Fundamentals of Environment

Unit 1

Unit 1
Structure 1.1 Introduction Objectives

Environment and its Components

1.2 Biotic and Abiotic components of the Earth Role of Abiotic Components Biotic Components Characters of a biotic community Self Assessment Questions 1.4 Earth Sun relations Earths radiation budget Green house effect 1.5 Earths climate Atmospheric circulation Latitude and Elevation Regional climate Self Assessment Questions 1.6 Climate - Biosphere Interaction Tropical rain forests Temperate Deciduous Forests Temperate Evergreen Forests Temperate Grasslands Deserts Self Assessment Questions Page No. 1

Fundamentals of Environment 1.7 Summary 1.8 Glossary 1.9 Terminal Questions 1.10 Answers

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1.1 Introduction
Carcass Dumps are large areas in Northern India where people can bring the bodies of deceased cattle. As cows are sacred to Indians, they are not consumed, not even when they die naturally. In the dumping yards, millions of vultures play a crucial role in disposing of thousands of tonnes of carcasses. Vultures help in maintaining a clean environment and in safeguarding human population, livestock and wildlife from infections and other diseases by the rapid and efficient removal of carcasses. A steady decline in vulture population since late 1990s has left a vast number of carcasses unscavengedliterally piling up corpses in the land. It has taken scientists years to figure out what happened to Indias vulture population. The few remaining vultures were seen to be in poor shape, appearing to be knocking on deaths door themselves. Few specimens of dead vultures could be obtained for examination, but finally researchers had their culprit. Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) is used to treat pain or inflammation caused by arthritis. Recent studies indicate that it is responsible for the devastating decrease in the South Asian vulture population. A three-year study done by the Peregrine Fund and Ornithological Society of Pakistan has revealed that 85 percent of 259 vultures surveyed had died due to a condition caused by renal failure termed as visceral gout. Although Diclofenac was widely used to treat humans, it was launched in the Indian subcontinent veterinary market only in the early 1990s. Diclofenac is cheap and is used for treating pain, fever and inflammation in livestock. As the vultures ate of the dead cows at the carcass dumps, they developed visceral gout. As scavengers, vultures provide important ecological service as they help in rapidly reducing animal carcasses and plants to simpler constituents, Page No. 2

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maintaining the food chain and ecosystem. During the period of 1993-2006, the estimated total cost of the health expenses attributable to vulture declines is a staggering US$ 34 billion. This episode highlights the important fact that human beings are intimately tied to the components of the environment. Like vulture all the components of the environment, irrespective of living or non-living nature, are crucial for our life support system. Objectives After studying this unit you will be able to define the biotic and abiotic components recognize the role of physical abiotic components in life support system explain the relation between sun and earth in terms of radiation and energy budget and greenhouse effect describe the role of solar radiation and atmospheric circulation in regional weather climate distinguish features responsible for micro-climatic variation in earth and climate in relation to biomes of the earth

1.2 Biotic and Abiotic components of earth

Like vultures, bacteria, trees and many more, for our comfortable livelihood many components in the environment do their service. We use many products such as furniture, utensils vehicles for transportation and so on. All these materials come from the environment and are they all interrelated. All the substances present in our earth are the products of interaction between Biotic Components (living things constitute the environment) and Abiotic components (the non-living substances of the environment such as air, water, soil etc.). In our earth, biosphere can be recognised as a thin zone of land, air, and water that is home to all living things on earth where the

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interaction takes place. Biosphere is further classified into small functional units called Ecosystems. In ecosystems, there are biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their abiotic environmental components exchanging energy and matter (Figure 1.1). The ecosystem may also consist of a number of sub-units that are all directly or indirectly related to each other. An open ecosystem freely exchanges matter and energy from outside. But, a closed ecosystem is isolated from outside with respect to exchange of matter. Ecosystems largely differ in their size, composition, structure, etc. However, certain basic structural and functional features, which are common, help in characterisation of ecosystems. The structure of an ecosystem includes composition and organisation of biological societies and abiotic components. Various kinds of ecosystems exist in the biosphere like the forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers, mountains, deserts and estuaries. These ecosystems generally differ in their structural composition and functions.

