FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MECHANICS Chapter 3 Fluids in Motion - The Bernoulli Equation

Jyh-Cherng Shieh
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering National Taiwan University 09/28/2009 1

MAIN TOPICS
Newtons Second Law Bernoulli Equation F=ma Along a Streamline F=ma Normal to a Streamline Bernoulli equation Physical Interpretation of Bernoulli Equation Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure Application of the Bernoulli Equation The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation
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Newtons Second Law 1/6

As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it experiences an acceleration or deceleration. According to Newtons second law of motion, the net force acting on the fluid particle under consideration must equal its mass times its acceleration. F=ma 9 In this chapter, we consider the motion of inviscid fluids. That is, the fluid is assumed to have zero viscosity. For such case, it is possible to ignore viscous effects. 9 The forces acting on the particle ? Coordinates used ?

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Newtons Second Law 2/6

Force

The fluid motion is governed by F= Net pressure force + Net gravity force To apply Newtons second law to a fluid, an appropriate coordinate system must be chosen to describe the motion. In general, the motion will be three-dimensional and unsteady so that three space coordinates and time are needed to describe it.

Newtons Second Law 3/6

The most often used coordinate systems are rectangular (x,y,z) and cylindrical (r,,z) system.

Newtons Second Law 4/6

In this chapter, the flow is confined to be twodimensional motion. As is done in the study of dynamics, the motion of each fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector V. As the particle moves, it follows a particular path. The location of the particle along the path is a function of its initial position and velocity.
Location

Newtons Second Law 5/6

For steady flows, each particle slides along its path, and its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path. The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called streamlines. streamline For such situation, the particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s=s(t), along the streamline from some convenient origin and the local radius of curvature of the streamline, R=R(s).
Streamline s=s(t)streamlineR=R(s)
7

Newtons Second Law 6/6

s=s(t) V=ds/dt

The distance along the streamline is related to the particles speed by V=ds/dt, and the radius of curvature is related to shape of the streamline. The acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity V=ds/dt of the particle r 2 r dV r r r dV V r a= s+ = as s + a n n = V n dt ds R The components of acceleration in the s and n direction

dV as = V ds

V2 an = R

CHAPTER 04
8

Streamlines
Streamlines past an airfoil

Flow past a biker

F=ma along a Streamline 1/4

Isolation of a small fluid particle in a flow field.

10

F=ma along a Streamline 2/4

Consider the small fluid particle of size of s by n in the plane of the figure and y normal to the figure. For steady flow, the component of Newtons second law along the streamline direction s
s

V V FS =maS = mV s = VV s Where FS represents the sum of the s components of all the

force acting on the particle.

11

F=ma along a Streamline 3/4

The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the streamline direction

Ws = W sin = V sin

The net pressure force on the particle in the streamline p s direction pS =

s 2 p Fps = (p pS )ny (p + pS )ny = 2pSny = V s p Fs = Ws + Fps = sin V s Equation of motion V p sin = V = a s along the streamline s s direction
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F=ma along a Streamline 4/4

Particle weight

V p sin = V = a s s s
pressure gradient

Integration

A change in fluid particle speed is accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle weight along the streamline. For fluid static situation, the balance between pressure and gravity force is such that no change in particle speed is produced. p sin =0 s particle weight
pressure gradient
13

Integration..
V p sin = V = a s s s

Rearranged and Integrated

dz dp 1 dV 2 1 = >> dp + d (V 2 ) + dz = 0 ds ds 2 ds 2 dp 1 2 >>>> + V + gz = C along a streamline 2

Where C is a constant of integration to be determined by the conditions at some point on the streamline.

In general it is not possible to integrate the pressure term because the density may not be constant and, therefore, cannot be removed from under the integral sign.

