MULTI-INPUT SMALL-POWER RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEM REALIZED BY SPECIAL POWER ELECTRONICS

Helmut H. Weiss, Kayhan Ince, Gennady St. Zinoviev

Abstract: Renewable Energy development of today has a tendency towards still increasing power ratings for gridconnected systems. Substitute energy plants in case of lacking renewable instantaneous power are not directly considered because of grid connection. Stand-alone applications require well defined concepts for continuous energy supply providing a good balance between various energy sources and their capabilities and load requirements. Stand alone supplies of small power ratings cover local demands, e.g. one house or a small village in remote location. Multiple inputs for renewable energy are proposed in combination with high-efficiency power electronics for optimum power input into a DC bar directly connected to a battery. All loads are connected to this floating battery voltage DC bar either directly or via additional converters.. Index Terms: Renewable Energy, De-Central Electric Energy, Supply System.

I. INTRODUCTION Renewable energy draws a lot of attention today. Research and development is concentrated on large power units connected to the grid. We also need substitute energy, this is energy necessary to fulfil demands of customers or user in case that the sum of all renewable power provided at the moment is less than the amount required by load e.g. during low wind speed (for wind turbines) or cloudy sky (for photovoltaics). For grid connected renewable energy sources, this substitute energy simply comes from conventional plants at the grid.

Here we consider small power renewable energy supplies in stand-alone (de-central) applications. Therefore, we cannot draw substitute energy from a grid (because it does not exist here) but we have to create a complete system. System approach means that we will use several reasonable sources of renewable energy, store energy which is coming from renewable sources but is not required for fulfilling load demands at this point of time, and establish a back-up energy source that can produce electric energy from other type of energy with simple storage opportunities. First part of research covers general system design, essential aspects of various small-power renewable energy sources, i.e. photo-voltaics and wind energy (Fig.2, Fig.3), direct thermo-electric generators or thermodynamic-electric generators and small water power. As an add-on, we could consider high-priced opportunities. We include information on possible substitute energy sources. Then, high efficiency converters are discussed which perform maximum power point energy conversion to common battery DC-rail. II. SUPPLY SYSTEM LAYOUT The supply system is composed of various energy sources input and electrical output units, their specific power electronics control and conversion units, DCbar with battery, load manager and switch control unit, and converters, in addition the opportunity to include a fuel cell unit. (Fig. 1).

Sun Sun Wind

Photovoltaic Panels

Boost Conv.

DC load 1

Wind Power Unit

PWM Conv.

Heat

Peltier Generator

Boost Conv.

Heat

Stirling Machine

PWM Conv.

Common DC Bar with Battery

Load Manager and Switch Unit

Converter Inverter

DC load 2 AC load 3

Fuel Cell Generator Fuel (Methanol) Fuel (Hydrogen)

Boost Conv. Central Control Unit Hydrogen Storage Electrolysis Converter

Fig.1 Supply System Layout.

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Each of the energy inputs has its own specific characteristics. For DC outputs (photo-voltaics, Peltier element, fuel cell) we simply use boost converters (DC/DC step-up choppers) controlled in order to transfer as much energy as possible to the DC bar provided the battery voltage is lower than maximum. The same basic effect of step-up conversion is accomplished by PWM inverters if 3-phase sources deliver electrical power. Generally, we need escape strategies if DC-bar voltage is going to exceed the maximum voltage allowable (e.g. 27.2 V for a 24 V (DC, rated) lead-acid battery, and if discharge of battery leads to a low voltage eventually (equivalent idling voltage of 22.8 V for this battery type). For excessive generated energy we could turn on loads which are not necessarily used at this point of time, e.g. for lighting purposes, or cut down generated power by e.g. short-circuiting photovoltaic panels. If all input power from renewable energy is not sufficient to cover demands at load side and a load reduction is not feasible we have to insert substitute power to avoid deep discharge of battery and blackout of whole system. In our proposal a silent fuel cell unit operated by methanol (CH3OH) is used. However, it is a rather expensive solution. Other opportunities are combustion engine operated generators driving rectifiers to the DC-bar. Intended system power rating is 100 W (continuous) and by means of the lead-acid battery energy buffer we can easily handle load peaks of e.g. 1000 W. III. PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY Silicon-based panels (mono-crystalline, polycrystalline, or amorphous) are standard today and easily available on the market at prices of less than 3 EUR per Watt at an European harbour if you simply buy 1 complete container (about 100 kW peak). In the range of less than 1 kW (peak) we have to calculate about 5 EUR per Watt for high quality panels available at European sellers. Properties of these panels are similar and can be described by characteristics displayed in Fig. 2.