Role of Abiotic Components in the environment Now let us see some important abiotic components without which our daily activities, life, services and business is impossible. Atmosphere that consists of gases and aerosols provides us with oxygen for our life and Carbon dioxide for the growth of plants. Lower most part of the atmosphere that is primarily responsible for rainfall, temperature changes and climate. All our telecommunication network and technologies is possible only due to the active gaseous ions in the atmosphere. Hydrosphere or the water that covers 71% of the Earth's surface is also significant in climate determination, food supply (fish and other marine organism) and transportation. Lithosphere that refers to the rocks of the Earths surface and upper mantle provides us with minerals, metals and metallic ore. The interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere makes our planet habitable. These spheres are elaborated in subsequent units.

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Apart from the above mentioned factors, many other abiotic components are essential to make life conducive on the earth. The natural factors such as temperature, sunlight and soil are imperious to sustain life on this planet. It took over billions of years for formation of these abiotic factors in the present condition. Any minimal change in their levels would make this earth uninhabitable for living things. Let us see briefly about these factors: Temperature: All biotic life is adapted to live within a relatively narrow range of temperatures and will not thrive if temperatures are colder or warmer. Temperature decides what crop to be grown, what sort industries can thrive in a region etc. Sunlight: Solar energy from sun is the only source of energy to the biosphere. This energy is efficiently captured by plants and converted into products by a process called photosynthesis. All our food directly or indirectly depends on it. The coal or petroleum energy which we extensively use today is the product this process that are captured by ancient plant forms. Soil: Topsoil consists of sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen and other essential minerals for plant growth and agricultural production.

Biotic components Different living organisms constitute the biotic component of an ecosystem and they are classified into the following categories: Producers Consumers Decomposers

Producers: Producers or Green plants that produce food by photosynthesis process are a miracle and even today the underlying mechanism is understood to be complex. None of our modern day technology can capture carbon-dioxide from atmosphere and convert it into energy products. To

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compare with, human designed silicon-based photocells are only 50% efficient and require huge amounts of energy to manufacture. Producers are also known as photo-autotrophs (auto = self, photo = light, troph = food).

Consumers: These organisms feed on other organisms to get their food and they are of the following types: Herbivores These organisms feed on plants. For example, rabbit, deer. Carnivores These organisms feed on herbivores as secondary carnivores (for example, frog, small fish) or tertiary carnivores (for example, snake, big fish), which feed on other consumers. Omnivores These organisms feed on both plants and animals. For example, humans, rats and many birds. Detritivores These organisms feed on dead organisms. For example, earth worm, ants, crab. All of them have their own role in an ecosystem. Decomposers: We dispose our wastes to the environment and forget it. Who takes the role of converting these wastes into useful nutrients and minerals? There are some micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi that while deriving their nutrition break down large complex organic matter into simple inorganic compounds. These micro-organisms play a crucial role in transforming the essential nutrients from unavailable organic form to free inorganic form that can be used by plants. These micro-organisms are widely used in biotech industries for manufacture of several products and also in waste degradation.

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Figure 1.1 Components of an ecosystem (Source: http/www.rbnc.org/schoolunits/terraeco)

Self Assessment Questions 1. Which of following in atmosphere has a role to play in telecommunication technology? (a) Water vapour, (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Ions (d) None of these

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2. Identify which of the following takes part in scavenging and cleansing role in environment? (a) Solar radiations (b) Vultures (c) Soil texture (d) Carbon. 3. The components of earth can be broadly classified as........ and.............. 4. Plants are autotrophs (True/False) 5......... % of earth is covered by water.

1.4 Earth Sun relations

The Earth would simply be a frozen rock stranded in space without the Sun. The Sun keeps the Earth warm and ensures life on the Earth. The Suns energy produces clouds, cleans our water, helps in growth of plants, keeps wildlife and humans warm and drives ocean currents and thunderstorms. In spite of the Suns importance, scientists have only started to study all aspects of it in recent decades. Before 1979, astronomers and Earth scientists did not have exact information on the total amount of solar energy that reaches the earths outermost atmosphere. As clouds and aerosols absorb different amounts of sunlight, the researchers could not precisely measure solar radiation before it reached the Earths atmosphere. In 1978, the Nimbus-7 satellite was launched. This helped us to measure sunlight for the first time without any interference from the atmosphere. The levels of solar radiation before they reached the earths atmosphere were measured using the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) instrument on the satellite. The successive satellite missions have helped scientists to collect detailed information about the sun and solar energy that influences our worlds climate system.

