Willinsky,J.(2005).DemocracyandEducation:TheMissingLinkMayBeOurs.OpenJournal SystemDemonstrationJournal,1(1).

DemocracyandEducation:TheMissingLinkMayBeOurs
JohnWillinsky,UniversityofBritishColumbia MuchhaschangedsinceDewey(1916)firstlaidoutinDemocracyandEducation hisvisionoftheUSasastateofperpetualinquirywherecitizensareengagedin sharingeducationalexperiences.Changesforthegoodincludeextending suffragetowomenandpeopleofcolor,risingeducationalattainment,the successfulchallengingofracialsegregationinthecourts,andtherecognitionof culturaldiversitythroughmulticulturalinitiatives.Ontheotherhand,American voterparticipationhasdeclined,particularlysincethe1960s;civicinvolvement, nottomentionbowlingleaguemembership,isdown(Putman,2000);corporate controlofthemediahasincreased,ashasthemediaspoliticalinfluence (Bagdikian,2000;McChesney,1999);andaffirmativeactionmeasures,which wereshowingpositiveeducationaleffects(BowenandBok,1998),arebeing challengedandblocked(Dworkin,2001). Againstthiscenturylongbackdrop,wenowfacearatherdifferentorder ofpoliticalchangewiththerapiddevelopmentoftheInternet.Overthecourseof thelasttenyears,theInternethasopenedanewworldofinformationtothe public.Theincreasedaccesstoinformationrelatestoeveryaspectofourlives andisonsuchascalethatitseemsboundtoaltertherelationshipbetween democracyandeducation.WhethertheintroductionoftheInternetbears comparisonwiththerevolutionthatGutenberginitiatedwithhisinventionof moveabletypeandprintersink,asChristineBorgmancontends(2000),itseems tomefartooearlytosay.Whilethepoliticalandeducationalimpactofthe printingpresswascenturiesinthemaking,Ithinkthatwecoulddoworsethan beinspiredbysuchhistoricalanalogiesinoureffortstomakesenseofthisnew communicationtechnologyandtoshapehowitisusedinthispoliticaland educationalsense.Certainly,theInternethasalreadystartingshowingsignsthat itwillreshapepoliticalparticipationandthewaywearegoverned,withthe emphasisinthisnewdigitaldemocracyonprovidingmorepowerfulpublic accesstoinformationandofficials(AlexanderandPal,1998;HagueandLoader, 1999;Heeks(1999),andWilhem,2000) Onedramatic,ifsurprising,exampleoftheInternetsdemocraticimpacton publiceducationandempowerment,initsbroadestsense,iswithpublicaccess tohealthinformation.Theresulthasbeenthatpatientsandtheirfamiliesnow

bringWebbasedmedicalinformationtotheirdoctorsoffices,althoughthey maynotunderstanditwell,noristheinformationalwaysreliable.However,itis theveryavailabilityofthisinformationthatisalteringthenexusofpowerand knowledgeindoctorpatientrelationshipsonthesideofmoreempoweringand democraticprocessesaswellasfosteringmoreinformativeandeducational visitsforbothparties.1Thetechnologyisalsobeingusedtobetterinformpeople inamoretraditionalpoliticalsense,asgovernmentsinthedevelopedworld continuetoexpandnewonlineinformationservices.Theseservicesincrease citizensabilitiestotapintotheirrightsandentitlements,tomorethoroughly explorepoliciesandprograms,andtoinundatepoliticianswiththeirviewsand positionsbyemail.2 Scholarlypublishingoutsidethelifescienceshasalsobeguntocontribute tothisgreaterworldofpublicinformation,withelectronicjournalsandresearch websitesinmanydisciplinesprovidingopenaccesstotheirarticlesandother scholarlyresources.Scientistshavecreated,oftenwithgovernmentsupport, substantialopenaccessindexesandabstractservicesforresearch,aswellas manyfulltextarchivesthatcanbefreelyaccessedbytheircolleaguesand studentsglobally.3Thesenewopenaccesssystemsstillofferonlypartial,often overlapping,coverageoftheirrespectivefieldsofstudy.Asthingscurrently stand,mostelectronicjournals,includingthosepublishedbyscholarlysocieties, aswellascommercialacademicpublishers,stillrequirealibraryorindividual subscriptiontoaccessthem.Butthereisagrowingopenaccessmovementafoot amongresearchers,perhapsbestindicatedbythenearly30,000signaturesfrom scientistsin177countriesonthePublicLibraryofSciencepetitioncallingfor openaccesstoscientificresearch:Webelievethatthepermanent,archival recordofscientificresearchandideas,thePublicLibraryofSciencewebsite states,shouldneitherbeownednorcontrolledbypublishers,butshouldbelong tothepublic,andshouldbemadefreelyavailable.Wesupporttheestablishment
1

The federally funded MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/) provides an excellent example. For a discussion of changing doctor-patient relationships, see Freudenheim (2000, p. A1). 2 For example, in British Columbia, InfoSmart is the B.C. governments strategic framework to improve the way it works and delivers services to the public using information technology (http://www.ista.gov.bc.ca/InfoSmart.htm). In the U.S., members of Congress received 80 million emails last year from constituents (Congress Struggles, 2001). 3 The federally funded PubMed, for example, contains 11 million citations with full-text access to 1,800 journals (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi); Paul Ginspargs Los Alamos National Laboratory self-archiving e-print service will post 35,000 articles this year (htpp://arXiv.org); Stanford University Librarys HighWire Press offers one of the 2 largest free full-text science archives on earth with over 250,000 free full-text articles and hundreds of thousands of pay-for-view articles (http://highwire.stanford.edu); and NECs Researchindex (Lawrence, Giles, and Bollacker, 1999) provides access to 300,000 articles from among its four million citations (http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/cs). Also see, for example, William Y. Arms (2000) on open access principle and Peterson (2001), as well as Robert Camerons (1997) proposal for a freely available universal citation database,