14

Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline

For the special case of incompressible flow

dp 1 2 + 2 V + gz = C

BERNOULLI EQUATION 2

V p+ + z = cons tan t 2

Restrictions : Steady flow. The Bernoulli equation is a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics, Incompressible flow. published by Daniel Bernoulli (1700~1782) in 1738. NO Frictionless flow. Flow along a streamline.
15

Example 3.1 Pressure Variation along A Streamline

z Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal streamline A-B in front of the sphere of radius a, as shown in Figure E3.1a. From a more advanced theory of flow past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
a3 V = V0 1 + x 3

streamline

Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the sphere (xA=- and VA= V0) to point B on the sphere (xB=-a and VB=0)
streamline sin=0 s x
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Example 3.1 Solution1/2

The equation of motion along the streamline (sin=0)

p V = V s s

(1)

V p sin = V = a s s s

The acceleration term

a 3 3V0a 3 a 3 a 3 V V 2 1+ 3 1+ 3 = 3V0 V 4 = V0 =V 4 x x s x x x

The pressure gradient along the streamline is

p p 3a 3V0 (1 + a 3 / x 3 ) = = s x x4
2

(2)
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Example 3.1 Solution2/2

The pressure gradient along the streamline
p p 3a 3V0 (1 + a 3 / x 3 ) = = s x x4
2

(2)

The pressure distribution along the streamline

3 6 ( a / x ) 2 a p = V0 + x 2

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Example 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation

z Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with velocity V0, as is shown in Figure E3.2. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
point (1)point (2)

19

Example 3.2 Solution

The Bernoullis equation applied along the streamline that passes through (1) and (2) Bernoulli equation

V V2 p1 + + z 1 = p 2 + + z 2 2 2 z1=z2
(1) is in the free stream V1=V0 (2) is at the tip of the bicyclists nose V2=0

2 1

point (1)point (2)streamline

V1 V0 p2 p1 = = 2 2

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F=ma Normal to a Streamline1/2

For steady flow, the component of Newtons second law in the normal direction n
mV 2 VV 2 Fn = R = R Where Fn represents the sum of the n components of all the force acting on the particle.
Hydrocyclone separator
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F=ma Normal to a Streamline2/2

The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the normal direction
Wn = W cos = V cos

The net pressure force on the particle in the normal p n direction pn =

n 2

p Fpn = (p p n )sy ( p + p n )sy = 2p n sy = V n V 2 p V Fn = Wn + Fpn = cos V = R n

Normal direction

p V 2 cos = R n

Equation of motion normal to the streamline

22

Integration..
p V 2 = cos R n
dz dp V 2 = dn dn R

Rearranged

A change in the direction of flow of a fluid particle is accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle weight normal to the streamline

pressure gradient

Particle weight

Integrated

dp V2 + R dn + gz = C Normal to the streamline

V=V(s,n) R=R(s,n) Without knowing the n dependent in V=V(s,n) and R=R(s,n) this integration cannot be completed.
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In general it is not possible to integrate the pressure term because the density may not be constant and, therefore, cannot be removed from under the integral sign.

Bernoulli Equation Normal to a Streamline

For the special case of incompressible flow
dp V2 + R dn + gz = C
BERNOULLI EQUATION

V2 p + dn + z = C R

Restrictions : Steady flow. Incompressible flow. Frictionless flow. NO shear force Flow normal to a streamline.
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If gravity is neglectedFree vortex

dz dp V = dn dn R
2

X A larger speed or density or smaller radius of curvature of the motion required a larger force unbalance to produce the motion. X If gravity is neglected or if the flow is in a horizontal
dp V 2 = dn R
Pressure increases with distance away from the center of curvature. Thus, the pressure outside a tornado is larger than it is near the center of the tornado.
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Aircraft wing tip vortex

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Example 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to a Streamline

z Shown in Figure E3.3a and E3.3b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The velocity distributions are
V( r ) = C1r (a ) C2 V( r ) = r ( b)

p V 2 cos = n R

Assuming the flows are steady, inviscid, and incompressible with streamlines in the horizontal plane (dz/dn=0).

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Example 3.3 Solution

For flow in the horizontal plane (dz/dn=0). The streamlines are circles /n=-/r The radius of curvature R=r

dz dp V 2 = R dn dn

p V 2 = r r
For case (a) this gives
p 2 = C1 r r
1 2 2 p = C1 r 2 r0 + p0 2
1 1 2 1 p = C 2 2 + p0 2 r 2 r0
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For case (b) this gives

p C2 = 3 r r
2

Physical Interpreter1/2

dV as = V ds

V2 an = R

Under the basic assumptions: the flow is steady and the fluid is inviscid and incompressible. Application of F=ma and integration of equation of motion along and normal to the streamline result in

V p+ + z = C 2 BTo produce an acceleration, there must be an unbalance of the resultant force, of which only pressure and gravity were considered to be important. Thus, there are three process involved in the flow mass times acceleration (the V2/2 term), pressure (the p term), and weight (the z term).
2

