SUBMITTED BY :

Name : Govind Singh Roll No. A58 Section : E1905

Reg. No. 10906716

B.Tech (ece)

SUBMITTED TO

Mr. Munish Sir

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to present my votes of thanks to all those guidepost who really acted as lightening pillars to enlighten our way throughout this project that has led to successful and satisfactory completion of this study. I am thankful to Mr.Munish Sir for his active support, valuable time and advice, wholehearted guidance, sincere cooperation and pains-taking involvement during the study and in completing the assignment of preparing the said project within the time stipulated. Lastly, I am thankful to all those, particularly the various friends , who have been instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment and including new and fresh innovative ideas for us during the project, their help, it would have been extremely difficult for us to prepare the project in a time bound framework.

Name Govind Singh Regd.No-10906716

Roll No-A58

TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT The IP address lookup problem is to find the longest matching IP prefix from a routing table for a given IP address. In this paper we implemented and extended the results of by incorporating the access frequencies of the target IP addresses. Experimental results showed that the number of memory access is reduced significantly. In order for systems to locate each other in a distributed environment, nodes are given explicit addresses that uniquely identify the particular network the system is on and uniquely identify the system to that particular network. When these two identifiers are combined, the result is a globally-unique address. This address, known as IP address, as IP number, or merely as IP is a code made up of numbers separated by three dots that identifies a particular computer on the Internet. These addresses are actually 32-bit binary numbers, consisting of the two subaddresses (identifiers) mentioned above which, respectively, identify the network and the host to the network, with an imaginary boundary separating the two. An IP address is, as such, generally shown as 4 octets of numbers from 0-255 represented in decimal form instead of binary form. For example, the address 168.212.226.204 represents the 32-bit binary number 10101000.11010100.11100010.11001100.

INRODUCTION IP Addresses
IP addresses 32 bit addresses (divided into 4 octets) used by the Internet Protocol (OSI Layer 3) for delivering packet to a device located in same or remote network. MAC address (Hardware address) is a globally unique address which represents the network card and cannot be changed. IP address refers to a logical address, which is a configurable address used to identify which network this host belongs to and also a network specific host number. In other words, an IP V4 address consists of two parts, a network part and a host part. This can be compared to your home address. A letter addressed to your home address will be delivered to your house because of this logical address. If you move to another house, your address will change, and letters addressed to you will be sent to your new address. But the person who the letter is being delivered to, that is you, is still the same.

IP addresses are stored internally as binary numbers but they are represented in decimal numbers because of simplicity.An example of IP address is 192.168.10.100, which is actually 11000000.10101000.00001010.01100100.For Each network, one address is used to represent the network and one address is used for broadcast. Network address is an IP address with all host bits are "0". Broadcast address is an IP address with all host bits are "1".That means, for a network, the first IP address is the network address and the last IP address is the broadcast address.You cannot configure these addresses for your devices. All the usableIP addresses in any IP network are between network address and broadcast address.We can use the following equation for find the number of usable IP addresses in a network (We have to use two IP addresses in each network to represent the network id and the broadcat id.)Number of usable IP addresses = (2n)-2. Where "n" is the number of bits in host part.

Private network
In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space, following the standards set by RFC 1918 and RFC 4193. These addresses are commonly used for home, office, and enterprise local area networks (LANs), when globally routable addresses are not mandatory, or are not available for the intended network applications. Under Internet ProtocolIPv4, private IP address spaces were originally defined in an effort to delay IPv4 address exhaustion, but they are also a feature of the next generation Internet

Protocol, IPv6
These addresses are characterized as private because they are not globally delegated, meaning they are not allocated to any specific organization, and IP packets addressed by them cannot be transmitted onto the public Internet. Anyone may use these addresses without approval from a regional Internet registry (RIR). If such a private network needs to connect to the Internet, it must use either anetwork address translator (NAT) gateway, or a proxy server.

Private IPv4 address spaces

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has directed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to reserve the following IPv4 address ranges for private networks, as published in RFC 1918: host RFC1918 number of largest CIDR block mask IP address range classful description id name addresses (subnet mask) bits size

24-bit

10.0.0.0

- 16,777,216 single class

A 10.0.0.0/8

24

8 bits

block

10.255.255.255

network

(255.0.0.0)

bits

20-bit block

172.16.0.0 1,048,576 172.31.255.255

16 contiguous class 172.16.0.0/12 B network (255.240.0.0)

20 12 bits bits

16-bit block

192.168.0.0 65,536 192.168.255.255

256 contiguous 192.168.0.0/16 class C network (255.255.0.0)