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Earth's Radiation Budget The Earth's Radiation Budget is a concept that helps to clearly understand the amount of heat energy that enters the earth through suns rays and the energy that is radiated back into the atmosphere as invisible light. The earth becomes warm when both the earth and its atmosphere continue to hold more solar energy than they radiate back to space. The earth can become cool when both the earth and the earth-system radiate more energy to space that they receive from the sun. Scientists visualise the Radiation Budget as a see-saw or a balance. If the earth retains more solar energy, the earth becomes warmer and emits more infrared energy. This balances the Earths Radiation Budget. If the earth emits more infrared energy than it absorbs, then the earth becomes cooler. As the earth cools, it emits lesser energy. This change also balances the Radiation Budget. Absorbed sunlight increases the earths temperature and emitted radiation or heat decreases the temperature. When there is a balance between absorbed sunlight and emitted heat, the earths temperature does not vary and the radiation budget is also balanced.

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Figure1. 2. Earths radiation budget (Source: NASA homepage) The earths surface, gases, water vapour and aerosols in the atmosphere absorb the incoming solar radiation. The earths surface, atmosphere, and clouds reflect this incoming solar radiation. The earth-atmosphere system emits the absorbed energy as longwave radiation. The component diagram (Figure1.1) has additional details. The greenhouse effect The earth is not a simple solid ball. A thin layer of air surrounds the earth which is held by gravity and consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78% by volume) and oxygen (21%). These major components are transparent to both the infrared (long wave) radiation and the incoming solar (short wave) radiation emitted upward from the surface of the earth. There are many minor components, mainly water vapour and carbon dioxide, which are largely transparent to the incoming solar radiation, but strongly absorb the infrared radiation emitted from the ground. Water vapour is the most significant component and it is not well mixed and may differ locally from less than 0.01% by volume to more than three per cent. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the next most abundant component which has a long lifetime in the atmosphere and is well mixed globally. Some major trace gases include: Nitrous oxide Methane Ozone Anthropogenic halocarbon compounds including ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons.

These trace gases absorb radiation which is reemitted in all directions, some back towards the surface resulting in a net warming of the surface. Through greenhouse effect, the greenhouse gases trap heat in the near surface layers of the atmosphere and make the earths surface significantly warmer than if there was no greenhouse effect. Figure 1.3 illustrates the

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mechanism of the natural greenhouse effect and its influence on the earths surface and atmospheric temperatures.

Greenhouse gases have many sources, but they can be commonly grouped under the following four forms:

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4) Nitrogen oxides (NO2) Fluorinated gases

These gases comprise about 1% of the earths atmosphere.

Figure 1.3 Greenhouse effect (Source:http://chemlevel2.wikispaces.com/Period+7)

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The different sources of greenhouse gas emission varies over a wide field ranging from power stations, other industrial processes, burning of fossil fuels, domestic activities etc. The burning of fossil fuels like coal in the power plants for generating electricity is a major reason for the emission of gases that cause the greenhouse effect. The burning of fossil fuels results in high emissions of CO2 gas. Methane captures more than 20 times the heat captured by CO2 in the atmosphere. Sources such as bovine flatulence, rice paddies, bacteria in bogs and fossil fuel manufacture produce methane. The major sources of nitrous oxide (N2O) are: Nylon and nitric acid production Cars with catalytic converters Use of fertilizers in agriculture Burning of organic matter

The role of each sector in emission of GHGs have been illustrated in the following diagram 1.4

Figure 1.4 Sources of GHGs emissions Page No. 12

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Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Greenhouse_Gas_by_Sector.png Global Warming In the last century, there has been a significant increase in the average temperature of earth. This increase in temperature is due to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which is termed as Global Warming.