V p + dn + z = C R

pz

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Physical Interpreter2/2

BThe Bernoulli equation is a mathematical statement of The work done on a particle of all force acting on the particle is equal to the change of the kinetic energy of the particle. ;Work done by force : Fd. 9Work done by weight: z 9Work done by pressure force: p ;Kinetic energy: V2/2
2 V V dn = C p + z + = C p + z + R 2

Based on

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Head

The Bernoulli Equation can be written in terms of heights called heads

An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing each term by
streamline

P V2 + +z=c 2g
Pressure Head Velocity Head

Elevation Head

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Example 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and Pressure Energy

z Consider the flow of water from the syringe shown in Figure E3.4. A force applied to the plunger will produce a pressure greater than atmospheric at point (1) within the syringe. The water flows from the needle, point (2), with relatively high velocity and coasts up to point (3) at the top of its trajectory. Discuss the energy of the fluid at point (1), (2), and (3) by using the Bernoulli equation.
point (1) (2) (3)
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Example 3.4 Solution

The sum of the three types of energy (kinetic, potential, and pressure) or heads (velocity, elevation, and pressure) must remain constant. 1 2 p + V + z = cons tan t along the streamline 2 The motion results in a change in the magnitude of each type of energy as the fluid flows from one location to another.
The pressure gradient between (1) and (2) produces an acceleration to eject the water form the needle. Gravity acting on the particle between (2) and (3) produces a deceleration to cause the water to come to a momentary stop at the top of its flight.
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Example 3.5 Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream

z Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow shown in Figure E3.5. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while from C to D they follow circular paths. Describe the pressure variation between points (1) and (2)and points(3) and (4)

point (1)(2) point(3)(4)

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Example 3.5 Solution1/2

R= , for the portion from A to B

p + rz = cons tan t

Point (1)~(2)

Using p2=0,z1=0,and z2=h2-1

p1 = p2 + r ( z 2 z1 ) = p2 + rh 2 1
Since the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite, the pressure variation in the vertical direction is the same as if the fluids were stationary.

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Example 3.5 Solution2/2

For the portion from C to D

p4 +

z4

z3

V2 ( dz ) + rz 4 = p 3 + rz 3 R

Point (3)~(4)

With p4=0 and z4-z3=h4-3 ,this becomes

V2 p3 = rh 43 dz z3 R
z4

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Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure1/5

Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a form of pressure.
V2 p + z + =C 2
Each term can be interpreted as a form of pressure

p is the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it flows. To measure this pressure, one must move along with the fluid, thus being static relative to the moving fluid. Hence, it is termed the static pressure seen by the fluid particle as it moves.
p staticstatic pressure
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Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure2/5 wall pressuretapstatic

pressure

The static pressure is measured in a flowing fluid using a wall pressure tap, or a static pressure probe. The static pressure p1 = h 31 + p3 = h 31 + h 43 = h z is termed the hydrostatic pressure. It is not actually a pressure but does represent the change in pressure possible due to potential energy variations of the fluid as a result of elevation changes.

38

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and V /2 3/5 Total Pressure 2

2

is termed the dynamic pressure. It can be interpreted as the pressure at the end of a small tube inserted into the flow and pointing upstream. After the initial transient motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a height of H. The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip (2), will be stationary. That is, V2=0, or point (2) is a stagnation point.
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V2/2

1 2 1 p = p + V Stagnation pressure 2 1 2
Static pressure
Dynamic pressure
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stagnation pressure

Stagnation point

Stagnation point flow

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Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure4/5 stagnation point

stagnation point

There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed into a flowing fluid. Some of the fluid flows over and some under the object. The dividing line is termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation point on the body. Neglecting the elevation effects, the stagnation pressure is the largest pressure obtainable along a given streamline.
stagnation point stagnation point
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Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure5/5

The sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure, and hydrostatic pressure is termed the total pressure. The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total pressure remains constant along a streamline.
Total pressure

V2 p+ + z = p T = cons tan t 2
Total pressurestreamline

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The Pitot-static Tube

Pitot-static stubes measure fluid velocity by converting 1/5 velocity into pressure. streamlinetotal pressure

Knowledge of the values of the static and stagnation pressure in a fluid implies that the fluid speed can be calculated. This is the principle on which the Pitotstatic tube is based.
p 2 = p 3 = p + V 2 / 2 Stagnation pressure z1 z 4 p 4 = p1 = p Static pressure p 3 p 4 = V 2 / 2 >> V = 2( p 3 p 4 ) /
staticstagnation pressure
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Airplane Pitot-static probe

Airspeed indicator

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The Pitot-static Tube 2/5

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The Pitot-static Tube 3/5

The use of pitot-static tube depends on the ability to measure the static and stagnation pressure. An accurate measurement of static pressure requires that none of the fluids kinetic energy be converted into a pressure rise at the point of measurement. This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections.
Taps

Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps.

