Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

Smooth muscle cell

ry"#
i1.:ra

Molecules

't, --,1 1i"Cl

,iir#.

a Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules

Atomsffi
@ Ctremical level
Atoms combine to form molecules

ffifm::r
@ Tissue

level

tlssue

Tissues consist of similar types of cells

.i.i ' --=.

;1".,;:
/A

tptthel
tissue Blood vessel

[$F Smooth

muscle tissue

(organ)

Connective tissue

.k

Cardio- @ Organismal
vascular system

level

Human organisms are made up of many organ systems

@ organ

level Organs are made up of different types

of tissues

Organ system level Organ systems consist oI different organs that work together closely

Sffi4-8ffiffi

t"'{

Levelsof structural organization. ln this diagram, components of the

cardiovascular system illustrate the various levels of structural organization in a human being.

Levels of Structural
1. Why would you have
and understanding physiology if you did not also un-

a hard time learning

0rganization
From Atoms to Organisms
The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity (Figure 1.1). The simplest level of the structural ladder is the cbemical leuel. which we

derstand anatomy?
For the answer, see Appendix D

Cartilages

Joint
Bones

Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; Iocation of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use.to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals.

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.

Pineal gland Brain Sensory receptor Spinal Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland (parathyroid glands on posterior aspect)

Thymus gland

cord
Nerves

Adrenal glands
Pancreas

Testis (male) Ovary (female) Blood vessels

Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body
cells.

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc,; the heart pumps blood.

(Continues on page 6)

Nasal

cavity
Pharynx Larynx

Onat ca'"'ity

Esophagus
Stomach Small intestine Large intestine

Thoracic duct

Trachea Bronchus

Lymph nodes

Left lung

Rectum Anus

Lymphatic
vessels

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disPoses of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity'

Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs

Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter ihe blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are

eliminated as feces.

Mammary

glands
Kidney Ureter Urinary Semtnal Prostate (in breasts) Uterine

gland

vesicles

tube
Ovary Uterus Vas deferens Testis Scrotum Vagina

bladder

Urethra

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood

otfspring. Testes produce overall function of ihe reproductive system is production of of viable in delivery sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid :!":il: I: hormones; remalnlng sex female and produce eggs ovaries female reproductlve tract. glands Mammary fetus of the structures serve as sites for fertilization and development hewborn' the nourish to milk of female breast produce

Ft

{,i S

E 3 .2

{*asztinued} The body's organ systems'

Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

External environment

Maintaining Life
Necessary Life Functions
Respiratory system

Mouth

Digestive

^#L-

116

Circulatory
system

lnterstitial

fluid

Now that we have introduced the structural levels composing the human bodr. a question naturally follows: What does this highlr- organized human body do? Like all complex aninals. hurnan beings maintain their boundaries. mor-e. respond to environmental changes, take in and digeit nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose oi s-astes, reproduce themselves, and gron-. \\-e u-ill discuss each of these necessary life functions brieflr here and in more detail in later chapters. Organ systems do not work in isolation; instead, they work together to promote the wellbeing of the entire body. Because this theme will be emphasized throughout this book. it is worthwhile to identify the most important organ systems contributing to each of the necessary life functions (Figure 1.3). Also, as you read through this material, you may want to refer back to the more detailed descriptions of the organ systems provided on pp. 4 through 7 and in Figure 1.2.

Excretory
system Anus
Nitrogenmetabolic waste

Maintaining Boundaries Every living organism must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its "inside" remains distinct
from its "outside." Every cell of the human body is surrounded by an external membrane that contains its contents and allows needed substances in while generally preventing entry of porenrially damaging or unnecessary substances. The body as a whole is also enclosed by the integumentary system, or skin. The integumentary system protects internal organs from drying out (which n ould be fatal), from bacteria, and from the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an unbelievable number of chemical substances in the external environment.

Unabsorbed
matter (feces)

products (urine)

F lS U ffi E I .3 Examptes of selected interrelationships among body organ systems. The integumentary system protects the body as a whole from the external environment. The digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and oxygen, respectively, which the blood then distributes to all body cells. The urinary and respiratory systems eliminate metabolic wastes from the body.

