Sulawesi: the Environment, the People and the UCE Project

Tim Babcock, Bruce Mitchell, Baharuddin Nurkin and Susan Wismer

THE UNIVERSITY CONSORTIUM ON THE ENVIRONMENT

n the early days of 1997 a small group of Canadian academics, together with a larger cast of Indonesian colleagues, came together to embark on a complex five-year endeavour we have chosen to call the Project. The purpose of the Project was to strengthen capacity within selected university-based Environmental Studies Centers (ESCs) in the Sulawesi region of Indonesia to train environmental specialists and to conduct high quality research and analysis targeted to specific issues of interest to national and local governments. The Project was a component of the much larger Collaborative Environmental Project in Indonesia (CEPI),1 funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the goal of which was to strengthen capacity at the national and sub-national levels in Indonesia to ensure the effective implementation and promotion of sound environmental policies and programs.2 Officially, the Project which is the subject of this book was labeled the Education and Training Program of the CEPI Project, one of three parallel and loosely linked CEPI programs operating under the aegis of the Indonesian State Ministry of the Environment and the Environmental Impact Management Agency, BAPEDAL.3

The Canadian academics were, for the most part, senior professors at York University in Toronto and the University of Waterloo. The two universities had constituted a legal entity known as the

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

University Consortium on the Environment (UCE), which had undertaken similar work in Java and Bali (1989-1996) under another CIDA-funded project, the Environmental Management Development in Indonesia (EMDI) project (discussed further below). The three Indonesian universities which had collaborated with UCE under the EMDI project - Gadjah Mada University (UGM) in Yogjakarta, the University of Indonesia (UI) in Jakarta, and the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) - continued to be supporting partners during the new Project (also known as UCE2), but the major capacity building focus was on the four provincial universities in the Sulawesi region, an area of special interest to CIDA since the early 1970s. The four universities were Hasanuddin University (UNHAS) in Makassar, South Sulawesi; Haluoleo University (UNHALU) in Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi; Tadulako University (UNTAD) in Central Sulawesi; and Sam Ratulangi University (UNSRAT) in Manado, North Sulawesi.4 In the following sections of this Introduction we review the origins of the Project particularly in terms of Canadian involvement with capacity building and related development activities in Sulawesi, present some general background information on the Sulawesi region, discuss perspectives on capacity development which underlay the Project, and outline the structure and main themes of the book. A more detailed discussion of the goals, objectives, outputs and outcomes of the Project is presented in Chapter 2.
CANADIAN DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN SULAWESI, AND THE ROLE OF CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES

Official Canadian development assistance to Indonesia went into high gear, relative, that is, to overall Canadian aid spending worldwide, in the early 1970s. At that time, the Indonesian Directorate of City and Regional Planning (Direktorat Tata Kota dan Tata Daerah, Department of Public Works) had requested support from

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

various international donor agencies to fund a series of regional development planning studies, and Canada, through CIDA, agreed to co-finance studies in Sulawesi and Eastern Indonesia5. The Sulawesi study, carried out between 1976 and 1979, was implemented, on the Canadian side, by a multidisciplinary team of specialists recruited and managed by the University of British Columbia. This project marked the beginning of Canadian development assistance to Sulawesi, and was also the first of a series of projects in Sulawesi either designed and proposed by, or in other cases simply managed and implemented by, Canadian universities. It produced a comprehensive assessment of potentials for enhanced socioeconomic development in the region, based on appropriate utilization of local natural resources, and most notably proposed a model of integrated (multisectoral) rural area development. Five years later the regional development study formed the basis of a decade of CIDA aid in the form of the Sulawesi Regional Development Project, focusing on rural development and capacity building in planning agencies in the four provinces, and with assistance by teams of advisors contracted and managed by the University of Guelph (1984-1994). Among other initiatives undertaken by that project, concepts and methods of sustainable development planning were introduced to local planning agencies (Cummings, 1993a). During this period, Guelph also received funding from CIDA for a twinning project with Hasanuddin University to develop a post-graduate program in natural resources management. From the mid 1980s to 2002, as well, CIDA contracted Simon Fraser University to manage a large-scale university development project in Eastern Indonesia that worked intensively to develop basic sciences at, among others, Sam Ratulangi and Haluoleo Universities. One important component of the later phase of this project was Education for Sustainable Development, a program whereby environmentally-oriented teaching modules were developed for inclusion in basic science courses (the ESC at UNHALU played a significant role in the development of this

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

material). The origins of the UCE Project which is the subject of this book, however, lie largely within the Environmental Management Development in Indonesia (EMDI) project. This project, which lasted from 1983 to 1996, was Canadas largest and most sustained form of assistance to the early development of environmental management in Indonesia, and was a key element in the building of capacity in the relatively young Indonesian State Ministry of the Environment. Under the management of Dalhousie University, the EMDI project provided various forms of assistance to a small number of Environmental Studies Centers throughout Indonesia, including Hasanuddin University.6 Rodger Schwass, Dean of Environmental Studies at York University, and Len Gertler, Professor and Director of Planning at the University of Waterloo, worked together under EMDI to assess the capacity of ten of the relatively new Environmental Studies Centers across Indonesia.7 Through this work they came to know each other, as well as other EMDI advisors hired by Dalhousie: some of these individuals later became key participants in the group of private companies that formed CANORA. In this manner relationships were established which contributed to mutual understanding of and respect for what York and Waterloo could offer. The University Consortium on the Environment was formed during the second phase of the EMDI project, to work in Java and Bali as a part of EMDI, with the three major Java-based ESCs mentioned above. The CEPI project grew directly out of EMDI, and had a major focus on Sulawesi. UCE, recognized for its effective work with Java-based universities, was invited to continue its capacitystrengthening initiatives with university-based ESCs, and to do so in Sulawesi as one component of the CEPI Project. It is not surprising, then, given this background, that the Project which is the focus of this book was directed towards

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

Sulawesi, and that it involved Canadian universities. Canadian universities were seen to have the capacity to provide the necessary knowledge and skills to implement the Project, and were able to bring to bear invaluable experience gained from working elsewhere in Indonesia, and to a certain extent in Sulawesi itself.8 When CIDA conducted an inception mission to Indonesia in July - August 1996, Ted Spence, a member of the Faculty of Environmental Studies at York University, participated on the team, along with individuals from the private companies which had formed CANORA. Thus the first steps in the York-Waterloo involvement in the new program of UCE activities in Sulawesi, under the CEPI project, were embarked on.
THE SULAWESI REGION OF INDONESIA A Brief Biophysical Description