ofinternationalonlinepubliclibrariesofsciencethatcontainthecompletetextof allpublishedscientificarticlesinsearchableandinterlinkedformats.4 Thosewhohavesignedhaveagreedtosubmitto,reviewfor,andeditonly thosejournalsthat,thewebsitegoesontosay,grantunrestrictedfree distributionrightstoanyandalloriginalresearchreportsthattheyhave published,throughPubMedCentralandsimilaronlinepublicresources,within sixmonthsoftheirinitialpublicationdate.Thisdeterminationtomakeopen andcompleteaccesstoscientificknowledgeavailabletomedicalstudentsin Tanzania,highschoolteachersinLatvia,biochemistsinVietnam,aswellas communitycollegestudentsinMontana,representsexactlythesortofidealfor scholarlypublishingonaglobalscalethatIholdtobepartoftheInternetsgreat democraticpromise. SuchmoveshavebeensupportedbytheOpenArchivesInitiative,which beganin1999,andhasdevelopedstandardsthatenablegloballydistributed researchdatabasestoshareacommonindexingormetadatasystemsothatthey canbesearchedfromasinglesource.5Morerecently,theBudapestOpenAccess Initiative,fundedbytheSorosFoundation,hasbeenlaunchedtosupportand speedupprocessesthatmakeresearcharticlesinallacademicfieldsfreely availableontheinternet.6ThereisalsotheOpenKnowledgeInitiative,whichis makingMITscoursematerialsandcoursewarefreelyavailabletothepublic, whilethePublicKnowledgeProject,withwhichIworkattheUniversityof BritishColumbia,isdevelopingfreesoftwaretohelpjournalsandconferences aroundtheglobepublishopenaccessscholarlyresourcesinaneasilymanaged andwellindexedform.7 Thisemergingcommitmentamongscholarstomaketheknowledgethey createfreelyavailableisattheheartofmyowncallonthereadersandeditorsof thisjournaltoconsiderhowturningeducationalresearchintoamoreaccessible publicresourcecanfurthertheconnectionbetweendemocracyandeducation. Whileofferingopenaccesstoallformsofscholarlyresearchiscertainlyaglobal boontostudentsandfacultyaswellascuriousmindseverywhere,ithasa specialpoliticalsignificanceforthesocialsciences,asthisworkbearsdirectlyon socialpolicies,programs,andpractices.Ifopenaccesstoresearchinthelife sciencescancreateamoredemocraticandeducationaldynamicindoctorpatient relationships,then,asIhavearguedelsewhere,itisworthexploringacrossthe
4 5

Public Library of Science (http://www.publiclibraryofscience.org/). Open Archives Initiative (http://www.openarchives.org). 6 Budapest Open Access Initiative (http://www.soros.org/openaccess/). 7 Open Knowledge Initiative (http://web.mit.edu/oki); the Public Knowledge Project (http://pkp.ubc.ca) is a federally funded research initiative at the University of British Columbia that seeks to improve the scholarly and public quality of academic research through innovative online environments.

socialsciences(Willinsky,2000).HereIamspecificallyaskingresearchersinthe fieldofeducationtoweighthereasonswhyforgreaterpublicaccessto educationalresearchisconsistentwithourunderstandingofourownworkas fosteringeducationandfurtheringdemocraticparticipation,justasitholdsthe loveoflearningandpursuitofknowledgethathasdrivensomanyofusinthis lineofwork ButbeforeIgoanyfurtherletmemakeitclearthatprovidingpublicaccess toeducationalresearchtakesmorethansimplypostingjournalpagesontheWeb asifitwereagiantbulletinboardatthebackofagreatpublicclassroom.Itwill requirerethinkinghowourresearchworks,onceitispublished,intermsofhow itconnectstoalargerworld.Althoughwehavegrowncomfortablewithstuffing thejournalinourbookbagattheendoftheday,toopenitlateratthekitchen tableorincafs,theselowcirculation,finelyboundvolumesarebecoming hardertojustifyagainsttheirelectroniccounterparts.Theprintjournalis provingtooexpensiveforevenwellfinancedresearchlibraries,letalone universitiesindevelopingnations,anditisnowherenearasefficientforlocating specificideasorfollowingthemacrosscitations,fordelvingintothedataor comparingrelatedstudies.8Thisisatime,then,forrethinkingthescholarly journal(ratherthanthebook,Iwouldhold,perhapstoonostalgically)inways thatrelatetothescholarlyandpublicqualitiesofourwork. Thisessayisnot,however,aboutthetechnologiesbehindthisnew publishingmedium.Itisdevotedtopresentingthereasonswhyeducational researchersshoulddomoretofosteropen,betterorganizedscholarly communicationinthenameofdemocracyandeducation,ratherthansettingout technicalsolutionsforachievingthisorganizedopenness.Still,Ithinkit importanttohavesomeideaofwhattheactualsystemsatissuemayentail. Whileopenaccesspublishingsimplyreferstoprovidingfreeaccesstothe completecontentsofajournalorotherresource,Ibelievesomethingmoreis requiredifwearetotrulyimprovethescholarlyandpublicqualityofresearch. Whileanumberofresearchgroupsaredevelopingnewpublishingtools thatimprovethequalityofaccesstoacademicjournals,weatthePublic KnowledgeProjectarecurrentlyworkingonfourcomponentsofonline publishingthatwebelievecansignificantlyimprovepublicaccesstoresearchin areassuchaseducation:(1)Onlinesystemsthatenablelesstechnicallyinclined facultymemberstomanagerefereedjournals,scholarlyconferences,andother researchsitesthatprovideopenaccesstocompletestudieswithsupportforless experiencesresearchreaders,thosewithdisabilities,andthosewithoutthelatest
On the unsustainable costs of journals, see ARL Monograph and Serial Costs in ARL Libraries, 19861999 (http://www.arl.org), on the potential of electronic journal indexing systems, see Willinsky and Wolfson (2001)
8