46

The Pitot-static Tube 4/5

The pressure along the surface of an object varies from the stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to value that may be less than free stream static pressure. It is important that the pressure taps be properly located to ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static pressure.
taps static pressure

Typical pressure distribution along a Pitot-static tube.

47

The Pitot-static Tube 5/5

Pitot-static tube

Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular cylinder, fitted with small tubes, and connected to three pressure transducers. The cylinder is rotated until the pressures in the two side holes are equal, thus indicating that the center hole points directly upstream.
P1=P3

If =0

P1 = P3 2 (P2 P1 ) V=
Directional-finding Pitot-static tube.
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1 2

Example 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube

z An airplane flies 100mi/hr at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a standard atmosphere as shown in Figure E3.6. Determine the pressure at point (1) far ahead of the airplane, point (2), and the pressure difference indicated by a Pitot-static probe attached to the fuselage.

Pitot-static tube

49

Example 3.6 Solution 1/2

10,000ft

The static pressure and density at the altitude

3 = 0 . 001756 slug / ft p1 = 1456lb / ft (abs) = 10.11psia
2

If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible and elevation changes are neglected. The Bernoulli equation

V p2 = p1 + 2

2 1

With V1=100mi/hr=146.6ft/s and V2=0

p 2 = 1456lb / ft 2 + (0.001756slugs / ft 3 )(146.7 2 ft 2 / s 2 ) / 2 = (1456 + 18.9)lb / ft 2 (abs)

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Example 3.6 Solution 2/2

In terms of gage pressure

p2 = 18.9lb / ft 2 = 0.1313psi
The pressure difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube

V p 2 p1 = = 0.1313psi 2
2 1

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Application of Bernoulli Equation 1/2

Bernoulli equation

The Bernoulli equation can be applied between any two points on a streamline provided that the other three restrictions are satisfied. The result is streamline

V1 V2 p1 + + z1 = p 2 + + z 2 2 2
2 2
Bernoulli equation

Restrictions : Steady flow. Incompressible flow. Frictionless flow. Flow along a streamline.

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Application of Bernoulli Equation 2/2

Bernoulli equation

Free jet. Confined flow. Flowrate measurement

53

Free Jets

1/3

V1 V2 p1 + + z1 = p 2 + + z 2 2 2
2 2

Application of the Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2) on the streamline p1=p2=0 z1=hz2=0V1=0 2 V h = 2 2 h V= = 2 gh
At point (5)

V = 2g ( h + H )

p1=p5=0 z1=h+Hz2=0V1=0
54

Free Jets
Flow from a tank

55

Free Jets

2/3

V1 V2 p1 + + z1 = p 2 + + z 2 2 2
2 2

For the horizontal nozzle, the velocity at the centerline, V2, will be greater than that at the top V1. In general, d<<h and use the V2 as average velocity.
V2>V1 d<<hV2

For a sharp-edged orifice, a vena contracta effect occurs. The effect is the result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90 corner.
90

56

Free Jets

3/3

V1 V2 p1 + + z1 = p 2 + + z 2 2 2
2 2

flow pattern

Typical flow patterns and contraction coefficients for various round exit configuration. The diameter of a fluid jet is often smaller than that of the hole from which it flows.
Define Cc = contraction coefficient

Cc =

Aj Ah

Aj=area of the jet at the vena contracta Ah=area of the hole

57

Example 3.7 Flow From a Tank Gravity

z A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1m flows steadily from a tank of Diameter D = 1.0m as shown in Figure E3.7a. Determine the flowrate, Q, needed from the inflow pipe if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0m.
flowrate Q

58

Example 3.7 Solution1/2 V

V2 1 p1 + + z1 = p 2 + + z 2 2 2 The Bernoulli equation applied between points (1) and (2) is