Like the petals of a windblown orchid, the unruly peninsulas of Sulawesi reach out into the Celebes, Molucca, Banda, and Flores seas. Within its odd, dancing outlines the product of the collision of ancient continents - are found extraordinary landscapes. Rugged mist-covered mountains, primal tropical jungle, emerald-green rice terraces and deep, mysterious lakes dominate the interior. Along the coast, dazzling coral reefs encircle dormant volcanoes that jut dramatically out of the sea. Stretches of white sandy beach fringed with coconut trees and scattered fishing villages are flanked by rugged limestone outcroppings that might have stepped out of a Chinese painting (Volkman, 1990b:15). Among the five largest islands of Indonesia, Sulawesi - once known in the West as Celebes - stands out for its unique K shape. According to a recent inventory, based on satellite imagery provided by LAPAN (the Indonesian Aeronautics and Space Agency), 17,506 islands have been identified in the archipelago that forms

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

the republic of Indonesia, with Sulawesi lying at roughly the midpoint of this widely scattered group of islands (Kompas, 2003). Although geographically located at the center of the archipelago, for political and economic development reasons Sulawesi is designated a part of the Eastern Indonesia region. The Sulawesi region is actually not one but a collection of islands, with its own small archipelagoes extending in the north to the Philippines and in the south far into the Flores Sea. It has a total land area of 189,216 km2 or about 10 percent of the total land area of Indonesia, ranking third in size after Kalimantan (Borneo) and Sumatra (see Maps 1 and 2). Donner (1987) describes Sulawesi as emerging from the deep sea in ancient times. Structurally and geologically, the northern part of the island is linked to the Philippines. Although the extreme south reveals elements of the Sunda mountain system, the island is considered the southern limit of the Samar arc of the Philippine archipelago. According to Whitten (1990a), the two eastern arms of Sulawesi were once part of New Guinea, from which they separated some 15 million years ago to collide and join eventually with what became, after a certain amount of rotation, the other two peninsulas of the island. The island is characterized by rugged terrain with steep slopes, where more than 50 percent of the land lies at altitudes more than 500 m above sea level. Therefore lowlands suitable for intensive crop agriculture and settlement are limited and found mainly along the coasts, near rivers and around lakes. The coastline is almost 4,800 km in length, a product of the islands unusual four-armed shape. The presence of mountains, hilly karsts, lakes and wetlands and a long coast line offers a wide variety of land uses such as exist today and for further development of agriculture and aquaculture, recreation and tourism, and the livestock industry. Parts of Sulawesi consist of fragments of the old Sunda land mass mainly formed of granite material and belonging to the East Asiatic system. In some areas such as the Maros and Pangkajene

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

districts north of Makassar, limestone mountains with karst topography form a most impressive panorama. There are eleven active volcanoes in Sulawesi, many of them in the Minahasa region of the northern peninsula (e.g. Mt. Soputan, 1,661 m). Several mountains with summits above 3,000 m occur in the central part of the island; of these Mt. Rantemario (3,440 m) is the highest. The suns position governs the two distinct seasons, the dry and the rainy. When the Australian continent receives maximum solar radiation between September and March, the Asian and European land masses are relatively cool. Strong air movements then develop and traverse the equator at a great height, cooling as they descend on the northern land masses. After blowing back across the equator, the cold air becomes warmer and gradually stores water. Heavy rains then occur in large parts of Sulawesi. From March to September the Australian continent cools off and causes dry air from the southeastern parts to blow towards Indonesia. During this time regions of Sulawesi located closer to Australia, including much of South and Southeast Sulawesi, experience a dry season. The average annual rainfall in the region is about 2,000 mm but in some places exceeds 3,500 mm. These climatic characteristics provide suitable conditions for the formation of a variety of tropical vegetation types. Typical humid or moist forests occur in the northern part of island, in Minahasa, Toli-Toli and the western part of Gorontalo. Similar natural forests also occupy the northern region of Southeast Sulawesi, the eastern part of Central Sulawesi and the northern region of South Sulawesi. Monsoon forests are mainly distributed in South Sulawesi, the southern part of Southeast Sulawesi and the islands of Buton and Muna (see Maps 3, 4, 5 and 6). The fauna of Sulawesi reflect the influences of both mainland Asia and the Australian continent. Wallaces Line, named for the great British naturalist of the nineteenth century Alfred Russell

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

Wallace, runs between Sulawesi and Kalimantan to the west and marks a general distinction between the birds and mammals of the two regions, although much less so for plants (Whitten, 1990b:20) (see Figure 22.1, p.585). Particularly notable are such endemic species as the endangered anoa (Bubalus depressicornis, a miniature water buffalo), the vulnerable pig-like babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa), the threatened Spectral Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum, one of the worlds smallest primates), four species of macaques and the marsupial kuskus (Phalanger ursinus or Ailurops ursinus). The unique maleo bird (Macrocephalon maleo) occurs only in Sulawesi, and is endangered. It exists only in limited numbers due to a combination of habitat degradation and illegal hunting. If no effective protection measures are taken immediately, continuing scarcity or even the disappearance of these endemic and unique wildlife species will result, and they will remain alive only in memory (Whitten et al., 1987; Kinnaird, 1995).
The Peoples of Sulawesi and their Relations with the Environment

The earliest evidence of human habitation in Sulawesi dates to roughly 30,000 years BCE (compared to 1,000,000 years in Java; Bellwood, 1990:24; see also Bellwood, 1997 for a detailed survey of the prehistory of the region). The current indigenous population of Sulawesi, though exhibiting a great degree of ethnic diversity, is largely of the same Austronesian (formerly Malayo-Polynesian) stock that populates most of Western and Central Indonesia, and to a lesser extent the Eastern region, as well as the Philippines to the north. All of the numerous indigenous languages of Sulawesi, too, are Austronesian, many more closely related to the languages of the Philippines than to those of Western and Central Indonesia. The Bugis, whose homeland is in the fertile plains of South Sulawesi, are the largest ethnic group in Sulawesi, and have for centuries traveled far afield in their famed sailing boats to trade and establish settlements, and kingdoms, along the coasts of eastern Sumatra, Kalimantan and the Malay Peninsula.9 Other major groups include the Makassarese, Mandar and Torajans in South Sulawesi,