technology;(2)Comprehensive,openaccessandautomatedindexingand archivingsystemsforonlineresearch,whichallowreaderstolocaterefereed research,dissertations,andotherresources,andconductfinegrainedsearches by,forexample,researchtopic,samplecharacteristics,methodology,works cited,etc.;(3)Researchsupporttoolsthatenablereaderstoreadilymovefroma givenresearchstudytoitsdatasetandresearchinstruments,torelatedstudies, reviews,overviews,andglossaries,andtorelevantpolicy,program,andmedia materialsinotherdatabases;and(4)Openforumsforresearchers,professionals, policymakers,andthepublictodiscusseducationalissues,methods,and researchagendaswithinthecontextofthisbodyofresearch.9Youcanseehow thisapproachtoopenaccesspublishingwouldsupportboththescholarlyand publicqualityofresearch,asitnotonlyextendspublicaccessbutenhances facultymembersabilitytotrackideas,conductpeerreviews,andpositiontheir ownworkwithinthefield. Idonot,however,wanttounderestimatewhatitmeanstoaskjournalsto movefromthepaidsubscriptionworldofprinttoopenaccesspublishing,even ofthesimplestsort.Itisobviouslyamajorstepforajournaleditorialteamor professionalassociationtoundertake.Atthispointinthefieldofeducation,close toahundredejournals,includingsuchnotabletitlesasEducationalResearchers andTeachersCollegeRecord,havebeenmadefreelyavailableonline, demonstratingthatopenaccesscanbesustainedinthisfieldthrough institutionalandassociationsupport.10Thesoftwareforrunningapeerreview journalonlineisnowbeingmadefreelyavailablefromanumberofsources, includingthePublicKnowledgeProject.TheAssociationforResearchLibraries, whosememberlibrariescollectivelyspend$500milliononjournals,has understandablybegunsupportingprojectsinopenaccessandnonprofitonline publishing,underthethemeofreturningsciencetoscientists.11Onewayof thinkingaboutthefinancingofopenaccesspublishingistoseeitasamatterof reallocatingthat$500million,movingsomeportionofthismoneyfromtheoften excessivesubscriptionratesofcommercialpublisherstomoredirectformsof supportforonlinepublishingbytheleadingresearchinstitutions,whereagreat numberoftheeditorsandscholarlyassociationofficerswork.Asweslowly
See the Public Knowledge Project (http://pkp.ubc.ca), and for the full range of electronic publishing tools being used by academic journals, see McKiernan (2001). 10 See AERAs Electronic Journals in the Field of Education (http://aera-cr.ed.asu.edu/links.html). 11 The Association of Research Libraries provides support through the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC), where a listing of publishing resources can be found (http://www.arl.org/sparc/core/index.asp?page=h16). On new publishing economies, see Bailey (19962001) for a complete bibliography, Willinsky (2000a) for a funding model based on research library reallocation of funds and BioMed Central (http://www.biomedcentral.com) for open access supported by charging the authors a $500 processing fee (waived for developing countries).
9

weanourselvesawayoverthenextdecadefromwhatiscurrentlythe unsustainableandinefficientpublicationofbothprintandelectronicversionsof thesamejournal,myhopeisthatwetakeadvantageofthesenewtechnologiesto explorewithresearchlibrariesandprofessionalassociationsanalternative politicaleconomyforacademicknowledgethatisbasedonopenaccess publishing.Attheveryleast,itwouldplacethispublicgoodsquarelywithinthe publicrealm,infarmorethanarhetoricalsense. Asprofessorsofeducation,weseemespeciallywellpositionedtotestthe impactofthisnewcommunicationmediumonresearchspublicrole,especially asitmightfurthertherelationshipbetweendemocracyandeducation.And whiletherearereasonsenoughtobeskepticalabouttheeducationalimpactof thisnewtechnology(Cuban,2001;1986),Idonotthinkthatthisisthetimetosit backandwaitforthingsnottohappen,notwhenthepublicpresenceofourown workisatissue.Insofaraswearecommittedtothevalueofresearchin informingpolicyandpractice,wewoulddowelltotestwhetherthesenew publishingtechnologiescanincreasethecontributionthatresearchmakestothe publicsunderstandingofeducation,aswellascontributemoretoprofessional practicesandpolicydecisionswithineducation. Inaskingresearcherstoconsidernewwaysoftestingthepublicvalueof theirwork,Iamappealingtotheexperimentalqualityofdemocracywhichwas identifiednearlytwocenturiesagobyAlexisdeTocquevilleaspartofthevery dynamicoftheyoungAmericanrepublic.DeTocquevillewasinspiredbyhis visittoAmericain183132toconcludethat,Democraticerasareperiodsof experiment,innovation,andadventure(1969,p.672,n.1).12Andasthis democraticerahasnotended,sothisgreatexperiment,asdeTocqueville namedit,shouldbesustainedbyinnovationandadventureshouldbesustained todaywhendemocraticopportunitiesappeartopresentthemselves.Thatthereis somethingtodemocracyconstantlyinneedofrenewalandtestingwasalsoan operatingpremiseofJohnDewey.Considerhowthefinalresultsarestillnotin onDeweysowndemocraticexperimentwitheducation,forexample,which continuestoplayoutinprogressiveschoolstothisday.13Acrossawiderageof issues,wehaveyettoexhaustorfullyexplorethedemocraticpossibilitiesof deliberation,justice,orequality,justaswecontinuetoarriveoverthecourseof ourlifetimesatnewunderstandingsofwhatresponsibilityandfreedom,
12

Alexis de Tocqueville uses experiment many times in reference to American democracy, as is revealed by doing a search on the word with the online version of Democracy in America (http://xroads.virginia.edu/%7EHYPER/DETOC/1_ch01.htm). There is also Abraham Lincoln: Our popular Government has often been called an experiment (1861). 13 Dewey was prepared to re-evaluate his progressive education experiment, as he made clear in Education and Experience (1938) and as others continue to do (Ravitch, 2001).

communityandcooperationmeanwithinthedemocraticstateswithinwhichwe live.Mypremiseisthatatthispoint,giventhepossibilitiesforabetterinformed public,weneedtopushthedemocraticexperimentbyintroducingnewwaysof accessingandutilizingexistingsourcesofinformationbodiesofknowledgethat holdsomepromiseofcontributingtopolicymaking,personaldecisionmaking, andotherfacetsofdemocraticlife. Tothatend,Idevotetheremainderofthispapertosettingoutapolitical philosophyofpublicaccesstoscholarlypublishing,asitpertainstothestudyof education.Iarguethatpublishingsystemsthatprovidegreaterpublicaccessare likelytohelpustobetterunderstandandextendDeweysdemocratictheoryof education,whileenhancingtheprospectsofcreatingamoredeliberative democraticstate;andthattheyareinagoodpositiontoexpandeducationsrole withindemocracy,aswellasincreasetheimpactthateducationresearchhason practice,andprovideanalternativesourceofinformationtothemedias coverageofsuchissuesaseducation.Thinkoftheseargumentsasthefirststepin understandinghowthisnewonlinepublishingmediumisgoingtotestour fundamentalassumptionthateducationadvancesdemocracy.Thinkofthese argumentsasinvitingtheinformedconsentoftheeducationresearch community,thatitsmembersmightknowinglyagreetoparticipateinwhatmay wellprovetobetheprincipalpublishingexperimentofthisnewmediuminthe yearsahead.Now,experimentationwithelectronicpublicationisalreadywell underway,andopenaccesspublishinghasbeentestedandisnowthechannelof choiceforphysicists,whohavehadopenpreprintarchivesforoveradecade.14 Yettherealexperimentationwithsystemsthatserveaworldlargerthanthe researchersstillawaittheparticipationofresearchers,journaleditorsand scholarlysocieties,allofwhomhavenowtomakecriticaldecisionsaboutthese technologiesbasedonlargerissuesofsocialandpoliticalresponsibility.Itis time,Iamsuggesting,tothinkbeyondthespeedandconvenienceofourown desktopaccesstoresearch,andtoseeaccesstothisbodyofknowledge,inafield suchaseducation,asfarmoreofanexperimentinwhatDeweymightcallthe communicativequalityofdemocracy. Dewey,Deliberation,andDemocracy TheemphasisthatIplaceongoingpublicwithourresearchfollowsfrom Deweysconcernfortheparticularlyeducationalqualityofdemocraticlife.Can thesenewpublishingsystemsbemadetoserveDeweysdemocraticidealto enableindividualstocontinuetheirowneducation(1916,pp.100101)?Can theydosoinwaysthatimprovewhatiscurrentlyofferedbynewsstands,
14