We identify the Maximum Power Point MPP and the requirement for power electronics and control to exploit all power offered and to transfer it to the DC bar. For powering a 24 V (rated) DC bar we preferably use a standard 12 V panel. This means that such a panel being composed of 36 cells will have a maximum power point voltage V(MPP) = 17.1 V at a typical idling voltage V(idling) = 21 V, both values for 25 C.

DC Bus Bar Photovoltaic Panel

Battery

Fig.3 Basic schematic of photovoltaic panel and boost converter to DC bus bar.

Using a boost converter for step-up operation (Fig. 3) into typically 24 V DC inherently provides over-voltage protection for the fully charged battery. Considering an photo-voltaics idling voltage V(idling, 25 C) = 21 V we yield V(idling, -50 C) = 27.3 V. This temperature should be adequate for Siberian conditions, too. The boost converter diode forward voltage drop additionally helps in this case not to overcharge a standard 24 V (rated) lead-acid battery. A final crow-bar could be realized by the MOSFET of the boost converter. By continuously keeping the MOSFET in conduction state we simply shorten the panel. This is standard for simple insular supply photovoltaic charging controllers. IV. WIND ENERGY Small wind turbines are available on the market starting with 10 EUR per Watt for (peak) power ratings of less than 100 W. Larger units (several hundreds of Watt) are priced around 3 EUR per Watt. All ratings refer to maximum power operation. Usual wind speeds are much lower than required for optimum power output. We identify operation characteristics of 2 types of small wind turbines. First we check a 70 W (peak power) unit on a test bench (Fig.4, Fig.5) [1]. By means of this test bench, we measure precisely all mechanical and electrical system losses of the 70 W (peak) system using standard circuit with rectifier and with PWM inverter. However, we have no direct access to aerodynamic effects. An overview on all types of losses with wind power is given in Fig.6.

voltage
100 % sun 25 C 85 C

power MPP
100 % sun 25 C 85 C

50 % sun 25 C

50 % sun 25 C

current

current

Fig.2 Photovoltaic panel characteristics.

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Fig.4. Test bench with generator driven by induction motor [1]

Fig.5. Permanent magnet synchronous machine for wind power without blades (in running condition).

replaced by electrical drive. Power electronics components are selected according to minimized losses, because this raises output power at given wind energy input power. Low internal resistance components are used and intended for use in medium voltage operation at high switching frequency circuitries where low losses and low noise are required The low speed synchronous generator is mounted on a torque measurement test bench driven by standard rotational speed controlled induction machine to enable high accuracy electrical measurements at defined rotational speed values corresponding to equivalent wind speed values. Fig shows the workbench of the generator system. A very simple system does not implement a controlled converter but uses only a (Schottky-)diode bridge rectifier producing charging current to the battery. We have no opportunity to influence power transfer in a way to achieve maximum power point operation. The second unit has 300 W peak rating and has fixed blades made of polymer material, too (Fig. 7).

Wind turbines of these power ratings typically employ permanent magnet synchronous machines which need no excitation, exhibit a simple general design and good efficiency.

Power from total kinetic wind energy

Betz law peak power extractable from wind

Shaft power

Generator power

Output power

Converter losses Copper losses of synchr. machine Friction and iron losses of synchronous machine Aerodynamic losses

Fig.7. Permanent magnet synchronous machine wind generator (300 W peak) at test in front of university.

Betz law power loss due to vwind,out > 0 Fig.6. Power flow and loss contributions (not to scale) at gearless wind power system [1]

According to manufacturers information the power ratings belong to a system using rectifier and converter. We observe a typical characteristic for a power transfer into a fixed voltage and stall control for higher wind speeds. We want to increase power output into constant DC voltage load at input power defined by variable wind speed and photovoltaic energy. Investigations first lead to an improved rectifier followed by a boost converter. In order to establish a laboratory development environment for system improvement the rotor blades were removed and wind energy drive is

All these small wind power generator systems operate by stall control. At excessive wind speeds the air flow does not follow the blades in laminar flow but turbulences are created and the wind is not behaving as a typical wind anymore. Very high rotations per minute are avoided, thus the system has a chance to survive heavy storms. General voltage level of the permanent magnet generators is to directly charge a 12 V battery via a simple rectifier. The so-called Charge Controller offered as a standard unit for de-central low-cost supply only creates a low efficiency system. Because the generator should provide enough voltage for battery charging also at low wind speeds it would produce a high idling voltage at high wind speeds. The actual voltage is defined by rectified output voltage equal battery voltage and that will be much lower. Typically operated quite close to short-circuit condition, the generator will exhibit rather high

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copper losses and shall not run at optimum load conditions. A high part of energy offered (by wind speed, see Fig.6) will not reach the destination. We propose a more complicated but much more efficient system applying a boost converter structure. Task of the maximum power point control is to maintain this point of operation where we get the highest power out of the system at a given (and quite frequently changing) wind speed. Practically it means that the electromagnetic braking of the wind turbine by a proper generator load shall be influenced to yield a maximum of DC bus bar input current. A proper actuator and control are to be implemented. We simply could use the boost converter structure already presented in Fig.2 for upward voltage conversion if we also apply a diode rectifier between three-phase AC output of permanent magnet generator and boost converter input (Fig.8).