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Minahasans or Manadonese in North Sulawesi and the Butonese of island Southeast Sulawesi. All over Sulawesi, too, but particularly in Central Sulawesi, are found numerous small, scattered upland or interior ethnic groups. The sociocultural and political distinction between the settled, civilized coastal and plains dwellers, thriving on wet rice agriculture and trade, and the unruly, unsettled, uncivilized and primitive (and often either invisible, ignored or exploited) upland peoples, depending on supposedly unproductive and destructive slash and burn farming systems, is an important one in understanding the dynamics of history, and human-environment relations, in Sulawesi, to the present day (see Henley, 1989; Li, 1999). The coastlines of Sulawesi are dotted with settlements of the marine-oriented Bajo (Bajau, Sama), frequently dwelling in houses built on stilts over the water. In all provinces, too, can be found agricultural settlements established by transmigrants from Java, Bali, Lombok and East Nusa Tenggara, largely with government funding but not uncommonly, in the more fertile areas, self-funded. Transmigrants, some of whose settlements date to late colonial times, formed up to five percent of the population of Central and Southeast Sulawesi by the mid 1980s (Babcock, 1986; Babcock and Cummings, 1984), and by 1998 probably made up a fifth of the population of Central Sulawesi.10 Ethnic diversity is further enhanced by the presence of substantial numbers of people of Chinese descent, mainly in the larger cities and towns, as well as smaller numbers of people of Arab descent (originally from the Hadhramaut region of present-day Yemen). Some 80 percent of the population of Sulawesi is Muslim.11 Of the remainder, Christians, of a great many denominations, form the largest group and are particularly concentrated in Minahasa (North Sulawesi), Poso (Central Sulawesi), and Tana Toraja (South Sulawesi).12

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

Well before the arrival of Dutch traders in the early 1600s, the peoples of the coastal plains of southern Sulawesi were organized into a number of trade-based kingdoms; Buton in southeastern Sulawesi was also the center of a far-flung empire. Elsewhere in Sulawesi, particularly in more remote upland areas, people lived in hamlets or small communities with little in the way of large political groupings, though along the coasts, petty states, often under the influence of the larger southern kingdoms, also existed. Makassar, the port city of the great twin kingdom of GowaTallo, had become during the 16th century an important trading center for the international spice trade, with resident buyers from European countries and India purchasing clove and nutmeg originating from the Spice Islands to the east. To gain a monopoly over this trade, the Dutch East India Company conquered the portcity in 1666, having just a decade or so earlier established themselves in the Manado region as well. Over the succeeding centuries the Dutch only gradually established control, and administration, over other parts of Sulawesi, the final push for complete control dating, as in the rest of the Dutch East Indies, to 1905. After the Japanese occupation during World War II came to an end in 1945, Sulawesi became part of the Dutch-created State of East Indonesia (with Makassar as its capital) within a federal republic united with the Netherlands, but was dissolved into the unitary republic in 1950, as a separate province. Regional revolts, directed in part against central government control over local natural resources, caused chaos throughout both northern Sulawesi (the Permesta Revolt; see Harvey, 1977) and southern Sulawesi (the Darul Islam rebellion; see Harvey, 1974; 1985). A major result of the civil war that ended only in the mid 1960s was the destruction, or deterioration through neglect, of much of the physical infrastructure in Sulawesi. Development programs in the early years of the New Order government of Soeharto thus concentrated on the rehabilitation of previously existing roads, bridges and irrigation

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systems. Subsequent economic development programs first focused on supporting intensive wet rice cultivation through the BIMAS program of green revolution technology, and later on the promotion of industrial (or estate or tree) crops, such as clove and coconut (grown mainly by smallholders). Meanwhile, valuable Sulawesi hardwood began to be exploited on a large scale through the granting of timber concessions by the central government to politically well-connected individuals.13 Sulawesi had an estimated population of 14.4 million at the time of the 2000 census, just over 7 percent of the countrys total population (estimated at 201 million; Suryadinata et al., 2003:3), with an overall annual growth rate of 2.39 percent (compared to the national figure for the period 1990-2000 of 1.35 percent). The overall population density was approximately 75 people per square kilometer, with a range from 32 in Central Sulawesi to 143 in North Sulawesi; at the same time, the national average was roughly 106, with a high of 946 in Java (BPS, 2000). Particular areas of dense population are those close to Makassar City14 in South Sulawesi and in the Minahasa district (kabupaten) of North Sulawesi where areas of intensive agriculture are supported by fertile soils derived from volcanic materials. Split into North and South Sulawesi in 1960, the region was further divided into North, Central, South and Southeast Sulawesi in 1963. With the rapid devolution of central government powers to the region in the wake of the downfall of Soeharto, a fissiparous process aimed at creating new provinces, districts, subdistricts and villages has been noted all across the country. In 2001 the relatively small Gorontalo region (population roughly 830,000) split from North Sulawesi to become the fifth province of Sulawesi, and movements exist to support the formation of separate provinces in western and eastern Sulawesi, as well. As in most other regions of Indonesia, agriculture is the basis of the economies of most rural areas. Archaeological evidence for rice cultivation in Sulawesi dates back to around 500 CE

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

(Bellwood, 1990). Production of rice as a main crop is determined by the availability of suitable land and irrigation water. Intensive paddy fields are found mainly in lowland areas close to coastal regions or lake areas with level land. In some upland areas, particularly in South Sulawesi, rice is grown in paddy fields constructed on terraces. Elsewhere upland rice is grown on swidden fields in rotational (shifting or slash and burn) cultivation systems. These ancient, extensive multi-crop farming systems are coming under increasing threat from widespread cutting of forests by timber companies, from the establishment of protected conservation areas and from settlement expansion, reducing the amount of land available for long-term rotations. South Sulawesi leads the other provinces by far in rice production and is the second largest producer in Indonesia. Surplus rice is sold to other provinces, mainly in Eastern Indonesia and Kalimantan. Sulawesi, particularly Minahasa and some kabupatens in Central and South Sulawesi, was well known for copra production during the 1950s and 1960s. The commodity was mainly sold abroad for foreign exchange. Another important industrial crop closely identified with Sulawesi is clove, grown by small-holders most famously in the Minahasa district of North Sulawesi but also in upland areas in South and Central Sulawesi, and much used in the manufacture of Indonesias kretek cigarettes. Since the early 1990s, the region has experienced a cacao boom. Cacao has become the main agriculture export commodity and South Sulawesi is the largest cacao producer in Indonesia. Coffee is another important crop in certain areas (often labeled Kalosi coffee, after a place in South Sulawesi adjacent to Tana Toraja kabupaten where in fact more of it is grown.) . The prices of these commodities are all closely linked to the sometimes wild fluctuations of world markets, and to equally wild fluctuations in exchange rates: many fortunes have been made - and lost - both by farmers and traders who deal in these crops. These high-value export crops helped to protect rural livelihoods in particular areas when the