For the physics experiment in open access publishing, see the arXiv.org E-Print Archive (http:arXiv.org).

bookstores,theWeb,andthemediamoregenerally?Cantheyextendeducation beyondformalschooling,whichisDeweyshopefordemocracy.ForDewey. educationinademocracyrepresentsabroadlybasedandlifelongembraceof learning:Notonlyissociallifeidenticalwithcommunication,butall communication(andhenceallgenuinesociallife)iseducative(1916,p.5). WhileDeweyrecognizesthatassocietiesbecomemorecomplexinstructure andresources,theneedforformalandintentionalteachingandlearning increases,heseekstoworkagainstanundesirablesplitbetweentheexperience gainedinmoredirectassociationsandwhatisacquiredinschool(p.9). Thisinterestinintegratinglearningintoagreaterpartoflifeisattheheart ofhiscontributiontoprogressiveeducation,aswellascentraltohisroleasa publicintellectual.TopursueDeweyspoliticalphilosophythroughthese publishingexperimentsistoseewhattheycandotointegratethesystematic inquiryofresearchwiththeexperiencegainedinmoredirectassociations.The questioniswhethergreateraccesstoresearch,aswellasitsintegrationwith otherformsofknowledge,canenhancehowpeopleworkanddeliberate together. Atissueiswhatmightbeframedasthedemocraticqualityof communicationwhichisconcernedwithgivingpeopleameanstoelaborate, substantiate,andchallengeeducationalideas,inthiscase,whetheratthepolicy orschoollevel.ForDewey,democracyisverymuchamatterofcommunication: Menliveinacommunityinvirtueofthethingstheyhaveincommon;and communicationisthewayinwhichtheycometopossessthingsincommon (1916,p.4).Healsoinsiststhatademocracyismorethanaformofgovernment; itisprimarilyamodeofassociatedliving,ofcojointcommunicatedexperience (p.87).Althoughhesayslittleofvotingbooths,candidatedebates,orissue advertising,Deweyfrequentlyreferstoabasiclevelofcommunicationamong people,especiallyinthiseducationalsense. Thecommunicationofresearch,however,posesaspecialchallengetothis democraticvision.Itisnotenoughtosimplyopenthedoorsoftheresearch librariesalittlewider.Deweyisconcernedwithpeoplebeingovercomebythe quantityandvarietyofknowledgetheyfaced:Manhasneverhadsuchavaried bodyofknowledgeinhispossessionbefore,andprobablyneverbeforehashe beensouncertainandsoperplexedastowhathisknowledgemeans,whatit pointstoinactionandconsequences(1988a,p.249).Elsewhere,Deweypoints tohowtheincreasingcomplexityoftheknowledgeentailedinorganizing modernsocietycreatesafundamentaldemocratictensionbetweenexpertand publiccontrol:Aclassofexpertsisinevitablysoremovedfromcommon interestsastobecomeaclasswithprivateinterestsandprivateknowledge, whichinsocialmattersisnotknowledgeatall(1988b,p.365).TothisDewey

addsthewarningthattheworldhassufferedmorefromleadersandauthorities thanfromthemasses(ibid).15 Ratherthanhavingpeopleresignthemselvestoexpertcontrol,Dewey seekstoincreasepublicaccesstothepertinentinformation.Hisowneffortsto supportanillfatednewspaperentitled,ThoughtNews,whichsoughttosellthe truthcametonaughtinhisearlydaysinMichigan(Lagemann,2000,p.45).Yet hecontinuedtoholdtotheideathatanewspaperwhichwasonlyadaily editionofaquarterlyjournalofsociologyorpoliticalscienceswould undoubtedlypossessalimitedcirculationandanarrowinfluence.Evenatthat, however,themereexistenceandaccessibilityofsuchmaterialwouldhavesome regulativeeffect(1988b,p.349).Thisregulativeeffectwouldbeonthesideofa betterinformedpublicwhowouldthenbeinapositiontoworkwith democracysnecessaryclassofexpertsratherthanbegovernedbythem.Suchis theintellectualfaithinsystematicinquirythatdrivesourwork.Dareweputitto thetest? YetDeweyscarefulreadingofdemocracyalsoleavesmetroubledwithits emphasisonassociatedliving,ofcojointcommunicatedexperiencebywhich peoplecometopossessthingsincommon(1916,p.87).Thisisonenotionof democracythathaschangedsinceDeweyfirstheldthatinordertohavealarge numberofvaluesincommon,allmembersofthegroupmusthaveanequable opportunitytoreceiveandtakefromothers.Theremustbealargevarietyof sharedunderstandingsandexperiences(1916,p.84).Instead,weseedemocracy asameansofgoverningthosewhodonotnecessarilysharealargevarietyof sharedunderstandingsandexperiences.Deweyssenseofthenationasa sharedexperiencetendstolimitdemocracysinclusiveness,justashisfocuson thenationitselfcurtailsamoreglobalapproachtothisdemocraticexchangeof understandingsandexperiences.16 Infact,oneargumentforgoingpublicwitheducationalresearchisthatit canbringintofocusthelevelofdiversitywithinwhichwealreadylive. Researchersownpluralityofvalues,methodsandunderstandingswhich
15

As I discuss elsewhere (2000b), Deweys stance on experts needs to be contrasted with the position of the popular political commentator Walter Lippmann who asked whether it is possible for men to find a way of acting effectively upon highly complex affairs by very simple means, as peoples political capacity is simple (1963a, p. 89-90). Lippmann saw the future lying in the hands of a technocracy of experts: They initiate, they administer, they settle (p. 92). Still Lippmann also held that a democracy must have a way of life which educates the people for the democratic way of life if only to make people safe for democracy (1963b, pp. 16, 26). 16 See Katharyne Mitchell (2001) on the the limits of Deweyean liberalism, as she explores the potential for educating students for democracy in a non-nationalist framework (p. 71, original emphasis); Author (in press) on the educational limits of nationalism; and the Council of Europe (1999) which has linked democratic citizenship with social cohesion, addressing issues of exclusion in the fields of housing, health, social protection and education, and calling for a coherent rather than a homogeneous whole.