DC Bus Bar

Wind Rotor

PMSM

Fig.10 Basic schematic of wind power system with PWM converter to DC bus bar.

Wind Power PMSM Generator

DC Bus Bar

6-pulse Schottky Diode Rectifier

Battery

Fig.8 Basic schematic of photovoltaic panel and boost converter to DC bus bar.

Through this way, when estimating the efficiency by simple counting of forward voltage drops [1] we realize that a PWM inverter provides advantages with respect to losses (Fig. 10). In addition, due to the basic conduction method of the MOSFET (exhibiting also conduction in reverse direction when in on-state) we can obtain low voltage drops on the active elements of the converter which are very small by using over-dimensioned MOSFET switches at rather small currents. Several small converters have been built and evaluated (Fig. 11). The theoretical considerations could be proven experimentally.

Due to the voltage level of our rated system power of e.g. 100 W we generally use MOSFET as switches along with Schottky diodes. Diodes (to some extent also Schottky diodes) generally have a rather constant forward voltage drop. A MOSFET rather appears as an on-state resistance and its on-state loss can be reduced by over-dimensioning, e.g. paralleling some low-cost devices. Compared to the price of the renewable energy sources all types of semiconductors are simply cheap. Therefore, our efforts are concentrated to increase the power at the output by minimizing conversion losses.
Generator
38 37 36 Power / W 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 3,6 2,88 Current / A 2,34 D=0.25 D=0.55

Fig.11 Simple low power boost converter for experiments with wind power generator.

We also cannot neglect the part of energy used for (digital) control of the controlled converters implemented.
D=0.75

V. THERMO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR A rather unusual energy generation unit used here is a thermoelectric generator. The device used is a standard Peltier element for cooling purposes (Fig.12). Due to the Peltier effect we can obtain a certain thermal energy transport from colder side to hotter side by means of current. Provided we keep the

Fig.9 Wind power system output versus duty cycle D of boost converter.

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hot side at a given temperature (e.g. 30 C) we can drive the cooler side to a lower temperature but with heavy dependence on the transferred power (from colder to hotter side).

Hot Side

Q, thermal, in

Ceramic end plate Q, thermal, in Cold Side Ceramic end plate Conductor Conductor Conductor Conductor

p
Conductor

n
Cold Side Conductor

Ceramic end plate Q, thermal, out

Ceramic end plate Hot Side Q, thermal, out Fig.13 Seebeck effect thermoelectric energy generation, basic structure

Fig.12 Peltier element cooling, basic structure

Peltier elements are available at certain dimensions. A small device with about 20 mm x 20 mm and about 4 mm thickness (including ceramic end plates) can run a current of about 10 A at a voltage of 14 V and therefore requires a power supply of 140 W. This element can move 80 W thermal power if the temperature difference is zero. The transferred power drops down to zero at about 60 C difference, and in between we have a rather linear relation between heat flow and temperature difference. A typical point of operation for the described unit will be 40 W of transferred power at 30 C temperature difference. The Peltier effect is reversible: Seebeck effect (Fig.13). We yield a (rather small) idling voltage at unfortunately high internal resistance when we arrange a temperature difference between the two end plates by allowing a rather high heat energy flow. At a rule of thumb we obtain 1 % of thermal energy flow as electric energy for each 30 C temperature difference between hot and cold side. We have to use special semiconductor material to get a reasonable Peltier respectively Seebeck effect. Such materials are limited to about 80 peak temperature. If this temperature is exceeded for some time an irreversible effect will deteriorate the Peltier or Seebeck function. Our only chance to get an efficiency of e.g. 3 % is to use a proper medium (e.g. water) at the hot side voiding overheating the hot side and exposure of the cold side to a pretty cold heat sink (Siberia in winter time) and to use a high quality thermal path (metal).