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Asian economic crisis hit the country in 1997. But crop fevers have also led to large movements of migrants from one part of the island to another in search of suitable land, and to ensuing ethnic tensions that in certain areas, in particular in Poso kabupaten of Central Sulawesi, have led to large-scale loss of life in recent years (see Li, 2002 and elsewhere for a discussion of the case of cacao in Sulawesi.) Forests and marine resources have been another key basis of resource development and a traditional source of livelihood. As in many other developing countries, and certainly in many other parts of Indonesia, inappropriate utilization of these resources has produced severe environmental consequences. Private sector economic development, as well as large populations dependent on the agriculture sector for their livelihood, have tended to accelerate overexploitation of forest resources, unsuitable agriculture land management and depletion of fish stocks. As in many other parts of Indonesia, forest degradation is the most serious threat to environmental integrity in many areas (see Chapter 17 by Nurkin in this book). The diminishing forest area and changes in stand quality and composition have altered and decreased the area of wildlife habitats, reduced stream flows, degraded water quality and increased rates of water loss and, increasingly, of flooding during the wet season. These problems are in part attributable to the large numbers of land-hungry farmers clearing steeply sloping forested land for agriculture expansion both for subsistence as well as for commercial crops. Unsustainable timber harvesting on a large scale has also been a significant contributor to this phenomenon. The relative importance of each of these two factors, however, is the subject of some debate. Destruction of mangrove forests (in large part to provide areas for brackish-water aquaculture) and of coral reefs (mainly through the use of chemicals and bombs to stun high-value fish being caught for the export market) is common in most coastal regions of

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

Sulawesi (Tomascik et al., 1997; Rahmat, 2000; Operation Wallacea, 2001; Rizal, 2002). Besides impairing the integrity of coastal and marine ecosystems the degradation of these resources threatens fisheries as a main source of affordable protein for coastal communities. Among other important natural resources minerals play a major role in a small number of areas of Sulawesi. Most notable are the nickel mines in the Soroako area of South Sulawesi, exploited since the late 1960s by INCO (see Robinson, 1986 for a discussion of the impacts of INCO mining operations on local communities in the area.) Copper has been mined in the Gorontalo area, asphalt on Buton Island in Southeast Sulawesi, limestone for cement production in the vicinity of Makassar, and more recently gold, mined on a commercial scale as well as by thousands of illegal individual miners mainly in North Sulawesi, again with severe environmental consequences. In recent years, too, explorations for oil have been undertaken. Any survey of economic activities - in particular as related to the environment - must also take note of tourism, including local/domestic recreational activities, a phenomenon of increasing importance in specific areas since the discovery of the magnificent Tana Toraja highlands by European tourists in the 1960s and the similar discovery of the Bunaken coral reefs off Manado in the 1980s. Most of this tourism is based on enjoyment of natural scenic beauty, and to some extent on endemic wildlife, whether on land or under water, and in the case of Tana Toraja in particular on various aspects of local culture (Adams, 1984; Volkman, 1987; 1990a; Volkman and Caldwell, 1990). Environmental degradation in particular of the world class coral reefs - would have an irreparable impact on tourism in the region (on the case of coral reefs, see Rahmat, 2000; Lee, 2000; Elliott, 2000; Elliott et al., 2001; Pangemanan, 2001). Mention must also be made of the important role of maritime trade and transport - Bugis,

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Makassarese, Mandar and Butonese people in particular have been renowned boatbuilders and seafarers since ancient times, and still ply the waters of the archipelago with large sailing vessels, although most of these today are either machine-assisted or completely run by mechanical power. Today, too, many other branches of the service sector have become increasingly important as economic activities. Most industry in the region is devoted to secondary processing of natural resources and agricultural products. The promotion of regional development during the 32 years (1966-1998) of Soehartos Orde Baru (New Order) regime throughout Indonesia resulted in industrial growth and urban expansion. Concerns related to these phenomena include increasing levels of air pollution in urban areas, solid waste disposal and stream water pollution. Pollution problems were largely confined to the major cities of Makassar and Manado but are becoming common in smaller urban areas such as Kendari, Pare-Pare and Gorontalo City, too. Increasingly, agriculture-based pollution, derived from inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides and leading to eutrophication of nearby lakes and threats to the health of humans and wildlife, has become an issue of concern to environmentalists (Baltzer, 1990; Giesen et al., 1991). As alluded to above, perhaps the major social problem related to environmental issues is conflict over land use, and more generally over control and access to natural resources (see Li, 1991; Aragon, 2001; Human Rights Watch, 2002; STORMA, 2002; 2003; and Li, n.d.). Many cases of conflict between local communities and private-sector developers or government authorities have arisen over such issues as the siting of electric power plants, dam construction (Li, 2000), demarcation and regulation of national parks and conservation areas, real estate expansion, timber concessions and large-scale private cash crop plantations. The issues surrounding these conflicts are complex, with social, cultural, economic and political aspects; many chapters in this book touch on some of

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

these. In this connection it is important to note the increasingly widespread existence of NGO-led environmental activism all over Sulawesi. NGOs saw their earliest development in the 1980s, at a time when international donors began to make substantial amounts of aid available to them, and have taken great advantage of the considerably expanded democratic space available to them with the demise of the Soeharto regime. Fundamentally, NGOs are concerned with the relations between communities and the environment in which they are located, and with establishing more just and fair processes of decision-making, among the various stakeholders involved, redressing the balance of power that has long favored the government and the private sector. Good environmental governance, which is at the heart of this movement, is now clearly on the sociopolitical agenda, and will be a major issue to grapple with in the decades to come.15
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND ENHANCEMENT: THE PROJECT THEME

The UCE Project was an endeavour to address some of the environmental management issues identified above through an institutional and capacity development approach. A key aspect regarding institutional development is the capacity of public agencies, private firms, nongovernmental organizations and community groups to identify problems, assess alternative approaches, design a solution and take action. Institutional arrangements are but one component in any system for resource and environmental management. By the late 1980s, and certainly by the 1990s, capacity building had become a central concept in development programs being offered from developed countries, and Canada has been no exception. Increasingly, Canadian institutions such as CIDA and IDRC have oriented many of their programs to improve human and institutional capacity in developing countries, and a significant portion of such initiatives has focused upon environmental problems. In this section, attention is given to outlining the understanding of capacity development to which the participants in the Project broadly subscribed.