includestheverycritiqueofsuchplurality(e.g.,Schlesinger,1992;Himmelfarb, 1995)furthersupportsaconceptofdemocracygiventoworkingwith differences,ratherthanseekingasingulartruthorvisionof,forexample,the goodschool.Democracyhasfarlesstooffer,afterall,ifpeopleareassumedto alreadybeinaccordonallthemajorissues.Thispluralism,then,providesthe veryreasonwhydemocraticcitizensarenecessarilyinterestedintalkingwith, andlearningfrom,eachother.Increasingthepublicpresenceofabodyof researchthatisitselfpluralisticinitsvalues,aswellasgiventorepresentingthe pluralitywithincommunities,canonlyhelpfurtherwhatisseenbymanyas researchsmostimportantdemocratictaskwhichistoasserttherightsofthose whoaretoooftenthoughttofalloutsidethekenofsharedconceptsandculture.17 Certainly,academicculturehasitsownshareofcommonvalues,from conventionsofevidencetopeerreview,justasdemocracyrequiresthe acceptanceofafewbasicprinciplesofequalityandjustice.18Yetwithinacademic culture,suchsharedvaluesaretemperedbyanethosofcritique,aswellasa championingofthedisenfranchised.Itmaybe,then,thatthisbodyofresearch canaffordthepublicnotonlyagreatermeansofunderstandinghowwelive withdifferences,butawayoftalkingaboutthatlifewhichgoesbeyondDeweys aimtohavealargenumberofvaluesincommon(1916,p.84).Readyaccessto thisresearchcouldbetterequippeople,whethereducators,reporters,parents,or politicians,topubliclychallengecomfortingmythsandassumptions,while providingmissingevidence,histories,andideasthatmayinspireawayforward. Thisknowledgewillnotresolvethedisputes.Ifitcanleveltheplayingfieldat all,itwillnotbebydumbingthingsdownbutbyprovidingaccesstoapowerful sourceofknowledge,enablingpeopletoexplorethelimitsoftheirownand othersclaims,whilebeingabletoidentifythedifferentperspectivesandvalues atplay. DeweywritesonthefinalpageofDemocracyandEducationthatall educationwhichdevelopspowertoshareeffectivelyinsociallifeismoral(1916,
17

Deweys sense of a democratic people possessing a large number of values in common (1916, p. 84) was not particularly sensitive to the recent influx of immigrants of the previous decades, nor to communities that fell outside such sharing, such as Native Americans, whose unqualified citizenship was only achieved in 1924, with full voting rights not guaranteed until 1970. Compare Deweys repeated contrasts of the savage with the civilized in thinking about democracy to the Native American influence on Rousseaus thinking about democracy and the possibilities of cooperative living (Sioui, 1992). Also see, Anthea Taylor (1996) on democratic educations insensitivities to Aboriginal Australians. 18 I do not, however, see democratic citizens requiring a commitment to a shared political morality, (Callan, 1997; p. 10). This commitment to a democratic morality, which Callan sees existing in tension with the accommodation of pluralism constrains democracys basic liberties. In educational settings, Callan argues it becomes rational to nourish a sense of solidarity among those who share that common status so far as solidarity makes it more likely that the relevant rights and duties are honored, to which I must add that such solidarity reduces the need to honor such rights and democracy itself (1997, p. 98).

p.360).Cantheimprovedaccessandintelligibilityofeducationalresearch contributetopeoplesexperienceofsuchpower?Isknowledgestillasourceof powerwhenitisavailabletoeveryone?Myargumentisthatwe,ascreatorsof suchknowledge,shouldfeelsomeobligationtotakeupandtestsuchquestions. Weneedtoexplorewhetherwearedoingallthatwecan,inlightofnew technologies,topromotethedemocraticlifebloodofeducativecommunication, asDeweywouldhaveit. YetasIhavealreadysuggestedourideasofdemocracydonotstandstill, andonedevelopmentthathaspushedDeweyspositionondemocracywithina pluralisticsocietywhilebeingespeciallyrelevanttoimprovingthepublicquality ofeducationresearchistheconceptofdeliberativedemocracy(Bohamnand Rheg,1997;Elster1998).Forexample,inDemocracyandDisagreement,Amy GutmannandDennisThompsonstepoverDeweysconcernwithsharedvalues, tofocusonhowpeoplecantalkthroughandultimatelylivewithfundamental disagreements,byseekingmoralagreementwhentheycan,andmaintaining mutualrespectwhentheycannot(1996,p.346).Thisattentiontodemocracys deliberativequalities,asopposedtoitsproceduralorconstitutionalaspects, createsacivicspaceforsocialscienceresearch,whethertoinformorotherwise beapartofthepublicarticulationofissuesandideas.GutmannandThompson advancethreeprinciplesreciprocity,publicity,andaccountabilityfor managingtheeconomyofmoraldisagreementwhichtheyrecognizeasa permanentconditionofdemocraticpolitics(pp.3,9).Eachoftheseprinciples providesafurtherandfinalwarrantforpublicaccessinitiativesinscholarly publishing,justastheseinitiativescanhelpusassessthepublicscapacityfora moredeliberativedemocracy.19 Reciprocity,firstamongGutmannandThompsonsprinciples,asksusto appealtoreasonsthataresharedorcouldcometobesharedbyourfellow citizens(1996,p.14).Thisincludesensuringthattheempiricalclaimsthat oftenaccompanymoralargumentsbeconsistentwiththemostreliable methodsofinquiryatourcollectivedisposal(pp.1415).Now,educational researchisrifewithreliablemethods,whilethedifferencesamongthem,andthe resultswhichtheyleadto,canleadresearchersattimestoemulatethat democraticeconomyofmoraldisagreement.Makingresearchpublic,asIhave stressed,isnotintendedsimplytoresolvedisagreementsonceandforall, althoughitmayinrarecases.Moreoften,theresearchshouldhelpclarifythe
19

The impact of deliberative democracy has been tested empirically by James Fishkin, who has with various collaborators conducted fourteen Deliberative Polls in different parts of the world with random samples of respondents, brought together face to face, to deliberate for a few days. The samples have been representative of the relevant populations and they have undergone large, statistically significant changes of opinion on many policy issues (Fiskin, 1999).