2 2

Bernoulli equationpoint(1)(2) 1 1 2 2 p1 + V1 + z 1 = p 2 + V2 + z 2 (1) 2 2

With p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h, and z2 = 0 Point(1)(2)

1 2 1 2 (2) V1 + gh = V2 2 2 For steady and incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires Q1 = Q2, where Q = AV. Thus, A1V1 =A2V2 , or

2 D V1 = d 2 V2 4 4

d 2 V1 = ( ) V2 (3) D
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Example 3.7 Solution2/2

Combining Equation 2 and 3
2gh 2(9.81m / s 2 )( 2.0m) V2 = = = 6.26m / s 4 4 1 (d / D) 1 (0.1m / 1m)

Thus,

Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2 = (0.1m) 2 (6.26m / s) = 0.0492m 3 / s 4

V10 (Q) vs. V10 (Q0)

Q V2 = = Q0 V2 D = 2 gh /[1 (d / D) 4 ] 2 gh = 1 1 (d / D) 4
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Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank-Pressure

z Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter D=0.03m and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of diameter d=0.01m as shown in Figure E3.8. The pressure in the tank remains constant at 3.0kPa (gage) and the atmospheric conditions are standard temperature and pressure. Determine the flowrate and the pressure in the hose.

flowrate Point(2)
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Example 3.8 Solution1/2

For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along the streamline Bernoulli equationpoint(1)(2)(3) 1 1 1 2 2 2 p1 + V1 + z1 = p 2 + V2 + z 2 = p 3 + V3 + z 3 2 2 2 With z1 =z2 = z3 , V1 = 0, and p3=0 Point(1)(2)(3)
2p1 V3 = and 1 2 p2 = p1 V2 2
(1)

The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the perfect gas law
p 103 N / kN 2 = = [( 3.0 + 101) kN / m ] = 1.26kg / m 3 RT1 ( 286.9 N m / kg K )(15 + 273) K
62

Example 3.8 Solution2/2

Thus,
2 2p1 2(3.0 103 N / m 2 ) 3 or Q = A V = d V = 0 . 00542 m /s V3 = = = 69 . 0 m / s 3 3 3 3 4 1.26kg / m

The pressure within the hose can be obtained from Eq. 1 and the continuity equation
A 2 V2 = A 3V3 Hence, V2 = A 3V3 / A 2 = 7.67m / s
1 1 p 2 = p1 V2 2 = 3.0 103 N / m 2 (1.26kg / m 3 )(7.67 m / s) 2 2 2 = (3000 37.1) N / m 2 = 2963N / m 2
63

Example 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe

z Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Figure E3.9. The static pressures at (1) and (2) are measured by the inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.

Determine the manometer reading, h.

reading h

64

Example 3.9 Solution1/2

For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along the streamline 1 1 2 2 p1 + pV1 + z1 = p 2 + pV2 + z 2 2 2 The continuity equation

Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2
Combining these two equations

1 2 p1 p 2 = ( z 2 z 1 ) + pV2 [1 ( A 2 / A1 ) 2 ] 2

(1)

65

Example 3.9 Solution2/2

This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and determine by using the pressure-depth ideas developed in Chapter 2.

p1 ( z 2 z 1 ) l h + SGh + l = p 2
or

- +
(2)

p1 p 2 = ( z 2 z 1 ) + (1 SG ) h

Point(1)(2)

1 2 A2 (1 SG ) h = pV2 1 A 2 1
Since V2=Q/A2

be independent of

h = (Q / A 2 )

1 ( A 2 / A1 ) 2 2g(1 SG )
66

Confined Flows 1/4

devicenozzlepipe

When the fluid is physically constrained within a device, its pressure cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for the free jet. Such cases include nozzle and pipes of various diameter for which the fluid velocity changes because the flow area is different from one section to another. For such situations, it is necessary to use the concept of conservation of mass (the continuity equation) along with the Bernoulli equation.

Tools: Bernoulli equation + Continuity equation

67

Confined Flows 2/4

Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume that has one inlet and one outlet. Conservation of mass requires 1A1V1 = 2 A 2 V2 For incompressible flow, the continuity equation is

A1V1 = A 2 V2

Q1 = Q2

68

Confined Flows 3/4

If the fluid velocity is increased, the pressure will decrease. This pressure decrease can be large enough so that the pressure in the liquid is reduced to its vapor pressure.
vapor pressure
Pressure variation and cavitation in a variable area pipe.