Self Assessment Questions 3. The long wave infrared radiation is received by earth from space Say true or false 4. Pick out the non greenhouse gas a) Methane b) Ozone c) Nitrogen d) CFC 5. _____________percentage of solar energy from sun is absorbed by land and oceans

1.5 Earths climate

The climate system is a complex, interactive system, which comprises land surface, snow and ice, atmosphere, oceans and other water resources and living creatures. Climate is generally explained in terms of the mean and variability of temperature, precipitation and wind over a time period, ranging from months to millions of years. Regional climate refers to the climate where you live and it is the average weather conditions in a place for a period of more than 30 years. The regional climate depends on several factors and they include: The amount of sunlight the region receives The height above sea level The shape of the land

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Fundamentals of Environment The regions closeness to oceans

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Global climate refers to the climate of the whole planet with all the regional differences averaged. The amount of solar energy received and the amount of energy trapped in the system are the two major factors that affect the overall global climate. These amounts of energy vary for different planets. Changes in the weather can happen in a few hours, but changes in the climate take place over a longer timeframe. BOX: 1.1 Temperature driven changes to earth According to a report by the Division of Earth & Life Studies, National Academy of Sciences, USA, each degree Celsius (or 1.8 degrees F) of warming leads to:

5-10% changes in precipitation in a number of regions 3-10% increases in heavy rainfall 5-15% yield reductions of a number of crops 5-10% changes in stream-flow in many river basins worldwide About 15% and 25% decreases in the extent of annually averaged and September Arctic sea ice, respectively

The important factors that determine the patterns of climate on earth include: 1. The strength of the incident solar radiation, which influences the overall temperature of the earth. 2. The orientation of the earths axis and its spherical shape 3. The greenhouse effect of water vapour and other radioactively active trace gases 4. The different physical, chemical and biological processes that occur within the atmosphere-geosphere-biosphere climate system, especially, the global energy balance, the global water cycle, the global carbon cycle and other biogeochemical cycles.

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5. The rotation of the earth which greatly changes the large-scale thermally-driven circulation patterns of the ocean and atmosphere. 6. The distribution of continents and oceans Due to the spherical shape of the earth, the equatorial regions, receive much more solar radiation per unit area than the poles. If each latitude band were individually considered to be in balance with the incoming and outgoing radiation, the equatorial belt would reach temperatures in excess of 100C (373K) around solar noon while the poles would be close to absolute zero (0K or 273C). The atmospheric and oceanic circulations normally transport heat from the equator to the poles. Atmospheric Circulation Both the Earths revolution around the sun and its daily rotation on its own axis determine its climate (figure 1.5). Progression of seasons throughout the Earth away from the equator occurs due to the annual cycle and the inclination of the Earths axis at about 23.5 from its plane of revolution around the Sun. At all times, one or the other pole is inclined closer to the sun except during the spring and autumn equinoxes. The capacity of air to hold moisture decreases when it cools and increases when it warms. Evaporation occurs due to high temperatures near the equator and creates warm and moist air. When this air rises and flows toward the poles, it cools and loses most of its moisture. As a result, most of the precipitation on earth occurs near the equator. This low pressure equatorial area of rising air is termed doldrums and draws air from both north and south of the equator. When the rising air masses reach about 30 north and south latitude, they become cooler, sink and once again get reheated. There is an increase in the evaporative capacity as the air reheats, and it forms a zone of decreased precipitation. The air, as it is still warmer than in the Polar Regions, continues to flow toward the poles. It once again rises at about 60 north and south latitude, and forms an additional zone of high precipitation. The polar front is another low-pressure area at this latitude. A part of this

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rising air flows back to the equator. The remainder continue to flow north and south, descend near the poles and form another zone of low precipitation before returning to the equator.

Figure 1.5 Relationships between the Earth and the Sun greatly influence the nature and distribution of life on Earth in the following ways: (a) A beam of solar energy that is incident on the Earth in the mid-latitudes extends over a wider area of the earths surface than a similar beam that strikes the earth close to the equator. (b) The effect of Earths rotation around the Sun on the climate is profound. The slight tilting of the earths axis in relation to its plane of orbit around the Sun causes the temperatures to change in an annual cycle in the northern and southern hemispheres.

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Figure 1.6 General patterns of atmospheric circulation The general patterns of Earths atmospheric circulation include: (a) The pattern of air movement toward and away from the surface of the earth. (b) The major wind currents across the face of the earth. (Source: http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/sage/oceanography/lesson3/concepts.html) Why are tropical regions warmer? Earth has a great diversity of biomes as its climate changes greatly from place to place. On a given day, Miami, Florida, Delhi, and Maine, often do not have a similar weather Some parts of Earth receive more solar energy than others due to its spherical shape. This variation results in major climatic differences over the earths surface and indirectly contributes to the diversity of biomes. Since the suns rays appear almost perpendicular to regions near the equator, the temperate regions are not as warm as the tropic regions. The angle of incidence of the suns rays near the poles spreads them out over a much larger area, and provides less energy per unit area. ((This is shown in figure1.6).