probableorlikelyimplicationsandconsequencesofpeoplespositions.Given thatdeliberationleadsatbesttoprovisionalconclusions,subjecttorevisionin lightofnewinformationandbetterarguments,openaccesstoanongoingbody ofresearchhasasubstantialcontributiontomaketothesepoliticalprocesses(p. 356). GutmannandThompsonssecondandthirdprinciplespublicityand accountabilityalsoworkwellwithpubicaccesstoeducationalresearch.As GutmannandThompsonemploytheseconcepts,publicityreferstoopenly sharingboththereasonsthatofficialsandcitizensgivetojustifypolitical actions,andtheinformationnecessarytoassessthosereasons(1996,p.94).The scopeofaccountabilityforthisdeliberativeprocessincludes,forGutmannand Thompson,aneedtoaddresstheclaimsofanyonewhoissignificantlyaffected bythoseactions(p.129).Acarefulreviewofresearchresultscanimprovethe levelofaccountability,substantiatingtheclaimsofthosewhoaresignificantly affected.20Insum,thesetwopoliticalphilosophersidentifywhatIwouldholdup asoneoftheprincipaldemocraticwarrantsforpublicaccessexperimentswith research:Respectfor[acitizens]basiclibertytoreceivepoliticallyrelevant informationisanessentialpartofdeliberativedemocracy(p.126). Tobetterpreparethepublicforsuchdeliberativeengagements,Gutmann andThompsonsuggestthatpeopleneedtolearnmoreabouthowtojustify onesownactions,tocriticizetheactionsofonesfellowcitizens,andtorespond totheirjustificationsandcriticisms(p.65).Myargument,inturn,isthat scholarlypublishingcoulddomoretohelppeopleturntoresearch,asawayof cultivatingsuchcriticalreasoningabilities,althoughitwillalsofalltotheschools toteachnewlessonsonlocatinganddrawingonintellectualresourcesthatbest servetheseprocessesofjustificationandcriticism.Althoughthisisnottheplace todevelopthecurricularbenefitsfortheschoolsofgoingpublicwithsocial scienceresearch,IwouldfollowJayLemke,whointheWebsearliestdays spottedtheeducationalpotentialofhavingstudentspursuethismoredemocratic approachtothelargerworldofknowledge,asopposedtostayingwithinthe confinesofthetextbook(1994).Atthispoint,Ionlyaskwhetherwecoulddo morewithourresearchtodemonstrateagreatercontinuitybetweenthe democratictheoryandpracticeoftheinstitutionsforwhichweareresponsible. Whatisatstakeinsuchalinkisthemostcommonplaceofdemocratic assumptions,namelythateducationisnecessaryforitsadvancement.

20

This is not to discount what Gutmann and Thompson identify as publicitys amusement factor, first noted by Jeremy Bentham, that comes of people coming to know enough to catch out public officials (Gutmann and Thompson, 1996, p. 97).

Education,Research,andDemocracy Itmayseemobviousenoughthatpeopleneedacertainlevelofformaleducation toparticipateeffectivelyinamoderndemocraticstate.Certainly,thepertinent researchpointstohoweducationmakesadifference,althoughifyoulookclosely thosewithonlysevenyearsofeducationinAmerica(albeitasmallproportionof thepopulation)aremoreactivevotersthanallbutthosewith18yearsof schooling(Nie,Junn,andStehlikBarry,1996,p.16).AndwhileAmericanpost secondaryeducationattendancedoubledinthequartercenturyaftertheSecond WorldWar,theproportionofpeoplewhovoteddeclinedinthatperiod, especiallysincethe1960s(p.99).Equallyso,publicprimaryschoolingin developingcountriesincreasesthechancesofdemocracytakinghold,while secondaryeducationdoesnot(Kamens,1988). Whatisitabouteducation,then,thatissufficientandnecessaryfor democracy?WhatthepoliticalscienceresearchteamofNie,Junn,andStehlik Barryfound,forexample,wasthatformalschoolingencouragespeopleto believethattheirfateiscontrolledinfundamentalwaysbytheactionsand policiesofdemocraticgovernmentsandthatthegoalsoffairnessandequality areimportanttothelongtermstabilityofthedemocraticsystem(1996,p.19). Educationcanpredictthedegreeofpoliticalparticipationbecauseeducation situatespeoplewithinpoliticallyimportantsocialnetworksthatoffer proximitytothosewhomakepolicydecisionsandaccessibilitytosourcesof relevantpoliticalinformation(p.45). Ifthatisindeedthecase,theneducationalresearchersmayhaveitwithin theirpowertoatleastincreasepublicaccessibilitytoonesourceofpotentially relevantpoliticalinformation.Iwouldnotwanttoexaggeratethepoliticalclout ofthisresearch.Comingtothetablewithahandfulofpertinentstudieshardly comparestooldboynetworksandschooltieconnections.Butthoselingering traditionsprovidereasonenough,Ifeel,forresearcherscommittedtothisclose connectionbetweendemocracyandeducationtosupportthedevelopmentofa publicinformationresourcetowhichpeople,aswellastheorganizationsand agenciesthatwouldrepresenttheirinterests,haveequalaccess. Thereare,however,twocommonassumptionsaboutthepublicroleof researchthatthisopenaccessapproachchallenges.Thefirstisthatresearchis bestsummarized,translated,andsynthesizedbeforebeingmadepublic.Itneeds tohavethewrinklesanddisputesclearedaway,sothatitcanpresentasingular, definitiveanswertopressingquestions.Thismediatedapproachtopreparing researchforpublicconsumptionhasbeenthetack,forexample,oftheAmerican EducationalResearchAssociationsoutreachactivitiesandtheNationalResearch