Movement Movement includes all the activities promoted by

2. At which level of structural organization is the stomach? At which level is a glucose molecule? 3. Which organ system includes the trachea, lungs,
nasal cavity, and bronchi?
For answers, see Appendix D.

the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another (by walking, swimming, and so forth) and manipulating the external environment with our fingers. The skeletal system provides the bones that the muscles pull on as they work. Movement also occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled

16

and Physiology Essentials of Human Anatomy

this figure for a moment to answer muscle or (2) cracked hurt if you (1) pulled a groin
these
Stucly

two questions Where would

you

bone in your olecranal area?

Gephalic CePhalic
Frontal

Orbital Nasal Buccal Oral

Cervical Thoracic
Sternal AxillarY

limb Acrur rrdr ------\ ---___ -Acromial

Upper
Deltoid

._:.,.,

:-. H. ,., ==-i==,.'-:r). ^-^.Back (dOrsal) ----:gsrv;s2|

''

;;;;"

. -\ Aniecubital

,T.

t ' --.--'s:aPurar e.tebral

.
,1,

Olecranal-.-.-.-.---1.-_

Abdominal
Umbilical

Pelvic
:Ei'; j
t
E:i

-?

._ I : / lt';I': .1 ,-.:i Antebrachial-\ (forearm) \lisacral =)--- -L:mbar Carpal tli ,---G'uieal "-t Disitd-- #-#
Coxal (hiP) Femoral Patellar Popliteal Crural
Fi b u
I

Lower limb

lnguinal (groin)

Pubic (genital)

\;,li

ar ----------------

Tarsal (ankle) Calcaneal

!'_=-<

(a) Anteriorly'entral

-_
-l

(b) Posterior/Dorsal

Fgffi#ffi4 t.a

raised slightly to show

ln (b) the heels are Regionalterms: namesof specificbody.areas' plantar surface (sole) of the foot'

tie

inferior

Regional Terms

on the surface of fhere are many visible landmarks proper anatomical the bgdy. Once you know their different ;;;, yor, .un te specific in referring to regions of the bodY'

that describe body landmarks, cover the labels through the list what the structures are' Then go body' p"t"ting out these areas on your own "g",", o abdominal (ab-dom'i-na1): anterior body

Anterior BodY Landmarks following body Look at Figure 1"5a to find the all the anterior regions. Once you have identif,ed

. . o

trunk inferior to ribs acromial (ah-kro'me-u1): point of shoulder forearm antebrachial (an"te-bra'ke-ul): anterior surface antecub ital (an"te-ku'bi-tal): of elbow

&

,o,ur-,

oqp )ouatsod

Lnotr 171

eae Punout )no.

(L)

Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

tnrn $

section type would separate the two eyes?

=a --.-

re'+-l-> @. ' irulg -,-1

=\:,>.-2/7-

(a) Median (midsagittal)

(b) Frontal (coronal) plane

(c) Transverse plane

Heart

'r.

Righl lung

Left

lung

- D. COlUmn t -Vertebral
Y2fi

i."cr-Y lntestines
Rectum
'r,iry

Liver

J-t4

Subcutaneous fat layer

t: i# i.i rq *. 1 . {:; The anatomical position and planes of the body-median, frontal, and transverse with corresponding MRI scans. Diagrams identifying body organs seen in the MRI scans are at the bottom.

f$,

,",1" oA l aql aleLedas plnott uotpes lelltbespttu

t
Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

\t
i

Rioht \

rry"poc116n

rilpochon riac
regron

Right
lumbar

rert

lumbar
lon

Left

iliac

= : G {"J n * i . # Abdominopelvic surface and cavity. (a) The four quadrants. (b) Nine regions delineated by four planes. The superior horizontal plane is at the inferior aspect of the ribs, the inferior horizontal plane is at the superior aspect of the hip bones, and the vertical planes are just medial to the nipples. (c) Anterior view of the ventral body cavity showing superficial organs.

Heart

then simply named according to their relative positions-that is, right upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant
LUQ ). rnd lclt lower quadrant (LLQ ) (Figtrre I .Ba r. Another system, used mainly by anatomists, clivides the abdominopelvic cavity into nine separate regions by four planes, as shown in Figure 1.8b.
(

Although the names of the nine regions are unfamiliar to'you now, with a little patience and study they will become easier to remember. As you locate these regions in the figure, notice the organs they contain by referring to Figure 1.8c.