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Capacity building has been defined and interpreted in various ways. Cohen (1995:408) concluded that Perhaps no concept ... is as carelessly used as is capacity building. .... Over the past few years the concept has been diluted by definitional expansion. In his view this dilution has led to conceptual chaos. While conceptual chaos is not usually helpful, it should also be recognized that standardized definitions are not always desirable either. As Catlett and Schuftan (1994:168) have observed, No recipe, standard framework or set of principles can be advocated to ensure the sustainability of institutional change. Each individual circumstance warrants a unique approach. Their comment highlights the importance of being able to custom design capacity-building initiatives with regard to the context and needs of a host country, its organizations and its people (Welles, 1995). Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to believe that generic issues exist and deserve consideration in most capacity-building exercises, even if specific actions may vary from case to case. The interpretation of capacity building used by UCE follows suggestions from both Grindle and Hilderbrand (1995:441-463) and from Cohen (1995:407-422). Cohen (1995:409) urged a return to a well established and narrow definition of capacity building, as expressed in the Dictionary of Public Administration: Capacity building ... includes among its major objectives the strengthening of the capability of chief administrative officers, department and agency heads, and program managers in general purpose government to plan, implement, manage or evaluate policies, strategies, or programs designed to impact on social conditions in the community. This definition is appropriate as long as attention also is given to environmental, economic and cultural conditions in communities, and the targets are extended explicitly to include people involved in research and education activities in universities (Currey, 1993; Biswas, 1996; Hartvelt, 1996). Also useful is Grindle and Hilderbrands (1995:455) definition of capacity as the ability to perform appropriate tasks effectively, efficiently and sus-

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

tainably. This definition requires elaboration regarding what are appropriate tasks, and they suggest that such tasks are defined by necessity, history or situation in specific contexts. Their viewpoint reinforces the position accepted in this chapter that tasks must be specified and assessed for their appropriateness within a given country (Grindle and Hilderbrand, 1995:445). In the mid 1990s CIDA formulated its thinking on capacity development, and adopted the following definition: a process by which individuals, groups, organizations and societies enhance their abilities to identify and meet development challenges in a sustainable manner. Further, a CIDA operational guide for program managers, prepared in 2001, defined capacity as the abilities, skills, understandings, attitudes, values, relationships, behaviors, motivations, resources and conditions that enable individuals, organizations, networks / sectors and broader social systems to carry out functions and achieve their development objectives over time. The operational guide is based on seven principles: local ownership, meaningful participation / partnership, understanding the context, a complex mix of internal and external factors, a systems perspective, an iterative and flexible approach, and a long term commitment (all quotations from Larouche, 2002, Chapter 3). To differing degrees these principles underlay much of what UCE attempted to do in Sulawesi, and are a useful guide in assessing the UCE experience in assisting capacity development in Indonesia. During the mid to late 1990s, the term capacity enhancement became preferred to capacity building. The distinction is based not just on academic refinement. The concept of capacity enhancement starts from the position that capacity always exists in an individual, community, group or system, and therefore a key task is first to assess existing capacity, and then determine what might be done to enhance or improve it. In contrast, capacity building may imply that no capacity already exists, which in many

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ways is presumptuous, and certainly inappropriate if it leads development practitioners to begin their activities without taking time to determine which capacity is already in place (Eade, 1997:3). Although the term capacity building was frequently used throughout this Project, this was done primarily to be consistent with the terms of reference for the Project approved by CIDA. Notwithstanding these terms of reference, participants strived to operate from a capacity enhancement perspective. In that context, it was recognized that opportunities usually exist to enhance capacity at many levels, including, in the case at hand, individuals, the Environmental Studies Centers, faculty members in various academic departments at the Sulawesi partner universities, individuals working in government departments and NGOs, as well as their organizations as a whole, and local communities. As a result, many of the Project activities were designed to enhance capacity for more than one group. Chapter 3 of this book develops these ideas further and presents a more detailed picture of how they were transformed into programs of collaborative activities and of what results were achieved. Chapters 3 and 4 provide some reflections on lessons learned.
PURPOSE, STRUCTURE AND THEMES OF THE BOOK

The proponents of this book had three main purposes in mind when they began discussions that eventually led to its preparation. First of all, it was intended to document the experiences and lessons learned from UCEs work in capacity development for environmental management in Indonesia. Some of the approaches attempted during the Project were innovative, at least in the local context, and have potential applicability in other areas: it was felt that these should be shared with a wide audience. Second, the book was intended to provide a stimulus, and a vehicle, for Indonesian colleagues, mainly in Sulawesi, to increase their experience with the production and successful publication of scientific articles internationally. This was considered particularly important since Indonesia ranks very low in terms of volume of international scientific pub-

22

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

lishing activity (p.c. Prof. Jajah Koswara, Directorate-General of Higher Education, Jakarta 1998). Third, it was planned that the book would contribute to a greater understanding of the environment and issues of natural resource management in one area of the fourth most populous nation of the world, Indonesia. Thus, the book would not only review the experiences of doing institutional capacity development in a particular setting but also present some of the concrete results of that activity. The need for such a volume is further justified by the lack of book-length publications which describe and analyze particular development projects, the challenges they face, the results they achieve and the lessons learned along the way. Perhaps one of the best such analyses is Norman Uphoffs Learning from Gal Oya (1992). Others, such as James Fergusons The Anti-Politics Machine (1994) and Robert Klitgaards Tropical Gangsters (1991), present severe critiques of, in the former case, large-scale multidonor development enterprises in Lesotho and, in the latter, a oneperson development assignment in Equatorial Guinea (see also Raper, 1970 and Zandstra et al., 1979). In the Canadian development assistance context, Martopo and Mitchells edited volume on the Bali Sustainable Development Project, a major component of UCE1, presents a great deal of the results of the research that was undertaken (Martopo and Mitchell, 1995), while in a lengthy article, Bater et al. (2000) discuss the overall capacity-building approach utilized in Bali. Ghislaine Larouche, former team leader of a CIDA-assisted institutional development project in the water resources sector in North Sulawesi, has recently produced a short publication (Larouche, 2002) specifically intended to record the lessons learned from the experience of that project. A major work in preparation (Conover, n.d.) documents the history of environmental management in Canada and Indonesia, with a particular focus on Canadas assistance to Indonesia via the EMDI Project. But other examples, particularly along the lines of the present volume, are not numerous.