Councilconsensuspanels.21Yet,weshouldnotassumethatthepubliccannot bearthecomplexitiesofcurrenteducationalresearch,givenhowwehave learnedtolive,forexample,withthelackofdefinitivescientificstudiesonthe effectivenessofscreeningtestsforcancer.Greaterpublicfamiliaritywiththe discrepanciesanddisagreementsthatmarkanongoingbodyofresearchwillact asacheckonthetemptationtobringintheexpertstoresolvesocialissues, effectivelyremovingthoseissuesfromthedemocraticsphereofdeliberation.It willalsohelppeopleseethatdisagreementsamongscientistsoftenreflect conflictsinvalueswithinthelargersociety,againsuggestingthatsciencedoes notsomehowstandoutsideofthedemocraticsphere(Fischer,2000,p.64). Ademocracywouldseemtodemanddirectaccesstopublicrelevantand crediblesourcesofknowledge,evenasthosesourcesarerecognizedasshaped bytheirowndemocraticdifferencesinvaluesandjudgments.Itmaywellbethat enhancingpublicaccesstothisknowledgewillalsoproveaboonforinspiring facultyandstudentstogivegreaterthoughttowritingforthisexpanded audience,takingthetimetoexplainthemselvesinawaythatwillrewardtheir workwithagreaterimpactthanithaspreviouslyhadachanceofachieving.This opennessmaywellproveasourceofinsightintotheintricatelinksbetweenthe publicandscholarlyforcesthatdriveresearchwithinapublicspherelikethe schools. Thesecondcommonassumptionabouteducationresearchinparticular whichthisopenaccessapproachchallenges,isthatthewaytoenhanceitspublic statusistofocusitmoresystematicallyonimprovingschoolpractices,asrecent proposalsbytheNationalResearchCouncil(1999)andNationalAcademyof Education(1999)recommend(Willinsky,2001a).Thismayendupdoinglessfor thedemocraticqualityofourlives,asresearchisusedtofinetuneteaching proceduresandschoolprograms,whileofferinglesstocontributetowhatpeople thinkabouteducationinalargersense.Theeducationalcontributionthat researchcanmaketodemocracyisfarmoreaboutproviding,forexample,the historicalcontextsoflongstandingschoolissues,posingchallengestopeoples basicthinkingaboutlearning,envisioningradicalalternativestocurrent programs,andotherwisebecomingapartofhowpeoplethinkaboutwhat schoolscanandshoulddo.Thereiscertainlyaplaceforresearchdirectedat improvingteachingpracticeswithinthescopeofcertainstandardizedtests,butI thinkthatmanyresearcherswouldberightlyapprehensiveaboutgoingpublic withtheirworkifitmeansthattheimmediateapplicabilityofresearchbecomes theprincipalandmostprizedaspectofourworkasintellectuals.
21

The National Research Council seeks to have a positive influence on public policy and to increase public awareness of scientific, technical, and medical issues (Choppin and Dinneen, 2000, p. 34).

Inarguingforimprovingpublicaccesstoeducationresearch,Irecognize thatoneoftheeducationalissuesthatwewillneedtofaceisbringingthepublic inontheveryscopeanddiversityofresearch.YetIcannothelpbutthinkthatto encouragethisbroaderawarenessofwhatschoolingisaboutisitself educationallyenrichinginapublicsense.Inthinkingabouthowchildrenshould beeducated,whetherinmakingpersonal,professional,orpolicydecisions, peopleshouldbeabletofindwaysofgettingclosetothedailylifeofthe classroom,inwaysthatresearchershave,aswellasgainanoverviewofhow studentsintheirnationareperformingoninternationalassessments.People woulddowelltodiscoverhowasciencestudentlearnstomakeethicaldecisions, justastheyneedtoknowwhethergirlshaveanequalopportunitytobe scientists.Theyalsoneedaframeworkforthinkingaboutschoolchoiceand publiceducationintermslargerthancurrentinstructionalefficacycomparisons. AERAsmottoResearchImprovesEducationseemstometounnecessarily limitwhatresearchcanhelpusknow.Theorganizationwouldbebetterserved, givenwhatIhavearguedhere,byamottoclosertoResearchInforms Education. Itisnot,ofcourse,thatIimagineeveryoneusingthisresearchon anythinglikeadailybasis,althoughnewworkonevidencebasedpracticesin medicineandotherformsofprofessionalpracticewouldsuggestitcouldhavea regularroletoplay.22Farmoreoften,thisengagementwithresearchwillbea matterofpersonalinterests,pressingpublicissues,andpassingcuriosities.Still, weshouldnotunderestimatethedifferencethatthisoccasionalinterestcan make.Whenthepublichasturnedtoresearch,ascitizengroupshavearound environmentalissues,forexample,theyarenotnecessarilyhostiletotechnical data,politicalscientistFrankFischerhasfoundinhisstudyofcitizenaction groups,especiallyifthatdataispresentedanddiscussedinanopendemocratic process(2000,p.130).Althoughmembersofthesegroupsmayinitiallyhave foundithardtoevenspeakwithresearchers,beforelongtheseconcerned citizenswereactivelyinvolvedintheresearchprocessitself,givingriseto,for example,popularepidemiologyinwhichthepublichelpstotrackthe distributionofdiseases(pp.151157).Theinstanceofaresearcherpublicalliance formingaroundenvironmentalissuessuggestshowlocalandexpertknowledge canplayacriticalpartinthesedeliberativeprocesses:Insteadofquestioningthe citizensabilitytoparticipate,wemustask,Fischerinsists,howcanwe interconnectandcoordinatethedifferentbutinherentlyinterdependent discoursesofcitizensandexperts(2000,p.45).Hecallsforareconstructed conceptofprofessionalpracticeamongresearcherswhosetaskisauthorizing
22

On the prospects of evidence-based practice for education, see Willinsky (2001b)

spaceforcriticaldiscourseamongcompetingknowledges,boththeoreticaland local,formalandinformal(p.27).Sucharethegoalsforscholarlypublishing publiclyaccessible. Perhapsthemostdramaticlessonofhowtheeducationalbenefitsofthis publicengagementworksforboththepublicandsciencecanbedrawnfromthe AIDSactivistsofthe1980sand1990s.AsStevenEpsteintellsitinImpureScience (1996),theseactivistssuccessfullystruggledforpublicparticipationinmedical knowledge,whichmeant,amongotherthings,bringingotherwiseoverlooked researchintothelimelightandchangingtheconductofclinicaltrials.Scientists foundthemselvesmovedbyactivistsinbothanintellectualandethicalsense, whileactivistsimbibedandappropriatedthelanguagesandculturesof biomedicalsciences,acquiringtheirownformsofcredibilityinpublicand scientificdeliberationsoverhowtorespondtoAIDSbyyokingtogethermoral (orpolitical)argumentsandmethodological(epistemological)arguments(pp. 33556).TheAIDSstruggleestablishedtheneedfor,inthewordsofACTUP activistMarkHarrington,alastingcultureofinformation,advocacy, intervention,andresistance(p.350).Thelessondrawnfromthefightagainst thistragicpandemicthatisnolesswithustoday,isthatenablingpeopletoplay agreaterpartindirectingtheirownlivesamidacomplexcrisiscanleadtobetter scienceandanextensionofthedemocraticsphere. Thepublicplaceofresearchalsoneedstobeseenonaglobalscale,where disparitiesineducationalopportunities,andaccesstoknowledgemore generally,aregreatest.AvinishPersaud,oftheStateStreetBankinBoston,holds thatthecurrentknowledgeeconomyisonlyincreasingthegapbetweenrichand poornationsaknowledgegapthathecalculates(basedonnumberof scientists)tobetentimestheincomegap.Heasksustoimaginethe discrepanciesbetweenanimaginedeconomistinIowa,tappingintothousands ofjournalsonlineaswellasnewsservicesandotherresources,whilemany researchersindevelopingcountrieslackthisopportunityasdocivilservants whowishtoexplorepolicyoptions(2001,pp.109110). Theproblemisnotsimplyalackofphonelinesandcomputers.Thegap betweenhavesandhavenotsisjustasmuchamatterofaccesstowellorganized sourcesofknowledge.Consider,forexample,howcriticalopenaccesstoane journalsuchastheBritishMedicalJournalistotheUniversityofZimbabwe, whichhashadtoslashitsjournalsubscriptionsfrom600to170duetorapidly escalatingsubscriptioncosts.Ithaswonourheartsbecauseitisfree,reports theuniversitysmedicallibrarian(Nagourney,2001).Anumberofscholarly societieshavefounditeasyenoughtograntopenaccesstodevelopingnations fortheirelectroniceditions.Andeventhesixmajorcommercialpublishersof academicjournals,otherwiseaccusedofprovokingthecrisisinscholarly