Venturi channel

69

Confined Flows 4/4 example of cavitation

A example of cavitation can be demonstrated with a garden hose. If the hose is kinked, a restriction in the flow area will result. The water velocity through the restriction will be relatively large. With a sufficient amount of restriction the sound of the flowing water will change a definite hissing sound will be produced. The sound is a result of cavitation.

70

Damage from Cavitation

bubble

Cavitation from propeller

71

Example 3.10 Siphon and Cavitation

z Water at 60 is siphoned from a large tank through a constant diameter hose as shown in Figure E3.10. Determine the maximum height of the hill, H, over which the water can be siphoned without cavitation occurring. The end of the siphon is 5 ft below the bottom of the tank. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.

Max. Hcavitation

The value of H is a function of both the specific weight of the fluid, , and its vapor pressure, pv.

72

Example 3.10 Solution1/2

For ready, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from (1) to (2) to (3)
1 2 1 2 1 2 p1 + V1 + z1 = p2 + V2 + z2 = p3 + V3 + z3 2 2 2
(1)

With z1 = 15 ft, z2 = H, and z3 = -5 ft. Also, V1 = 0 (large tank), p1 = 0 (open tank), p3 = 0 (free jet), and from the continuity equation A2V2 = A3V3, or because the hose is constant diameter V2 = V3. The speed of the fluid in the hose is determined from Eq. 1 to be
(1)(3)

V3 = 2g( z 1 z 3 ) = 2(32.2ft / s 2 )[15 ( 5)]ft = 35.9ft / s = V2

(1)(2)
73

Example 3.10 Solution2/2

Use of Eq. 1 between point (1) and (2) then gives the pressure p2 at the top of the hill as
1 1 1 p 2 = p1 + V12 + z 1 V22 z 2 = ( z 1 z 2 ) V22 2 2 2
(2)

The vapor pressure of water at 60 is 0.256 psia. Hence, for incipient cavitation the lowest pressure in the system will be p = 0.256 psia. Using gage pressure: p1 = 0, p2=0.256 14.7 = -14.4 psi
1 ( 14.4lb / in.2 )(144in.2 / ft 2 ) = (62.4lb / ft 3 )(15 H )ft (1.94slugs / ft 3 )(35.9ft / s) 2 2

H = 28.2 ft
74

Flowrate Measurement
Various flow meters are governed by the Bernoulli and continuity equations.
Flow meters

in pipes 1/5

1 1 2 2 p1 + V1 = p 2 + V2 2 2 Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2
The theoretical flowrate

Q = A2

2( p1 p2 ) [1 ( A 2 / A1 )2 ]

Typical devices for measuring flowrate in pipes

75

Example 3.11 Venturi Meter

z Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the Venturi meter shown in Figure E3.11 with flowrates between 0.005 and 0.050 m3/s. Determine the range in pressure difference, p1 p2, needed to measure these flowrates. point(1)(2)

Known Q, Determine p1-p2

76

Example 3.11 Solution1/2

For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the relationship between flowrate and pressure

Q [1 ( A / A ) ] p p = 2A 2 2
2 2 1 1 2

Q = A2

2( p1 p2 ) [1 ( A 2 / A1 )2 ]

Eq. 3.20

The density of the flowing fluid

= SG H 2 O = 0.85(1000 kg/m 3 ) = 850 kg/m 3

The area ratio

A 2 /A1 = ( D 2 / D1 ) 2 = (0.006m / 0.10m) 2 = 0.36

77

Example 3.11 Solution2/2

The pressure difference for the smallest flowrate is
2 ( 1 0 . 36 ) 3 2 3 p1 p 2 = (0.005m /s) (850kg/m ) 2[( / 4)(0.06m) 2 ]2 = 1160 N/m 2 = 1.16kPa

The pressure difference for the largest flowrate is

2 ( 1 0 . 36 ) 2 p 1 p 2 = ( 0 .05 )( 850 ) 2[( / 4 )( 0 .06 m ) 2 ]2 = 1 . 16 10 5 N/m 2 = 116 kPa