16 16 bits bits

Classful addressing is obsolete and has not been used in the Internet since the implementation of Class less Inter-Domain Routing(CIDR) starting in 1993. For example, while 10.0.0.0/8 was a single class A network, it is common for organizations to divide it into smaller /16 or /24 networks. Contrary to a common misconception, a /16 subnet of a class A network is not referred to as a class B network. Likewise, a /24 subnet of a class A or B network is not referred to as a class C network. The class is determined by the first three bits of the prefix. In April 2012, IANA allocated 100.64.0.0/10 for use in carrier grade NAT scenarios in RFC 6598. This address block should not be used either on private networks or on the public Internet: it is intended only for use within the internal operations of carrier networks. The size of the address block ( , approximately 4 million, addresses) was selected to be large enough to uniquely number all customer access devices for all of a single operator's points of presence in a large metropolitan area such as the Tokyo metropolitan area.[3]

IPv6 address
An Internet Protocol Version 6 address (IPv6 address) is a numerical label that is used to identify a network interface of a computer or other network node participating in an IPv6enabled computer network.IP addresses serve the purpose of uniquely identifying the individual network interface(s) of a host, locating it on the network, and thus permitting the routing of IP packets between hosts. For routing, IP addresses are present in fields of the packet header where they indicate source and destination of the packet. IPv6 is the successor to the Internet's first addressing infrastructure, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). In contrast to IPv4, which defined an IP address as a 32-bit value, IPv6 addresses have a size of 128 bits. Therefore, IPv6 has a vastly enlarged address space compared to IPv4.

Private use of other reserved addresses

Historically address blocks other than the private address ranges have been reserved for potential future uses. Some organizations have used them for private networking applications despite official warnings of possible future address collisions. Typically these addresses are not referred to as "reserved." IPv4 addresses 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 (all addresses in 240.0.0.0/4 except 255.0.0.0/8) are designated for future use and research and development

IPv6 address classes

IPv6 addresses are classified by the primary addressing and routing methodologies common in networking: unicast addressing, anycast addressing, and multicast addressing. A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The Internet Protocol delivers packets sent to a unicast address to that specific interface. An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to just one of the member interfaces, typically the nearest host, according to the routing protocols definition of distance. Anycast addresses cannot be identified easily, they have the same format as unicast addresses, and differ only by their presence in the network at multiple points. Almost any unicast address can be employed as an anycast address. A multicast address is also used by multiple hosts, which acquire the multicast address destination by participating in the multicast distribution protocol among the network routers. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces that have joined the corresponding multicast group. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing. Broadcast's traditional role is subsumed by multicast addressing to the all-nodes link-local multicast group ff02::1. However, the use of the all-nodes group is not recommended, and most IPv6 protocols use a dedicated link-local multicast group to avoid disturbing every interface in the network.

Address formats
An IPv6 address consists of 128 bits. Addresses are classified into various types for applications in the major addressing and routing methodologies: unicast, multicast, and anycast networking. In each of these, various address formats are recognized by logically dividing the 128 address

bits into bit groups and establishing rules for associating the values of these bit groups with special addressing features.

IPv6 address scopes.

In the unicast addressing class, link-local addresses and the loopback address have linklocal scope, which means they are to be used in the directly attached network (link). All other addresses (except Unique local addresses) have global (or universal) scope, which means they are globally routable, and can be used to connect to addresses with global scope anywhere, or addresses with link-local scope on the directly attached network. Unique local addresses are not globally routable, so their scope is limited to the extent of the network(s) in which they are used. These addresses will only be routed by routers or tunnels whose routing tables have been specifically configured to allow it. For multicasting, the four least-significant bits of the second address octet of a multicast address identify the address scope, i.e. the span over which the multicast address is propagated. Currently defined scopes are: Scope values

Value Scope name

Notes

0x0

Reserved

0x1

interface-local

Interface-local scope spans only a single interface on a node, and is useful only for loopback transmission of multicast.

0x2

link-local

Link-local and site-local multicast scopes span the same topological regions as the corresponding unicast scopes.

0x4

admin-local

Admin-local scope is the smallest scope that must be administratively configured, i.e., not automatically derived from physical connectivity or other, non- multicast-related configuration.

0x5

site-local

Link-local and site-local multicast scopes span the same topological regions as the corresponding unicast scopes.

0x8

organization- Organization-local scope is intended to span multiple sites local belonging to a single organization.