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

23

The themes of the book revolve around institutional development and capacity enhancement and environmental research and management - concepts and approaches, tools and techniques, and their results. The book is largely structured around these themes. In addition to the present chapter, the first section, Background to the UCE Project, includes a chapter by Setiawan locating the Project within the recent Indonesian context of political and economic turmoil, particularly as related to the state of natural resource management, and discussing the relevance of the Project to Indonesia. The chapter provides a general assessment of the Projects contributions as seen from the perspective of a senior Indonesian environmental specialist. The second section, Institutional Development and Capacity Enhancement, examines the general approaches the Project adopted in pursuing its core business. Chapter 3, by Babcock and Mitchell, gives a detailed picture of the general design of the Project, its component activities, and its overall results. In a discussion of Project implementation, the chapter describes some of the challenges faced by a project of this nature, and some of the ways these challenges were attended to. Chapter 4, by Abdul Manan, is a companion piece to Chapter 3, being a reflection on overall capacity enhancement in one partner ESC as seen through the eyes of its long-time director. Chapter 5, by Benjamin, takes this picture down to the level of one particular role an ESC plays, that of environmental information generation and dissemination, and discusses how this role might be enhanced based on felt needs of local stakeholders. The following chapter (5), by Babcock, takes one of the major thrusts of the Project, developing the capacity to provide high-quality training services, and discusses the strategies and approaches employed and the results achieved. Outputs with reasonably high potential for sustained use in the future resulted from this area of UCE activity, enabling Sulawesi ESCs to contribute more effectively to the huge effort needed to improve environmental management capacity at all levels of government and society in the region.

24

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

The final chapter (6) in this section, by Dungga, reflects one ESC counterparts experiences with a particular activity of the training program, in the area of gender and the environment. The third section of the book, Conceptual Frameworks for Environmental Research and Management, moves the discussion from general institutional development issues closer to the environment. Mitchells chapter (8) details the Projects understanding of environmental and resource management, stressing the interdisciplinary nature of the enterprise, and links management to ecosystem-based research with all its attendant challenges. Armitage and Rizal (Chapter 9) then discuss one particular approach, co-management, and explore the opportunities and limitations associated with revitalization of certain customary practices and institutions in support of such an approach, in a coastal area of Central Sulawesi. Following this, Wismer (Chapter 10) presents a sustainable livelihoods framework that inspired much of the Projects training and research activities in the latter half of its implementation. The final contribution to the section, by Rianse and Widayati (Chapter 11), outline the authors experiences applying gender analysis concepts to their environmental research and development activities in Southeast Sulawesi. The fourth section, Tools and Techniques, looks more closely at some of the conceptual and practical instruments that were applied and tested in relation to environmental management and research during the course of the Project. Rahmat et al. (Chapter 12) describe one of the most successful participatory approaches with which the Project experimented, the application of Futures Search Conference methodology to the multi-stakeholder identification of environmental management issues in a particular ecosystem in Central Sulawesi, and of possible solutions acceptable to all parties. Zubair (Chapter 13) then demonstrates the use of modeling to determine appropriate, feasible management options for reducing sedimentation of the Bili-Bili Reservoir in South Sulawesi,

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

25

based on modifications to upland farming systems. Prenzel et al. (Chapter 14) demonstrate the application of remote sensing methods using SPOT satellite imagery for monitoring land cover change in the Tondano watershed, concluding that despite certain limitations the methodology is appropriate for use by environmental planners and managers at the watershed level. A more sociocultural approach is discussed by Wiltshire in Chapter 15, which illustrates the use of Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques in understanding human-environmental relations in island communities off the coast of mainland Southeast Sulawesi. Finally, Demmallino highlights the potentials of involving local (indigenous) sociocultural institutions for the management of conflict over utilization of natural resources in the Jeneberang river basin in South Sulawesi. The concluding section of the book, Resource Management Research: Some Results, provides a venue for Indonesian and Canadian participants who conducted field research in one or other of UCEs four major Joint Research Project areas in Sulawesi (discussed further in Chapters 3 and 8) to present samples of their findings and analyses. These chapters, like many of the previous ones, provide explicit recommendations for enhanced environmental management that arise from the cases at hand. Nurkin (Chapter 17) discusses problems of forest and land management in the upper Jeneberang watershed, and the pressures on resources that largely emanate from outside the region, and proposes various livelihoodfocused approaches that may alleviate these stresses. Suriamihardja (Chapter 18), looks at the same river basin but from the coastal / delta point of view, proposing a compromise management approach that takes into account the needs and desires of delta residents as well as the wider community. Moving back up the Jeneberang a little, Dariati (Chapter 19) provides us with insights into the deleterious effects of aggregate mining along the banks of the river, and suggests how the wishes she elicited from local residents could be attended to in making plans for a new approach to quarrying in the area. Moving to Makassar, the major urban center

26

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

in the basin, Doyle (Chapter 20) demonstrates the capacity of local communities, via a facilitation process, to compile a set of indicators of sustainability for local domestic water systems which could materially improve the quality of water service provision. Two subsequent chapters take us to the Tondano watershed in North Sulawesi. Wantasen et al. (Chapter 21) describe the current state of the waterways and aquatic biodiversity in the river basin, highlighting the negative effects of the improper use of agriculture-based chemicals, excessive use of cage cultivation of fish, and poor domestic waste disposal. Rotinsulu (Chapter 22) follows with a description of the present status of terrestrial biodiversity, in particular endemic palms, in the watershed, outlines their utilization by local communities, and assesses and provides specific recommendations concerning various approaches to biodiversity conservation in the area. The book concludes with an examination of the role of communication modes and patterns in determining the success or failure of environmentally-related development initiatives at the village level (Tam, Chapter 23). End Notes: 1 CEPI was contracted by CIDA to the private-sector company CANORA, itself a grouping of a number of small and medium Canadian companies active in the area of environmental management. Indonesia - and the international development enterprise - are worlds filled with ever-changing acronyms. We have tried to keep the use of these to a minimum in this book, though the ones we do use were very current in the Project context. A list of the most frequently used acronyms and Indonesian terms used in this book is found in the Glossary. 2 See the Logical Framework Analysis (LFA) as refined and presented in Mitchell and Babcock (1999) Appendix A. Development project jargon, i.e., goals, purposes, objectives, results, outputs, outcomes, impacts, etc., is confusing, imprecise and unstable. To the extent possible, the Project attempted to use the terms in ways consistent with CIDAs Results Based Management framework, as