Large intestine (colon)

Chapter

2: Basic Chemistry

31

Particle Pioton (p+) Neutron

(no)

Position tn al0rn
Nucleus Nucleus Orbitals outside the nucleus

Mass {arnu}

Charge

+
0
/1

Electron (e-)

800

behzrvior of atoms. As illr:strated in Figure 2.1b, the orbit:rl model depicts the general loc:rtion of electrons olrtside the nucleus as a haze of negative charge referrecl to as the electron cloud. Regions

where electrons are most likely to be found are shown by denser shading rather than by orbit lines. Regardless of which model is usecl, notice that the electrons have the run of neady the entire
volume of the atom and cletermine its chemical behavior (that is, its ability to bond with other atoms). Though now consiclered outdated, the planetary model is simple and ezrsy to understand and use. Most of the descriptions of atomic strllcture in this book use that moclel. Hydrogen is the sirnplest atom, with just one proton and one electron. You can visualize the spatial relationships wirhin the hydrogen arom by imagining it enlarged until its cliameter equals the length of a football field. In that case, rhe nucleus could be represented by a lead ball the size of a glrrndrop in the exact center of the sphere ancl the lone electron pictured as a fly buzzing about unpredictably within the sphere. This mental picture should serve to remincl you that most of the volume of an atom is empty space, and most of the mass is concentrated in the central nucleus.

t@l

,/--t-@--\ Nucleus \ /\

\@ \/

I
Helium atom 2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (no)
2 electrons

\_@__-,,

Helium atom 2 protons (p+)

2 neutrons (no) 2 electrons (e-) (a) Planetary model KEY:

(e

(b) Orbital model

@
''
llr

: Proton @: : Neutron :::ii:ti:ii:

i:j
:i:,i

Electron Electron cloud

The structure of an atom. The dense central nucleus contains the protons and neutrons. (a) ln the planetary model of atomic structure, the electrons move around the nucleus in fixed orbits. (b) ln the orbital model electrons are shown as a
. cloud of negative charge.

I fri i-J tq

'!

ldentifying Elements
A11

protons are alike, regardless of the atom being considereci. The same is true of al1 neutrons and ail electrons. So what determines the unique properties of each element? The answer is that atoms of dif-

ferent elements are composed of clffirent numbers of protons, nelltrons, and electrons.
The simplest ancl smallest atom, hydrogen, has one proton, one electron, and no nelltrons (Figure 2.2). Next is the helium atom, with two protons,

two neutrons, and two orbiting electrons. Lithir-rm follows with three protonsl four neutrons, ancl three electrons. If this step-by-step listing of subatomic pafiicles were continuecl, all known atoms coulcl be described by adding one proton and one electron at each step. The number of neutrons is not as easy to pin down, but light atoms tend to have equal numbers of protons and neutrons, whereas in

Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

KEY:

e ::
/"j
1$'

Proton

Neutron Electron

g :

(a) Hydrogen (H)

(1p+; Ono; 1e
)

(b) Helium (He)

(c) Lithium (Li)

)

(2p+,2na;2e

(3p-.4n::3e-)

E# # ffi ffi # . g Atomic structure of the three smallest atoms.

larger atoms neutrons outnumber protons' However, all we really need to know to identify a particular element is its atomic number, mass number, and atomic weight. Taken together, these indicators provide a fairly complete picture of each element'

inclirectly also tells us the number of electrons that atom contains.

Atomic Mass The atomic mass of any atom is the sr'rm of the
masses

Atomic Number
Each element is given a number, called its atomic number, that is equal to the number of protons its

atoms contain. Atoms of each element contain a different number of protons than the atoms of any other element; hence, its atomic number is unique' Because the number of protons is always equal to the number of electrons, the atomic number

of ail the protons and neutrons contained in its nucleus. (The mass of the electrons is so small that it is ignored.) Hydrogen has one bare proton and no neLitrons in its nucleus; so its atomic number and atomic mass number are the satne (1) Helium, with 2 protons ancl 2 neutrons, has a tlzrss number of 4. The atomic mass mutmberis w.ritten as a superscript to the left of the atomic symbol (see the examples in Figure 2.3).