1.16kPa p1-p 2 116kPa

78

Flowrate Measurement sluice gate 2/5

The sluice gate is often used to regulate and measure the flowrate in an open channel. The flowrate, Q, is function of the water depth upstream, z1, the width of the gate, b, and the gate opening, a. 1 1 2 2 p1 + V1 + z1 = p 2 + V2 + z 2 2 2 Q = A1V1 = bV1z1 = A 2 V2 = bV2 z 2 With p1=p2=0, the flowrate

2g(z1 z 2 ) Q = z 2b 2 1 (z 2 / z1 )

79

Flowrate Measurement sluice gate 3/5

In the limit of z1>>z2, this result simply becomes
Q = z 2 b 2gz1
z1z2

This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio, z1/z2, is large, the kinetic energy of the fluid upstream of the gate is negligible and the fluid velocity after it has fallen a distance (z1-z2)~z1 is approximately

V2 = 2gz1

Z2 ?? Q z2<a Z2 = Cc a
Cc
80

Flowrate Measurement sluice gate 4/5

As we discussed relative to flow from an orifice, the fluid cannot turn a sharp 90 corner. A vena contracta results with a contraction coefficient, Cc=z2/a, less than 1. Typically Cc~0.61 over the depth ratio range of 0<a/z1<0.2. For large value of a/z1, the value of Cc increase rapidly.
Cc 10.61 a/z1 Cc

81

Example 3.12 Sluice Gate

z Water flows under the sluice gate in Figure E3.12a. Dertermine the approximate flowrate per unit width of the channel.

82

Example 3.12 Solution1/2

For steady, inviscid, incompreesible flow, the flowerate per unit width
Q 2 g ( z1 z 2 ) = z2 b 1 ( z 2 / z1 ) 2

2g(z1 z 2 ) Q = z 2b 1 (z 2 / z1 )2

Eq.3.21

With z1=5.0m and a=0.80m, so the ratio a/z1=0.16<0.20. Assuming contraction coefficient is approximately Cc=0.61. z2=Cca=0.61(0.80m)=0.488m. The flowrate
Q 2(9.81m / s2 )(5.0m 0.488m) 2 = (0.488m) = 4 . 61 m /s 2 b 1 (0.488m / 5.0m)
83

Example 3.12 Solution1/2

If we consider z1>>z2 and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream fluid, we would have

Q = z 2 2gz1 = 0.488m 2(9.81m / s 2 )(5.0m ) = 4.83m 2 / s b

84

Flowrate Measurement weir 5/5

For a typical rectangular, sharp-crested, the flowrate over the top of the weir plate is dependent on the weir height, Pw, the width of the channel, b, and the head, H, of the water above the top of the weir. The flowrate Q = C1AV = C1Hb 2gH = C1b 2g H
Where C1 is a constant to be determined.
3/ 2

85

Example 3.13 Weir

z Water flows over a triangular weir, as is shown in Figure E3.13. Based on a simple analysis using the Bernoulli equation, determine the dependence of flowrate on the depth H. If the flowrate is Q0 when H=H0, estimate the flowrate when the depth is increased to H=3H0. H3

86

Example 3.13 Solution

For steady , inviscid , and incompressible flow, the average speed of the fluid over the triangular notch in the weir plate is proportional to 2 gH The flow area for a depth of H is H[H tan( /2)] The flowrate

Q = C1AV = C1H tan ( 2gH ) = C1 tan 2g H 5 / 2 2 2

2

where C1 is an unknown constant to be determined experimentally. An increase in the depth by a factor of the three ( from H0 to 3H0 ) results in an increase of the flowrate by a factor of

Q3H 0 QH0

C1 tan ( / 2 ) 2g (3H 0 ) = = 15.6 5/ 2 C1 tan ( / 2 ) 2g (H 0 )

5/ 2

87

EL & HGL 1/4

For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow , the total energy remains constant along a streamline.

P V + + z = cons tan t = H 2g
HEAD

streamlinetotal head

p / g The head due to local static pressure (pressure energy)

V 2 / 2 g The head due to local dynamic pressure (kinetic energy)

z
H

The elevation head ( potential energy ) The total head for the flow
88

EL & HGL 2/4

Energy Line (EL) : represents the total head height.

P V2 + +z 2g

streamlinetotal head

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) height: represents the sum of the elevation and static pressure heads.