0xe

Global

0xf

Reserved

IPv6 address space

General allocation
The management of IPv6 address allocation process is delegated to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) by the Internet Architecture Board and the Internet Engineering Steering Group. Its main function is the assignment of large address blocks to the regional Internet registries (RIRs), which have the delegated task of allocation to network service providers and other local registries. The IANA has maintained the official list of allocations of the IPv6 address space since December 1995. Only one eighth of the total address space is currently allocated for use on the Internet, 2000::/3, in order to provide efficient route aggregation, thereby reducing the size of the Internet routing tables; the rest of the IPv6 address space is reserved for future use or for special purposes. The address space is assigned to the RIRs in large blocks of /23 up to /12. The RIRs assign smaller blocks to local Internet registries that distributes them to users. These are typically in sizes from /19 to/32. The addresses are typically distributed in /48 to /56 sized blocks to the end users. IPv6 addresses are assigned to organizations in much larger blocks as compared to IPv4 address assignmentsthe recommended allocation is a /48 block which contains 280 addresses, being 248 or about 2.81014 times larger than the entire IPv4 address space of 232 addresses and about 7.21016 times larger than the /8 blocks of IPv4 addresses, which are the largest allocations of IPv4 addresses. The total pool, however, is sufficient for the

foreseeable future, because there are 2128 or about 3.41038 (340 trillion trillion trillion) unique IPv6 addresses.

Special allocation
To allow for provider changes without renumbering, provider-independent address space assigned directly to the end user by the RIRs is taken from the special range 2001:678::/29. Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) are assigned special addresses from the range 2001:7f8::/29 for communication with their connected ISPs. Root name servers have been assigned addresses from the same range.

Reserved anycast addresses

The lowest address within each subnet prefix (the interface identifier set to all zeroes) is reserved as the "subnet-router" anycast address. Applications may use this address when talking to any one of the available routers, as packets sent to this address are delivered to just one router. The 128 highest addresses within each /64 subnet prefix are reserved to be used as anycast addresses. These addresses usually have the 57 first bits of the interface identifier set to 1, followed by the 7-bit anycast ID. Prefixes for the network, including subnets, are required to have a length of 64 bits, in which case the universal/local bit must be set to 0 to indicate the address is not globally unique. The address with value 0x7e in the 7 least-significant bits is defined as a mobile IPv6 home agents anycast address. The address with value 0x7f (all bits 1) is reserved and may not be used. No more assignments from this range are made, so values 0x00 through0x7d are reserved as well.

Special addresses

The address with all zero bits is called the unspecified address (corresponding to 0.0.0.0/32 inIPv4). This address must never be assigned to an interface and is to be used only in software before the application has learned its host's source address appropriate for a pending connection. Routers must not forward packets with the unspecified address.

Applications may be listening on one or more specific interfaces for incoming connections, which are shown in listings of active internet connections by a specific IP address (and a port number, separated by a colon). When the unspecified address is shown it means that an application is listening for incoming connections on all available interfaces.

Default route

The default unicast route address (corresponding to 0.0.0.0/0 in IPv4).

Local addresses

The loopback address is a unicast loca lhost address. If an application in a host sends packets to this address, the IPv6 stack will loop these packets back on the same virtual interface (corresponding to 127.0.0.0/8 in IPv4).

Addresses in the link-local prefix are only valid and unique on a single link. Within this prefix only one subnet is allocated (54 zero bits). The least significant 64 bits are usually chosen as the interface hardware address constructed in modified EUI-64 format. A linklocal address is required on every IPv6-enabled interfacein other words, applications may rely on the existence of a link-local address even when there is no IPv6 routing. These addresses are comparable to the auto-configuration addresses 169.254.0.0/16 of IPv4.

Unique local address

Unique local addresses (ULAs) are intended for local communication. They are routable only within a set of cooperating sites (analogous to the private address ranges 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16 of IPv4). The block is split into two halves, the upper half is used for "probabilistically unique" addresses in which a 40bitpseudorandom number is used to obtain a /48 allocation.. This means that there is only a small chance that two sites that wish to merge or communicate with each other will have conflicting addresses. No allocation method for the lower half of the block is currently defined.

Special-purpose addresses.
IANA has reserved a so-called 'Sub-TLA ID' address block for special assignments. which consists of 64 network prefixes in the range 2001:0000::/29 through 2001:01f8::/29. Three assignments from this block have been made:

IPv6 addresses in the Domain Name System

In the Domain Name System hostnames are mapped to IPv6 addresses by AAAA resource records, so-called quad-A records. For reverse lookup the IETF reserved the domain ip6.arpa, where the name space is hierarchically divided by the 1-digit hexa decimal representation of nibble units (4 bits) of the IPv6 address. This scheme is defined in RFC 3596. As in IPv4, each host is represented in the DNS by two DNS records, an address record and a reverse mapping pointer record. For example, a host computer named justin in zone example.com has the Unique Local Address fdda:5cc1:23:4::1f. Its quad-A address record is justin.example.com. IN AAAA fdda:5cc1:23:4::1f and its IPv6 pointer record is f.1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.4.0.0.0.3.2.0.0.1.c.c.5.a.d.d.f.ip6.arpa.IN PTR justin.example.com. This pointer record may be defined in a number of zones, depending on the chain of delegation of authority in the zone d.f.ip6.arpa. The DNS protocol is independent of its Transport Layer protocol. Queries and replies may be transmitted over IPv6 or IPv4 transports regardless of the address family of the data requested. AAAA Record field NAME Domain name

TYPE

AAAA (28)

CLASS

Internet (1)

TTL

Time to live in seconds

RDLENGTH Length of RDATA field

RDATA

String form of the IPV6 address.