Which of these isotopes is the heaviest?

W#
KEY:

@ = Proton
l'"'a

Neutron @, =

{t

= Electron
HYdrogen (rH) Deuterium (2H) Tritium (3H)

(1p*;Ono;1e

(1p*;1no 1e-)

(1p*;2no;1e-)

flcffinjffiffi x.*

lsotopes of hYdrogen.

Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Fi##ffi# *.S

Chemically inert and reactive

Helium (He)

Neon (Ne)

(lp+',lno;2e-)

(10p*; 1Ono'10e-)

(a) Chemically inert elements

elements. {a) Helium and neon are chemically inert because in each case the outermost valence shell (energy level) is fully occupied by electrons. (b) Elements in which the valence shell is incomplete are chemically reactive and tend to interact with other atoms to gain, lose, or share electrons to fill their valence shells. (To simplify the diagrams, each atomic nucleus is shown as a circle with the atom's symbol rn it; p's and n's not shown.)

(valence shell comPlete)

Hydrogen (H)

Carbon (C)
(6p*; 6no; 6e-)

Oxygen (O)
(Bp*; Bno; Be-)

Sodium (Na)
('1 1

(1p*;0no;1e-)

p*; 1 2no

'1

e-)

(b) Chemically active elements (valence shell incomplete)

positive and negative charges are no longer balanced, and charged particles, called ions, result. \K4ren an atom gains an electron, it acquires a net negative charge because it now has more electrons than protons. Negatively charged ions are more specifically cailed anions. When an atom loses an electron, it becomes a positively charged ion, a cntion, because it now possesses more protons than electrons. (It may help you to remember that a cation is a positively charged ion by thinking of its "t" as a plus [+] sign.) Both anions and cations result when an ionic bond is formed. Because opposite charges atlract, the newly created ions tend to stay close together. The formation of sodium chloride (NaCl), common table salt, provides a good example of

donate its valence-shell electron to chlorine, and this is exactly what happens in the interaction between these two atoms. Sodium chloride and most other compounds formed by ionic bonding fall into the general category of chemicals called salts.

Bonds Electrons do not have to be completely lost or gained for atoms to become stable.
Covalent

Instead, they can be shared in such a way that each atom is able to fill its valence shell at least part of the time.

ionic bonding. As illustrated in Figure

2.5,

sodium's valence shell contains only 1 electron and so is incomplete. However, if this single electron is r(1951" to another atom, shell 2, which contains B electrons, becomes the valence shell; thus sodium becomes a cation (Xa+) and achieves stability. Chlorine needs only 1 electron to fill its valence shell, and it is much easier to gain 1 electron (forming Cl-) than it is to try to "give away" 7. Thus, the ideal situation is for sodium to

Molecules in which atoms share electrons are called coualent molecules, and their bonds are covalent bonds (co : wtth: ualent : having power). For example, hydrogen, with its single electron, can become stable if it fiiis its valence shell (energy level 1) by sharing a pair of electrons-its own and one from another atom. As shown in Figure 2Ja on p. 38, a hydrogen atom can share an electron pair with another hydrogen atom to form a molecule of hydrogen gas. The
shared electron pair orbits the whole molecule and

satisfies the stability needs of both hydrogen atoms. Likewise, 2 oxygen atoms, each with 6 valence-shell electrons, can share 2 pairs of electrons

Chapter

2: Basic Chemistry

37

Sodium atom (Na)

(11

p*; 1 2no;

11

e-)

Chlorine atom (Cl) ('17p*; lBno; '17e )

Sodium ion (Na*)

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

R. S Formation of an ionic bond. Both sodium and chlortne atoms are :^emically reactive because their valence shells are incompletely filled. Sodtum gains s:ability by losing one electron, whereas chlorine becomes stable by gaining one electron. +:ter electron transfer, sodium becomes a sodium ion (Na*), and chlorine becomes a crloride ion (Cl ). The oppositely charged ions attract each other.
FIGU