P +z

streamline

The difference in heights between the EL and the HGL represents the dynamic ( velocity ) head

V 2 / 2g

ELHGLstreamline

89

EL & HGL 3/4

P V2 + + z = cons tan t = H 2g

90

EL & HGL 4/4

P V2 + + z = cons tan t = H 2g

P V2 + + z = cons tan t = H 2g

91

Example 3.14 Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

z Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Figure E3.14 through a hose of constant diameter. A small hole is found in the hose at location (1) as indicate. When the siphon is used, will water leak out of the hose, or will air leak into the hose, thereby possibly causing the siphon to malfunction?

92

Example 3.14 Solution1/2

Whether air will leak into or water will leak out of the hose depends on whether the pressure within the hose at (1) is less than or greater than atmospheric. Which happens can be easily determined by using the energy line and hydraulic grade line concepts. With the assumption of steady, incompressible, inviscid flow it follows that the total head is constant-thus, the energy line is horizontal. Since the hose diameter is constant, it follows from the continuity equation (AV=constant) that the water velocity in the hose is constant throughout. Thus the hydraulic grade line is constant distance, V2/2g, below the energy line as shown in Figure E3.14.
93

Example 3.14 Solution2/2

Since the pressure at the end of the hose is atmospheric, it follows that the hydraulic grade line is at the same elevation as the end of the hose outlet. The fluid within the hose at any point above the hydraulic grade line will be at less than atmospheric pressure. Thus, air will leak into the hose through the hole at point (1).

94

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation compressibility effects 1/4

The assumption of incompressibility is reasonable for most liquid flows. In certain instances, the assumption introduce considerable errors for gases. To account for compressibility effects

dp 1 2 + 2 V + gz = C

95

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation compressibility effects 2/4

For isothermal flow of perfect gas
dp 1 2 RT + V + gz = cons tan t 2

V12 RT P1 V2 + z1 + ln = + z2 2g g P2 2g

For isentropic flow of perfect gas the density and pressure are related by P / k =Ct, where k = Specific heat ratio

1 2 C P dP + V + gz = cons tan t 2 2 2 k P2 V2 k P1 V1 + gz1 = + gz 2 + + 2 k 1 1 2 k 1 2

96

1 k

1 k

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation compressibility effects 3/4

To find the pressure ratio as a function of Mach Speed of sound number
The upstream Mach number M a1 = V1 / c1 = V1 / kRT1
k k 1 + p p k 1 2 1 Compressible flow 2 = 1 + 1 Ma 1 p1 2

Incompressible flow

p 2 p1 k 2 = M a1 p1 2
97

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation compressibility effects 4/4

k p 2 p1 k + 1 2 k 1 = 1 + M a1 1 p1 2

p 2 p1 k 2 = M a1 p1 2

98

Example 3.15 Compressible Flow Mach Number

z A Boeing 777 flies at Mach 0.82 at an altitude of 10 km in a standard atmosphere. Determine the stagnation pressure on the leading edge of its wing if the flow is incompressible; and if the flow is incompressible isentropic. For incompressible flow For compressible isentropic flow
k p 2 p1 k + 1 2 k 1 = 1 + M a1 1 = ... = 0.55 p1 2 p 2 p1 = .... = 14.7kPa

p 2 p1 k 2 = M a1 = ... = 0.471 p1 2 p 2 p1 = ...12.5kPa

99

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation unsteady effects

For unsteady flow V = V ( s , t )
V V +V aS = t s

To account for unsteady effects

V 1 ds + dp + d (V 2 ) + dz = 0 t 2

Oscillations in a U-tube

Along a streamline

+ Incompressible condition
S 2 V 1 2 1 2 p1 + V1 + z1 = ds + p 2 + V2 + z 2 S 1 2 t 2
100

Example 3.16 Unsteady Flow U-Tube

z An incompressible, inviscid liquid is placed in a vertical, constant diameter U-tube as indicated in Figure E3.16. When released from the nonequilibrium position shown, the liquid column will oscillate at a specific frequency. Determine this frequency.

101

Example 3.16 Solution

Let points (1) and (2) be at the air-water interface of the two columns of the tube and z=0 correspond to the equilibrium position of the interface. Hence z = 0 , p1 =p2 = 0, z1 = 0, z2 = - z , V1 = V2 = V z = z ( t )

S2

S1

V dV dV S2 ds = l ds = dt t dt S1
The total length of the liquid colum

dV ( z ) = l + z dt dz = g V= dt d 2 z 2g 2 + z=0 dt l

Liquid oscillation
= 2g / l

102