ntati o n of s p e ec h. A mst er d a m : N ort h H oll a nd. SP E CI A L T Y P E S: Italic ty pe is us e d for fo re ig n wo r ds an d p hr as es , fo r titles of bo ok s an d pe ri od ic als an d f or pi ctur es. It m ay b e us ed f or e m p has is . Bo ld ty p e c a n als o b e u s e d fo r th is pu rp ose, a nd s m a ll c ap ita ls , to e m p has is e TECHN ICAL TERM S. APPPENDIX A THESIS ORGANISATION DISSERTATION SECTION I.Introduction R es ea rc h Qu es ti o ns Hy p oth es is II.R evi e w of t h e Li ter at u re III.R es ear c h D e si g n IV. Da t a C olle cti o n V. A n aly sis/I n t er pre ta ti o n KEY QUESTIONS Are the hypothesis or aims cle ar ly s tat ed ?

Is the r ev ie w s uffic ie ntly exte ns iv e ? Is the l ite rat ur e r evi e w e d c rit ic a lly ? Is the r es ea rc h m eth od ol o gy a d eq u atel y jus tif ie d a n d is it ap pr o pr iat e? Ar e iss u es of v ali dity a nd re li ab ility cons id e re d? D o es th e a n alysi s al lo w th e i niti al ai m s /res ea rc h q uest io ns t o b e fu rth er ex p lo re d/r e def in e d? Ar e th e c onc lus io ns /r ec o m m e nd ati o ns subs t a nti ate d by t h e ev i de nc e pr es ent e d? Is the re evi de nc e of pe rs on al a nd c ritic al refl ecti o n?

VI. C o n cl usi o n s/ R e c o m me n d a ti o n s

AP P E N DI X B PROCESS A n al ys e WORDS = M ak e a det ai le d e xa m i nati o n o r i nv est ig ati on i nt o s o m et hi ng,

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A p p rai se A s se s s C o m m e nt C o m p ar e C o n tr as t Cri tici se D efi n e D e scri b e Di sc u s s Ev al u at e Ex a mi n e Ex pl ai n In di ca te Illu str at e Int er pr et Judge J us tif y O utli n e R ef u t e R ela t e St at e S u m mari s e Tr ac e

dis c us s i n d et ail. = Ev a lu at e, fin d th e v al ue of. = C o ns i d er i n a ba la nc e d w ay t h e po ints for a nd ag ai nst s o m et hi ng, ju dg e. = Stat e c l ea rly y ou r o pi ni o ns o n th e t op ic in qu esti on. S up p ort y ou r v i e ws w ith evi d enc e. = Fi n d s i m il arit ies a nd diff er enc es bet w e e n. = In dic at e th e d iffe re nc es b et w ee n t w o o r m or e th in gs. = Giv e y o ur c o ns i de re d op in io n a b out t h e v a lu e of t he t he or ie s a nd pr ac tic es . B ack up y o ur c ritic is m w ith ev i de nc e fr o m y ou r res ea rc h (r e ad in g, o bs erv ati o n, a nd s o o n ). = Giv e th e p re c is e m ea ni ng of s o m ethi n g. Sh o w ho w th e dis ti nc ti o ns y o u m ak e a re ne ces s ar y . = Giv e a det ai le d acco u nt. = Ex a m i ne in det ai l, a rg u e, giv e r e as o ns f or an d a g ai ns t. = M ak e a j u dg e m e nt a bo ut th e v al ue/ i m po rta nc e/ w o rth of s o m eth in g. = Pr es e nt i n d e pth an d i nv es ti gat e fu lly t h e i m pl icat io ns . = Giv e r eas o ns fo r, m ak e c le ar. = Po int out, s ho w . = Ex p la in w ith ex a m pl es . = M ak e c l ea r th e m ea ni n g of s o m eth in g, u sua lly giv in g yo u r o w n v ie ws als o. = Giv e y o ur o pi ni on/c o ncl us i on. = Giv e r eas o ns fo r, sh o w ad e qu at e gr o un ds fo r d ec is io ns or c onc lu s i ons . = Giv e th e m ai n fe atu re s , s truct ur e or ge n er al pri nc i pl es of a top ic o m itti ng m i no r d eta ils . = Pr ov e a s tat e m e nt/a rg u m e nt to b e f als e . = M ak e th e c o n nec t io ns cl e ar bet w e en f a cts an d e v e nts . = Pr es e nt s i m p ly a n d cl ea rly . = Giv e a br ief ac c ou nt of t he m a in po ints of a t op ic . = Sh o w t he de v e lo p m ent of so m et hi n g, in cle ar s t ag es.