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Fundamentals of Environment Precipitation

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The condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under gravity results in precipitation. Drizzle, rain, snow, sleet, hail and gravel are the major forms of precipitation. When a local portion of the atmosphere is saturated with water vapour, the water condenses, and precipitation occurs. Precipitation is normally low near 30 north and south latitude, where air is descending and becoming warm. It is relatively high near 60 north and south latitude, where air is rising and becoming cool (Figure 1.7). All the great deserts of the world are located near 30 north or south latitude partly because of these factors. Other major deserts are seen in the interiors of large continents. These regions have limited precipitation due to their distance from the sea, the crucial source of most moisture. BOX 1.2 In 2008, Indian farmers experienced the weakest monsoon in 40 years and so began to pray for rain. The very weak monsoon had resulted in their crops being stricken by drought. The rains that finally came were forceful and continuous. South India received a rainfall that was six times the normal level. The incessant rains caused the worst floods that South India had experienced in more than a century. The weather officials explained that a low-pressure system over the Bay of Bengal was the cause for the heavy rains in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. About 250 people died due to the floods that worsened when officials released water from dams fearing that they might burst. About 2.5 million people were displaced due to the raging floods that destroyed their villages, washed away roads, bridges, crops and livestock. Hence, about 1,500 relief camps were established for these displaced people. This flooding did not surprise the experts who tracked the effects of climate change. The Inter- Government Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted in its fourth assessment report of 2007, that more severe droughts, floods, and storms, would become commonplace in the future. They also predicted that these extreme weather conditions would come close succession and often in the same areas.

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Figure 1.7. Temperature and Precipitation determines the ecosystem types (Source:http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures /kling/ecosystem/ecosystem.html) Mountain ranges interrupt moisture-laden winds from the sea resulting in the formation of deserts. When mountain ranges block the moisture laden winds, the air rises and the moisture-holding capacity of the air decreases. This results in greater precipitation on the windward side of the mountains the side from which the wind is blowing. As the air moves down the other side of the mountains, the leeward side, it becomes warm. Its moistureholding capacity rises and it tends to block precipitation. For example, the eastern parts of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California are much drier than the western parts, and the vegetation also varies. This process is referred to as the rain shadow effect. (figure 1.8). Page No. 19

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Figure 1.8. Rain shadow effect (Source: http://www.theweatherprediction.com/weatherpapers/068/index.html) Regional Climates Four relatively small regions, each situated in a different continent, share a climate that resembles the climate of Mediterranean region. So-called Mediterranean climates are found in portions of Baja, California, and Oregon; in central Chile; in south-western Australia; and in the Cape region of South Africa. The prevailing westerlies blow during the summer season from a cool ocean onto warm land in all of these regions. As a result, the airs moisture-holding capacity increases, the air absorbing moisture and creating hot rainless summers. Such climates are unusual in the world. In the five regions that have a Mediterranean climate, several unique types of animals and plants, which are often local in distribution, have evolved. Due to the prevailing westerlies, the great deserts of the world (apart from those in the interiors of continents) and the regions having Mediterranean climate, are found on the western sides of the continents. In Southern Asia, another type of regional climate is seen. The monsoon climatic conditions that are a characteristic of India and southern Asia occur Page No. 20