IP Addresses Classes
1st Octet Class Decimal Range A B C D E A B C 1 126* 1st Octet Network/Host High Order (N=Network, Bits H=Host) 0 N.H.H.H N.N.H.H N.N.N.H ID Hosts per Default Subnet Number of Network Mask Networks (Usable Addresses) 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 126 (27 2) 16,382 (214 2) 2,097,150 (221 2) 16,777,214 (224 2) 65,534 (216 2) 254 (28 2)

128 191 10 192 223 110 224 239 1110 240 254 1111 10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 172.31.0.0 192.168.0.0 -

Reserved for Multicasting Experimental; used for research Address Range 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 255.0.0.0 255.240.0.0 255.255.0.0

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask

Hosted at Novgorod state University

1. Short for Internet Protocol, IP is an address of a computer or other network device on a network using IP or TCP/IP. For example, the number "166.70.10.23" is an example of such an address. These addresses are similar to an addresses used on a house and is what allows data to reach the appropriate destination on a network and the Internet. There are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses. Below is a listing of these addresses. Class Class Address Range 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.

A Class B 128.1.0.1 191.255.255.254 192.0.1.1 223.255.254.254 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 240.0.0.0 254.255.255.254 to Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.

Class C

to

Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.

Class D Class E

to

Reserved for multicast groups.

to

Reserved for future use, or Research and Development Purposes.

Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for the loopback or local host, for example, 127.0.0.1 is the common loopback address. Range255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network.

IP address breakdown
Every IP address is broke down into four sets of octets that break down into binary to represent the actual IP address. The below table is an example of the IP 255.255.255.255. If you are new to binary, we highly recommend reading our binary and hexadecimal conversions section to get a better understanding of what we're doing in the below charts. IP: Binary value: Octet value: 255 11111111 8 255 11111111 8 255 11111111 8 255 11111111 8

If we were to break down the IP "166.70.10.23", you would get the below value. In the below table, the first row is the IP address, the second row is the binary values, and the third row shows how the binary value equals the section of the IP address. 166 10100110 128+32+4+2=166 70 01000110 64+4+2=70 10 00001010 8+2=10 23 00010111 16+4+2+1=23

Automatically assigned addresses

There are several IP addresses that are automatically assigned when you setup a home network. These default addresses are what allow your computer and other network devices to communicate and broadcast information over your network. Below is the most commonly assigned network addresses in a home network. 192.168.1.0 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.2 192.168.1.3 - 254 192.168.1.255 0 is the automatically assigned network address. 1 is the commonly used address used as the gateway. 2 is also a commonly used address used for a gateway. Addresses beyond 3 are assigned to computers and devices on the network. 255 is automatically assigned on most networks as the broadcast address.

If you have ever connected to your home network, you should be familiar with the gateway address or 192.168.1.1, which is the address you use to connect to your home network router and change its settings.

Getting an IP address
By default the router you use will assign each of your computers their own IP address, often using NAT to forward the data coming from those computers to outside networks such as the Internet. If you need to register an IP address that can be seen on the Internet, you must register through Inter NIC or use a web host that can assign you addresses. Anyone who connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address by their Internet Service Provider (ISP) who has registered a range of IP addresses. For example, let as assume ISP is given 100 addresses, 109.145.93.150-250. This means the ISP owns addresses 109.145.93.150 to 109.145.93.250 and is able to assign any address in that range to its customers. So, all these addresses belong to your ISP address until they are assigned to a customers computer. In the case of a dial-up connection, you are given a new IP address each time you dial into your ISP. With most broadband Internet service providers because you are always connected to the Internet your address rarely changes and will remain the same until the service provider requires it to be changed.

The above picture is taken from our "How do computers connect to each other over the Internet?" document and gives a good overview of how a computer can talk to another computer over the Internet using an IP address

CONLUSION Computers are useless unless they perform some service. Red Hat Linux machines come ready to perform many services, making them powerful choices for Internet application servers. IP addresses and ports form the foundation for these Internet services. To help users, the Domain Name System assigns names to IP address, and Linux itself assigns names to ports. Finally, servers may operate as either standalone or transient; deciding which method a particular server should use is a frequent administrator concern.