**

tform double bonds) with each other (Figure 2.7b) to form a molecule of oxlrgen gas (O). A hydrogen atom may also share its electron sr-ith an atom of a different element. Carbon has -i valence-shell electrons but needs B to achieve stability. As shown in Figure 2.7c, when methane (CH4) is formed, carbon shares 4 electron pairs with 4 hydrogen atoms (1 pair with each hydrogen atom). Because the shared electrons orbit and "beiong to" the whole molecule, each atom has a full valence shell enough of the time to satisfy its stability needs. In the covalent molecules described thus far, electrons have been shared eqwally between the atoms of the molecuie. Such molecules are called nonpolar coualently bondecl molecules. However, electrons are not shared equally in all cases. \7hen covalent bonds are made, the molecule formed always has a definite three-dimensional shape. A molecule's shape plays a major role in determining just what other molecules (or atoms) it can interact with; the shape may also result in unequal electron-pair sharing. The following two examples illustrate this principle. Carbon dioxide is formed when a carbon atom shares its 4 valence-shell electrons with 2 oxTgen atoms. Oxlzgen is a very electron-hungry atom and attracts the shared electrons much more strongly than does carbon. However, because the carbon

dioxide molecule is linear (O:C:O), the electronpulling power of one oxygen atom is offset by that of the other, like a tug-of-war at a slandoff (Figure 2.8a). As a result, the electron pairs are shared equally and orbit the entire molecule, and carbon dioxide is a nonpolar molecule. A water molecuie is formed when 2 hydrogen atoms bind covalently to a single oxygen atom. Each hydrogen atom shares an electron pair with the oxygen atom, and again the oxTgen has the stronger electron-attracting ability. Br-rt in this case, the molecule formed is V-shaped (H. .H). The

'

\o/

two hydrogen atoms are located at one end of the

molecule, and the oxygen atom is at the other (Figure 2.Bb). Consequently, the electron pairs are not shared equally and spend more time in the vicinity of the oxlzgen atom, causing that end of the molecule to become slightly more negative (indicated by 6-) and the hydrogen end to become slightly more positive (indicated by b*). In other words, a polar molecule, a molecule with two charged poles, rs formed. Polar molecules orient themselves toward other polar molecules or charged particles (ions, proteins, and others), and they play an important role in chemical reactions that occur in body cells. Because body tissues are 60 to B0 percent water, the fact that water is a polar molecule is particularly significant, as will be described shortly.

Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

+
Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom

(a) Formation of a single covalent bond

eo o3
Oxygen atom
Molecule of oxyger

Oxygen atom

:== :

(b) Formation of a double covalent bond

@
@
H

H-C-H

@
Hydrogen atoms

O
L$

Carbon atom

Molecule of methane gas (CH.)

(c) Formation of four single covalent bonds

Formation of covalent bonds. (a) Formation of a single covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms to form a molecule of hydrogen gas. (b) Formation of a molecule of oxygen gas. Each oxygen atom shares two electron pairs with its partner, thus a double covalent bond is formed. (c) Formation of a molecule of methane. A carbon atom shares four electron pairs with four hydrogen atoms. ln the diagrams of molecules shown in the colored boxes at the far right, each pair of shared electrons is indicated by a single line between the sharing atoms.
F ffi

*#

ffi t. ?

Chapter
Which molecule-(a) or (b)-is a polar moleculeT

2: Basic Chemistry

39

Hydrogen

Bonds Hydrogen bonds are extremely

O:C:O
(a) Carbon dioxide (COr)

H
6+

,zol

6+

(b) Water (HrO)

= I G Ll ffi ffi ffi . # Molecular models illustrating the three-dimensional structure of carbon dioxide and water molecules.

weak bonds formed when a hydrogen atom bound to one electron-hungry nitrogen or oxygen atom is attracted by another electron-hungry atom, and the hydrogen atom forms a "bridge" between them. Hydrogen bonding is common between water molecules (Figure 2.9a) and is reflected in water's surface tension. The surface tension of water "when causes it to "ball up," or form spheres, it sits on a surface and allows some insects, such as water striders (Figure 2.9b), to walk on water as long as they tread lightly. Hydrogen bonds are also important intramolecwlar boncls; that is, they help to bind different parts of the same molecule together into a special three-dimensional shape. These rather fragile bonds are very impoftant in helping to maintain the structure of protein molecules, which are essential functional molecules and body-building materials.