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during the summer months. The trade winds blow from the east northeast off the cool land onto the warm sea during the winter. From June to October, as the land gets heated, the air flows in the reverse direction. The winds turn around to blow onto the Indian subcontinent and adjacent areas from the southwest region bringing rain. The duration and strength of the monsoon winds indicate the difference between starvation and food adequacy for hundreds of millions of people in this region every year. Elevation The height above a fixed reference point, normally a reference geoid (a mathematical model of the earths sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface) is the elevation of a geographic location. Temperature also changes with elevation, with higher altitudes becoming increasingly colder. At any given latitude, air temperature decreases by about 6C for every 1000-meter rise in elevation. The ecological outcomes of temperature changing with elevation are similar to that of temperature changing with latitude. Therefore, in North America, a 1000-meter increase in elevation leads to a temperature drop equal to that of an 880-kilometer increase in latitude. This is one factor that has contributed to the occurrence of timberline (the elevation above which trees do not grow) at progressively lower elevations as one goes farther from the equator. Within an ecosystem, climate also changes on a very fine scale. Within the litter on a forest floor, there is a lot of difference in shading, local temperatures, and rates of evaporation from the soil which is called microclimate. These localised climatic conditions can greatly vary when compared to the overhead atmosphere. Straw is evenly spread by gardeners over newly seeded lawns to obtain a moisture-retaining microclimate. Activity 1: What is the elevation of your city from the mean sea level? Also list out the elevation of other neighbouring areas to your city. Discuss how it influences the variation in climate during different seasons. Hint: Refer the sub-section, Elevation.

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Climate - Biosphere Interaction Different environmental factors play a role in determining the occurrence of specific biomes at particular locations. Moisture and temperature are two key parameters that determine ecosystem productivity. Other factors such as soil structure and its mineral composition, or seasonal versus constant climate, are also important. Different places with similar annual precipitation and temperature sometimes support several biomes, and hence other factors must also be important. But, moisture and temperature play a major role in determining the type of biomes that occur in most places. If mountains were not present and if the irregular outlines of continents and different sea temperatures did not cause any climatic effect, each biome would form a uniform belt around the globe, determined mainly by latitude. Actually, the other factors also have a great impact on the distribution of biomes. Distance from the ocean has a crucial effect on rainfall, and elevation impacts temperature. The summits of the Rocky Mountains are covered with a vegetation type that is similar to the tundra which is usually seen at much higher latitude. Biomes Biomes are the regions of our planet that are differentiated by their climate, fauna and flora. There are several ways of categorising biomes. However, the most common elements are: Habitat Climate Biodiversity Animal and plant adaptation Human activity.

There are five major biomes in the world and they are: Page No. 22

Fundamentals of Environment Aquatic Desert Forest Grasslands Tundra

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These biomes are also further divided into many categories and subcategories. In this unit let us study in brief about the following biomes: Tropical Rain Forests Temperate Deciduous Forests Temperate Evergreen Forests Temperate Grasslands Deserts Tropical Rain Forests Rain forests receive 140 to 450 centimetres of rain a year and are the richest ecosystems on earth. At least half of the earths species of terrestrial plants and animals (more than 2 million species!) are found in the rain forests. 1200 species of butterflies are present in one square mile of tropical forest in Rondonia, Brazil. This is double the total number of butterflies found in both Canada and U.S.A. Although the regions of tropical rain forests have diversity in each type of animal, plant, or microorganism, only few human beings live here. There are extensive tropical rain forests in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. But humans are destroying the worlds rain forests. Thousands of species, many of them never seen by humans, are becoming extinct. During our lifetime, we can expect a quarter of the worlds species to disappear with the rain forests. Temperate Deciduous Forests

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In Eurasia, the north-eastern United States and eastern Canada, the factors that support the growth of deciduous (hardwood) forests are mild climates (characterised by cool winters and warm summers) and abundant rains. Deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter. We can find animals such as bears, beavers, deer and raccoons in the temperate regions. The temperate deciduous forests are the remnants of more extensive forests that were spread across Eurasia and North America several million years ago. As a result, the remaining regions in eastern Asia and eastern North America share plants and animals that were widespread in the past. Alligators, for example, are found today only in China and in the southeastern United States. Since the climatic conditions have remained constant in the past, the deciduous forest in eastern Asia is rich in species. Many perennial herbs can be found in temperate deciduous forests. Temperate Evergreen Forests Temperate evergreen forests are seen in regions having cold winters and a strong, seasonal dry period. The pine forests of western United States and oak woodlands of California are examples of temperate evergreen forests. Temperate evergreen forests are found in regions having nutrient-poor soils. Temperate-mixed evergreen forests are located in a broad transitional zone existing between temperate deciduous forests to the south and Taiga to the north. Overlogging has endangered many of these forests, especially in the western United States. Temperate Grasslands Rich grasslands grow halfway between the equator and the poles in temperate regions. In the past, these grasslands were found in most of the interior of North America, South America and Eurasia. When such grasslands are converted for agricultural use, they are often very useful. Prairies, another name for temperate grasslands, initially covered most of the rich agricultural lands in Southern Canada and United States. The roots of perennial grasses penetrate deep into the soil and grassland soils are generally deep and fertile. Many grazing mammals can be found in temperate grasslands. Huge herds of bison and pronghorns lived in the