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

27

applied retroactively to the Project after it was well underway (see CIDA (1999) for an outline of Results-Based Management). 3 BAPEDAL was subsequently merged into the Ministry and ceased to have a separate existence. 4 Developments subsequent to Project inception included the formation of a fifth province, Gorontalo, in northern Sulawesi, and a sixth, West Sulawesi, carved out of South Sulawesi province, as well as the conversion of state teacher-training institutes into fullfledged universities. There are also a number of private universities and colleges in the region, as well as a state Islamic institute of higher learning. By the end of the Project, the inventory of Environmental Studies Centers in the region numbered eight. 5 It is not clear why Canada chose to fund work in these particular regions, although it has not escaped the notice of observers that INCO, the major Canadian nickel mining corporation, had recently embarked on large scale investment in nickel mining in South Sulawesi, and thus the area at least was on the mental map of Canadian officials with any involvement in decision-making regarding Indonesia. Canadas involvement in development assistance in Indonesia, and the capacity building project implemented by the University of Guelph in Sulawesi, are discussed more fully in the special edition of the Canadian Journal of Development Studies, Cummings (1993a) entitled Indonesia: Multidimensional Development. See particularly articles by P. Morgan and D. Drake (1993) and by F.H. Cummings (1993b). 6 Dalhousie University made other important contributions to the development of university-based environmental management in Sulawesi, through the Japanese-assisted Environmental Study Centers Development in Indonesia (ESCDI) project (1994-1997) and the smaller Island Sustainable Livelihood and Environment (ISLE) project (also CIDA-funded). The ISLE project worked with UNHAS (though only tangentially with its ESC), while ESCDI included both UNHAS and UNSRAT and, in a very limited way towards the end, UNHALU and UNTAD as well. 7 It is worth noting that the chief Indonesian counterparts involved

28

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

in the initial design and subsequent management of UCE were also university professors, Emil Salim, the first Minister of the Environment (and member of the Faculty of Economics at the University of Indonesia), and Dr. Koesnadi Hardjasoemantri, Secretary to the Minister and subsequently Rector of Gadjah Mada University (and member of the Board of Governors of Dalhousie University). ESCs were Prof. Emil Salims brainchild, as he recognized that universities, in the early 1970s, were the major, or only, source of formal environmental expertise particularly in the regions outside Java. 8 The extent to which the Canadian universities involved obtained deep, broad and long-lasting benefits from these activities has been highly variable. In some cases, very few university faculty members had any significant involvement, the work being mainly implemented by advisors recruited from outside the universities on limited term contracts. When this approach was used, institutional learning was often limited and not incorporated into university teaching. More benefits accrued to Canadian university students whose field research in Sulawesi, mainly for Masters degrees, was funded by these projects. Other benefits to Canada frequently mentioned include the development of a cadre of Canadian professionals with lengthy experience in Indonesia; a substantial number of these have worked on more than one of the projects mentioned above. See Chapter 3 for a further discussion of this point as it relates to UCE. Smuckler (2003) discusses at length the role of a major American university in international development since the 1950s, and pays considerable attention to its impacts on the university itself. See also the special edition of The Canadian Journal of Development Studies (Boothroyd and Angeles, 2003) on the role of Canadian universities in international development. 9 The 2000 population census is the first since the 1930 Volkstelling conducted by the Dutch colonial authorities to record data on ethnicity. These census figures indicate that the Bugis are the eighth largest ethnic group in the country, numbering some five million people or 2.5 percent of the national population. No other

Sulawesi: The Environment, The People and The UCE Project

29

Sulawesi-based ethnic group approaches this figure; Makassarese, occupying eleventh place, are roughly two million in number or 1 percent of the national population. The Bugis are also the second largest ethnic group in Central and Southeast Sulawesi, as well as in East Kalimantan (Suryadinata et al., 2003). 10 Central Sulawesi government sources give a figure of some 17 percent for the year 1998, but this is a ratio of numbers of people resettled to the province to the current population and does not take into account natural population growth in the transmigrant settlements over the decades (personal communication, Tania Li, April 2003). 11 The first major period of widespread dissemination of Islam in the region began in the early 17th century, although it was known in coastal areas well before this time. Massive conversions to Protestant Christianity, mainly in upland areas, date from the early 1800s in North Sulawesi, and in Tana Toraja and Central Sulawesi from the early 1900s. 12 See Babcock (1999) for bibliographic references concerning the peoples of Sulawesi. Also see recent collections of articles edited by Robinson and Mukhlis (1998) and Tol et al. (2000) concerning various aspects of the sociocultural life of Sulawesi peoples. 13 No modern easily accessible history of Sulawesi as a whole exists. Henley (2005) will fill a major gap for the northern part of the island, as does Henley (1996). Cummings (2002) focuses on historiography in South Sulawesi, while Schrauwers (2000) writes on upland Central Sulawesi (the Poso region). Short histories of particular areas of Sulawesi can also be found in the increasing number of book-length monographs, mainly anthropological, being published on the region; for a listing of these, and other books and academic articles treating the history of Sulawesi, see Babcock (1999), and the articles in Poeze and Schoorl (1991). 14 The largest city in Sulawesi, Makassar was known officially as Ujung Pandang (a local / indigenous name) from the early 1970s until October 1999, when it officially reverted to the name of the famed ancient port.

30

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

Thanks to Prof. Tania Li (p.c. 2004) for pointing out the importance of NGO-led environmental activism in Sulawesi. See Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup (2003) for a description of the Indonesian governments understanding of good environmental governance and its new program, Program Bangun Praja, designed to support it.
15

REFERENCES

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32

From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

Cummings, F.H. (ed.) (1993a) Indonesia: multidimensional development, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, special edition, 14(1). Cummings, F.H. (1993b) Project planning and administrative lessons from the Sulawesi Regional Development Project, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, special edition, 14(1): 136-166. Cummings, W. (2002) Making Blood White: Historical Transformations in Early Modern Makassar, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Currey, B. (1993) Environmental leadership training for Asia, Development in Practice, 3(3): 196-203. Donner, W. (1987) Land Use and Environment in Indonesia, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Eade, D. (1997) Capacity Building: An Approach to PeopleCentred Development, Oxford: Oxfam (UK and Ireland). Elliott, G. (2000) Creating Connections: Linking Local Community Participation to Marine Protected Area Management in Wakatobi National Park, Southeast Sulawesi, Waterloo: University of Waterloo Faculty of Environmental Studies MES Thesis. Elliott, G., Mitchell, B., Wiltshire, B., Manan, A. and Wismer, S. (2001) Community participation in marine protected area management: Wakatobi National Partk, Sulawesi, Indonesia, Coastal Management, 29: 295-316.