5+

.o

:-Hydrogen .l

bonds

i+l
ill

H++.61./...q-#;:,
6+

(a)

(b)

F lG eJ ffi tr tr. S Hydrogen bonding between polar water molecules. (a) The slightly :ositive ends (indicated by 6+) of the water molecules become aligned with the slightly ^egative ends (indicated by E-) of other water molecules. (b) Water's high surface tension, : result of the combined strength of its hydrogen bonds, allows a water strider to walk on : pond without breaking the surface.

alncalotu telod e st .ialeM

54

Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

DeoxYribose

Phosphate -"1- -

"+"-ffi'
o_H
r

sugar

Adenine (A)

ry (b) Adenine (Diagrammatic rePresentation)

nucleotide

OHH
(a) Adenine nucleotide (Chemical structure)

KEY: Thymine (T)

Deoxyribose sugar Phosphate

Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Sugar

Hydrogen bond

phosphate backbone

f;!ffigJffig2.$StructureofDNA'(a)TheunitofDNA(de-

deoxyribose f*yriUonr.t"ic acid) is the nucleotide, composed of a nitrogen-containing group A ,rgrr tot".ule linked to a phosphate both in its baie is attached to the sugar. The nucleotide illustrated, (a)chemicaland(b)diagrammaticstructures,containsthebaseadenine. molecule-two nucteotide chains coiled into i"i i,rr.rrr" of a DNA ,,backbones,, of DNA are formed by alternating Sugar a double helix. The "rungs" are formed by complementary anO pnosptrate molecules. The bases (A to I G to C) bound by hydrogen bonds'

(c) DNA molecule

their catalltic function. Both events are true of enzymes that promote blood clotting when a blood ..Lsrel has blen damaged. If this were not so, large numbers of unneeded and potentially lethal blood clots,would be formed.

Nucleic Acids The role of nucleic (nu-kle'ik) acids is fundamenbatal: they make up the genes, which provide the what sic blr-reprint of iife. They not only determine your direct also but be, type of organism you will

growth an<l development-and they do this largeiy Ly dictating protein structure. (Remember that enzymes, which catalyze all the chemical reactions that occur in the body, are proteins') Nucleic acids, composed of carbon' oxygen' hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus . atoms, are the lafuest biological molecules in the body' Their buildirig blocks, the nucleotides (nu'kle-o-tidz)' ur. q.rit" complex. Each consists of three basic pn.tr, (1) a nitrogen-containing base, (2) a pentose (5-carbon) sugar, and (3) a phosphate group (Figure 2.79a andb).

Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Adenine

Membrane protetn

fn,

-o

o-ffi-o-@ -O-CH,.l -@ llllll

o-oo lll ooo

,-@-,
I

o o?ffrr\ .o
Solute transported

(a) Transport work

Phosphates

,@.Ribose
OH
OH

(a) Adenosine triPhosPhate (ATP)

.s@@
Relaxed muscle cell

ADP

i\,.! -...'i-

v"t!*-*l

-j nrp

t:,,r'tti"\

i'

(b) Mechanicalwork

ffi-ffi-ffi
L^o
I

ffi@

.m
Product made

Reactants

(c) Chemicalwork
Energy liberated during oxidation of food fuels used to regenerate ATP

ffi-@
Adenosine diphosPhate (ADP)
+

ffi
lnorganic phosphate

(b) Hydrolysis of ATP

sis. (a) The structure of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) (b) Hydrolysis of ATP to yield ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate. High-energy bonds are indicated by a red -.

l#

.i-'

ffi'ff

" ;4

ATP-structure and hydroly-

F*#tJffi# *.tr3 Three examples of how ATP drives cellular work. The high-energy bonds of ATP release energy for use by the cell when they are broken. (a) ATP drives the transport of certain solutes (amino acids, for example) across cell membranes. (b) ATP activates contractile proterns in muscle cells so that the cells can shorten and perform mechanical work. (c) ATP provides the energy needed to drive energy-absorbing chemical reactions. ATP is regenerated (phosphate is bound to ADP) as energy is released bv the oxrdation of food fuels and captured in the ADP-ffiOonO.