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prairies of North America in the past. But now, the herds have almost disappeared as most of the prairies have been transformed into the richest agricultural area on earth. Deserts The worlds greatest deserts can be found in the interior of continents. The Sahara is located in the interior of Africa, the Gobi desert in the interior of Asia and the Great Sandy Desert can be found in the interior of Australia. ). We term dry places having less than 25 centimetres of rainfall in a year as deserts. This amount of rainfall is so less that there is sparse vegetation and survival depends on water conservation. Plants and animals restrict their activities to those times of the year when water is available. . As the daytime temperature in the desert is very high, most desert vertebrates have made deep, cool and sometimes moist burrows as their homes. . The desert vertebrates that are active over a greater part of the year come out of their burrows only at night, when temperatures are cooler. Some desert animals like the camels, can drink large quantities of water whenever it is available and thus survive the long, dry periods. Many animals just roam about the desert searching for any seasonal food that may be available in abundance. Self Assessment Questions 6. Temperate Evergreen Forests contain at least half of the earths species of terrestrial plants and animals more than 2 million species Say True or false 7. Evergreen forest plants shed the leaves during summer - Say True or false 8. Precipitation is high in equatorial regions Say True or false

1.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate some important points discussed in this unit

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Environment is the sum total of land, air and water and the interrelationships existing among them and with human beings, other living organisms and materials. The earth presents a mosaic of different combinations of abiotic factors (physical components such as air, water, minerals, nutrients etc.) providing a myriad of habitats for biotic components (living organisms from bacteria to plants to animals). Various factors that determine the climate of a region are the amount and seasonal patterns of the abiotic components of radiant energy (sunlight), water which includes precipitation and humidity, temperature, wind, and ocean currents. These have a significant impact on the biotic elements of ecosystems including the type of species present and population growth. Different environmental factors play a role in determining the occurrence of specific biomes at particular locations Moisture and temperature are two key parameters that determine ecosystem productivity. Different types of biomes are Tropical Rain Forests, Temperate Deciduous Forests, Temperate Evergreen Forests, Temperate Grasslands and Deserts

1.7 Glossary
Biodiversity: degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem (Bio- living, diversity- variety) Biome: Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems Eccentricity: Eccentricity is a measure of the elliptical nature of the earths orbit. The shape of Earth's orbit around the Sun becomes slightly more and then less oval every 100,000 years

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Moisture: Moisture refers to the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts pH: pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a medium

1.8 Terminal Questions

1. Discuss the significance of greenhouse effect. 2. Why are the majority of great deserts located near 30 north and south latitude? 3. What are chemo-autotrophs? 4. Elaborate rain shadow phenomenon? 5. Explain why temperature, precipitation and climate vary across different places in earth? 6. How Indian subcontinent climate is unique compared to the rest of the world?

1.9 Answers
SAQ 1. (c) Air, water, land, materials and living organisms 2. (b) Bacteria 3. False 4. c) Nitrogen 5. 51% 6. False 7. False 8. True

Terminal questions Page No. 27

Fundamentals of Environment 1. Refer section 1.4. 2 The greenhouse effect 2. Refer section 1.5. 3 Precipitation 3. Refer section 1.3.2 Biotic components 4. Refer section 1.5. 3 Precipitation 5. Refer section 1.5. 1 Atmospheric Circulation 6. Refer section 1.5. 4 Regional Climates

Unit 1

Reference Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 8th Edition, Tom L. McKnight & Darrel Hess, 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. A Pearson Company Biology, 6/e, George B. Johnson, Peter H. Raven, Contributors: Dr. Susan Singer, Dr. Jonathan Losos, 2002, 2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education Environmental Science, by G Tyler Miller, Thompson Brooks Cole Environmental science systems and solutions, 4th Edition Michael L. Mckinney, R.M. Schoch, L. Yonavjak, 2006, Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

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