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Ferguson, J. (1994) The Anti-Politics Machine: Development, Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Giesen, W., Baltzer, M.C. and Baruadi, R. (1991) Integrating Conservation with Land-use Development in Wetlands of South Sulawesi, Bogor, Indonesia: Directorate-General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation and the Asian Wetland Bureau Indonesia. Grindle, M.S. and Hilderbrand, M.E. (1995) Building sustainable capacity in the public sector: what can be done?, Public Administration and Development, 15(5): 441-463. Hartvelt, F. (1996) Capacity building programme for sustainable water sector development, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 12(4): 407-411. Harvey, B. (1974) Tradition, Islam and Rebellion: South Sulawesi 1950-65, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. _____ (1977) Permesta: Half a Rebellion, Ithaca: Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project Monograph. _____ (1985) South Sulawesi: puppets and patriots, in A. Kahin (ed.), Regional Dynamics of the Indonesian Revolution, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Henley, D. (1989) The Idea of Celebes in History, Melbourne: Monash University Centre of Southeast Asia Studies Working Paper No. 59. _____ (1996) Nationalism and Regionalism in a Colonial Context: Minahasa in the Dutch East Indies, VKI No.168, Leiden:

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From Sky to Sea: Environment and Development in Sulawesi

KITLV Press. _____ (2005) Fertility, Food and Fever: Population, Economy and Environment in North and Central Sulawesi ca. 1600-1930, Leiden: KITLV. Human Rights Watch (2002) Breakdown: Four Years of Communal Violence in Central Sulawesi, Human Rights Watch Reports Vol. 4(9). Available at www.hrw.org/reports/indonesiapubs.php. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup (2003) Program Bangun Praja, Jakarta: Deputi Bidang Peningkatan Kapasitas Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup Kewilayahan, Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup. Kinnaird, M.F. (1995) North Sulawesi: A Natural History Guide, Jakarta: Yayasan Pengembangan Wallacea. Klitgaard, R. (1991) Tropical Gangsters: One Mans Experiences with Development and Decadence in Deepest Africa, New York: Basic Books. Kompas (2003) Jumlah pulau di Indonesia perlu diverifikasi, March 5, 2003, Jakarta: Kompas. Larouche, G. (2002) The Challenge of P3SU: A Capacity Development Experience in the Water Sector in Indonesia. Available at www.acdi-cida.gc.ca. Lee, V. (2000) Assessing Ecotourisms Abilities to Generate Community Benefits, Bunaken National Park, Indonesia, Waterloo: University of Waterloo Faculty of Environmental Studies MES Thesis.

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Li, T.M. (1991) Culture, Ecology and Livelihood in the Tinombo Region of Central Sulawesi, Halifax and Jakarta: EMDI Project, Dalhousie University. _____ (1999) Marginality, power and production: analysing upland transformations, in T.M. Li (ed.), Transforming the Indonesian Uplands: Marginality, Power and Production, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers. _____ (2002) Local histories, global markets: cocoa and class in Upland Sulawesi, Development and Change, 33(3): 415-437. _____ (n.d.) Two Tales and Three Silences: Critical Reflections on Indonesian Violence (unpublished). Martopo, S. and Mitchell, B. (eds.) (1995) Bali: Balancing Environment, Economy and Culture, Department of Geography Publication Series #44, Waterloo: University of Waterloo. Mitchell, B. and Babcock, T. (1999) The Education and Training Program of CEPI: Background Information and Baseline Data, Jakarta: CEPI Project Report UCE/633/99/01. Morgan, P. and Drake, D. (1993) Managing transition: the redesign of Canadian bilateral development co-operation with Indonesia in the early 1980s, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, special edition on Indonesia 14(1): 123136. Operation Wallacea (2001) Reef Check 2001. Available at www.opwall.com/2001. Pangemanan, N.P.K. (2001) Pengelolaan Ekosistem Terumbu Karang Berkelanjutan dengan Pendekatan Co-Management,

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(case study of Bunaken National Park, North Sulawesi, Indonesia), S2 (Masters) Thesis in Environmental Studies, Jakarta: University of Indonesia. Poeze, H.A. and Schoorl, P. (1991) Excursies in Celebes, Verhandelingen van het KITLV No. 147, Leiden: KITLV. Rahmat, M.A. (2000) The Present Status and Potential of Ecotourism in the Togean Islands, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, Waterloo: University of Waterloo Faculty of Environmental Studies MES Thesis. Raper, A.F. (1970) Rural Development in Action: The Comprehensive Experiment at Comilla, East Pakistan, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Rizal, A. (2002) A Vision for the Future of the People of Banawa Selatan, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia: A Study of Collaborative Visioning for Community-Based Coastal Resource and Environmental Management, Waterloo: University of Waterloo Faculty of Environmental Studies Ph.D. Dissertation. Robinson, K. (1986) Stepchildren of Progress: The Political Economy of Development in an Indonesian Mining Town, Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Robinson, K. and Mukhlis (eds.) (1998) Living Through Histories: Culture History and Social Life in South Sulawesi, Canberra and Jakarta: Department of Anthropology, ANU, and National Archives of Indonesia. Schrauwers, A. (2000) Colonial Reformation in the Highlands of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, 1892-1995, Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

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Smuckler, R.H. (2003) A University Turns to the World, East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. STORMA (2002, 2003) Various research reports and discussion papers of the University of Gottingens Stability of Rainforest Margins in Indonesia Project, Central Sulawesi, available at http://www.storma.de/DPS/index.htm. Suryadinata, L., Arifin, E.N. and Ananta, A. (2003) Indonesias Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Tol, R., van Dijk, K. and Acciaioli, G. (eds.) (2000) Authority and Enterprise Among the Peoples of South Sulawesi, Leiden: KITLV Press. Tomascik, T., Mah, A.J., Nontji, A. and Moosa, K.M. (1997) The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas, Parts One and Two, Singapore: Periplus. Uphoff, N. (1992) Learning from Gal Oya: Possibilities for Participatory Development and Post-Newtonian Social Science, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Volkman, T.A. (1987) Mortuary tourism in Tana Toraja, in R.S. Kipp and S. Rodgers (eds.), Indonesian Religions in Transition, Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 161-167. _____ (1990a) Visions and revisions: Toraja culture and the tourist gaze, American Ethnologist, 17(1): 91-110. _____ (1990b) Introducing Sulawesi, in T.A. Volkman and I. Caldwell (eds.), Sulawesi: The Celebes, Berkeley: Periplus Editions, 15.

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Volkman, T.A. and Caldwell, I. (1990) Sulawesi: The Celebes, Berkeley: Periplus Editions. Welles, H. (1995) EIA capacity-strengthening in Asia: the USAID-WRI model, Environmental Professional, 17(2): 103-116. Whitten, A.J., Mustafa, M. and Henderson, G.S. (1987) The Ecology of Sulawesi, Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Gadjah Mada University Press. Whitten, T. (1990a) Geography: oddly shaped island of contrasts, in T.A. Volkman, and I. Caldwell (eds.), Sulawesi: The Celebes, Berkeley: Periplus Editions, 16-19. _____ (1990b) Flora and fauna: straddling Wallaces Line, in T.A. Volkman and I. Caldwell (eds.), Sulawesi: The Celebes, Berkeley: Periplus Editions, 20-23. Zandstra, H., Swanberg, K., Zulberti, C. and Nestel, B. (1979) Caqueza: Living Rural Development, Ottawa, ON: IDRC.