Then our electro-thermal energy generation will give the following result: Thermal transfer power = 1000 W at 80 C, cold side at -10 C, operation at maximum efficiency of 3 % (by proper load) => 30 W of electric power. Due to the internal thermal resistances of such devices we cannot push 1000 W through the 140 W device. We definitely have to use larger sizes. An experiment is prepared using 3 pieces of 600 W P(max) Peltier cooling units with 60 mm x 60 mm in parallel connection thermally and in series connection electrically. Peltier element cost is about 180 EUR for the 3 pieces. We expect (at 90 C temperature difference an output power of about 54 W. Experimental results will be included in the final paper. As an alternative we might take special commercial thermoelectric generator devices. Such a unit includes a rather high number of p-n blocks (e.g. 450) to yield a voltage of 10 V at a power output of 5 W at a price of about 120 EUR. Although thermoelectric energy is quite expensive (at least 3 EUR per W for the Peltier element + additional costs for heat transfer with heat insertion and heat sink) it is a nice opportunity if we can get heat energy flow by waste heat or if can use CO2neutral heat production by burning wood. A standard wooden oven for a house delivers about 20 kW of thermal heat flow. We realize that Seebeck effect thermoelectric power generation runs best if outside temperature is very low. Therefore, the thermoelectric generator is a good opportunity to balance the photovoltaic energy output going down during winter time due to lower interval of sun light.

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According to basic property of this system we need a good maximum power point conversion. The generated voltage varies with heat flow and temperature difference and load current. VI. STIRLING MACHINE SYSTEM A Stirling motor of today is based on the invention of Mr. Stirling in the early days of the commercial steam machine. At that time a device surviving a very high pressure was not commonly available. The Stirling process uses a special way of heat energy transfer and does not require high pressurized steam. Experimental results from such units allow production up to several hundreds of Watts of mechanical energy with reasonable machines. The Stirling produces mechanical energy once it has been started. Some time (e.g. 10 minutes or more) are necessary to move into the production mode of power out of thermal energy. A process incorporating the Stirling motor needs a starting unit and a power conversion unit to provide output at defined voltage respectively frequency. We simply can take the wind power conversion system as basis and derive the Stirling machine operation concept (Fig. 14).

composed of a fuel cell of 60 W continuous power rating with a 100 Ah lead acid battery and a simple 1000 W inverter 12 V(DC) to 230 V(AC) can be bought at about 2000 EUR. Considering the price of the methanol fuel it is definitely no cheap solution but a silent one when you need power without running a standard combustion motor. Our intention will be the inclusion of hydrogen production system with low-pressure hydrogen storage and usage on demand. Hydrogen is to be produced by excessive photovoltaics energy. The fuel cell system shall balance between produced power and power demand of the load over extended time while the battery provides short-time instantaneous power. VIII. CONCLUSION A power supply system with novel and advantageous opportunities is presented here. Combination of various and supplementing energy sources shall create a unique renewable energy based system with load manager and optimized production and usage. Due to general low power level of system, special attention has to be paid to very low power consumption of control electronics. REFERENCES
[1]. Ince, K., Weiss, H. Optimization of Wind Power PMSM to Grid Conversion System, EPE-PEMC 2008 Conference, Poznan, Poland, 2008. Proceedings on CD-ROM. [2]. Aschenbrenner F. Innovation on Traditional Water Wheels for Renewable Energy, EPE-PEMC 2006 Conference, Portoroz, Slovenia, 2006. Proceedings on CD-ROM, paper T12-302, pp1625-1630 [3]. Aschenbrenner F., Weiss H. Low Speed Rare Earth Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator for Gearless Coupling to Water Wheel, EDPE 2007 Conference, High Tatras, Slovakia, 2007. Proceedings on CD-ROM, paper 149 (Subtopic 2.1 Special Electrical Machines)

DC Bus Bar

Stirling Motor

PMSM

Fig.14 Stirling motor concept with gearless driven PMSM for start-up and operation.

THE AUTHORS
Helmut H. WEISS, PhD with Technical University of Graz, industry work at SIEMENS Company, Erlangen, Germany. University Professor, lecturer and researcher, cooperation research projects with various companies in renewable and conventional energy, power converter units, railway power supply. Kayhan INCE, wrote his Diploma Thesis at the Technical University of Vienna. Research assistant (PhD candidate) at the Institute for Electrical Engineering of the University of Leoben. Technical interests: Power electronics, renewable energy and electrical vehicles. Gennady St. ZINOVIEV, PhD with Novosibirsk State Technical University, University Professor at this university. Research in power electronics, EMC, multilevel-converters, education methodology for power electronics, special drive systems.

Because the Stirling motor is not like a standard fuel consumption motor we can use any type of thermal energy, again in the CO2-neutral heat production. This machine can run constantly and produce power on demand. A Stirling motor experiment is planned using a commercial active front end converter with a commercial, recently developed Stirling machine. Efficiency estimations are presently at 10 %. VII. BATTERY AND FUEL CELL SYSTEM Fuel cells are high praised and high-prized units available on the market. A methanol fuel cell system

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