publishingwiththeirpriceincreasesoverthelastdecade(ARL,2000),have recentlyannouncedthattheywillmake1,000oftheworldstop1,240medical journalsfreeordeeplydiscountedfordevelopingcountries(Peterson,2001). Asscholars,weappeartonowhaveitwithinourpowertoshareour knowledgewiththelargerworldofstudents,teachersandpolicymakers.We needtothinkabouthowwe,aseducationalresearchers,couldgivemorebackto education.Whatwemightwellfindisthattheincreasedscaleofthisgiveand take,betweenpublicandresearchersonaninternationalscale,couldwell influencehowweworkandwriteinresponsetotheincreasededucationaland democraticvalueofthisknowledgeforpeopleeverywhere.HistorianEllen CondliffeLagemann(2000)hasidentifiededucationalresearchasanelusive science,asawayofpointingtoresearchersfrustratedpursuitofscientific idealsandacademicrespectability.Sheclaimsthat,Sincetheearliestdaysof universitysponsorship,educationresearchhasbeendemeanedbyscholarsin otherfields,ignoredbypractitioners,andalternativelyspoofedandcriticizedby politicians,policymakersandmembersofthepublicatlarge(p.232).She concludesthatwhatisneededismoresystematicplanningofresearchagendas ineducation,aswellasameansofreconcilingthedifferencesthatinevitably ariseasscholarsstudysuchdifficult,complexproblems(pp.240241).Iam suggestingthatonewaytoimprovetheresearchagendaistomakethewhole researchprocessmoreopenandpublic,aswellasbetterconnectedandeasierto track,allofwhichwould,inturn,helpresearchersandthepublicworktogether atidentifyingpriorities,opportunities,andgapsinwhatweknowabout education.ThiswouldbeconsistentwithLagemannscriticalsuggestionthat scholarsofeducationmightalsomorecommonlycometoacknowledgetheir responsibilitytoeducatethepublicabouteducationandabouteducation research(2000,pp.xiii,245). Media,Research,andDemocracy Tomoveacademicresearchmorethoroughlyintothepublicdomainistocreate asubstantialalternativesourceofpublicinformation.Democracieshave typicallyreliedonafreepresstocreateaninformedelectorateandaninformed governingbody,orasThomasJeffersonputitinaletterin1787toEdward Carrington:Thebasisofourgovernmentsbeingtheopinionofthepeople,the veryfirstobjectshouldbetokeepthatrightandwereitlefttometodecide whetherweshouldhaveagovernmentwithoutnewspapersornewspapers withoutagovernment,Ishouldnothesitateamomenttopreferthelatter.ButI shouldmeanthateverymanshouldreceivethosepapersandbecapableof readingthem(1997).Inthinkingaboutmakingthisbodyofresearchmore

widelyavailable,wehavelessonsandinspirationtodrawfromtheearlier politicalroleofanemergingperiodicalpress,andtheprintingpressmore generally.TheUnitedStatesEnlightenmentduringthoseyearswasdrivenby atechnologyofpublicity,inhistorianMichaelWarnersestimation,a technologyrenderedcivicandemancipatorybyThomasPaine,Benjamin Franklin,andotherofthedaysdetermineddemocrats(1990,p.3). BeginninginseventeenthcenturyEurope,thedaringandsteadystreamof pamphlets,broadsides,andnewsletters,amidtherisksofstatecensorship, forgedanewsenseofpublicvoice,interest,andenergy.AshistorianDavidZaret (2000)observes,practicalinnovationsinpoliticalcommunicationprecededand preparedthewayfordemocraticprinciples(p.270).Zaretalsomakesitclear thatfordemocratictheoriesandrevolutions,thesepracticalinnovations neededtobecombinedwithaJohnLockesliberalconfidenceinthecapacityfor individualselfhelpandreason(pp.275,270).Printfosteredamarketwhose politicalforcedefinedwhatwenowcallthepublicopinion. Iturn,ifeversobriefly,tothepressgoldenpastbecausethedemocratic spiritofthatage,withitspracticalinnovationandliberalconfidence, correspondsfarmorecloselytowhatinspiresthismoveforopenaccessto scholarshipthanisreflectedinthecurrentstateofthepress.Today,themedias democraticforcestrikesmanyasdissipated,ifnotlostcompletely.BenH. Bagdikian(2000),theformerSchoolofJournalismDeanattheUniversityof CaliforniaBerkeley,findsthattheemancipatorypressofyesteryearhasbeen reducedlargelythroughcorporateconcentrationtotrivializedandselfserving commercializednews,inestimation(p.ix).Intheprefacetothesixtheditionof MediaMonopoly,BagdikianobservesthatpowerovertheAmericanmass mediaisflowingtothetopwithsuchdevouringspeedthatitexceedseventhe acceleratedconsolidationsofthelasttwentyyears(2000,p.viii).Notonlydoa handfulofmegacorporationscontrolthecountrysmostwidespreadnews, commentaryanddailyentertainment,buttheseconglomerateshaveachieved alarmingsuccessinwritingthemedialawsandregulationsinfavoroftheirown corporationsandagainsttheinterestsofthegeneralpublic(2000,p.viii).23I interpretthisdisenchantmentwiththepressasdemocracysgreathopetobea furtherwarrant,notsurprisingly,fortestingwhethersocialscienceresearch, whichisnolessdedicatedtothepublicinterest,mightofferasubstantialand
23

Bagdikian is hardly alone in his critique of the press declining democratic contribution, and in addition to well-known media gadfly Chomsky, (e.g., 1998) and the already cited McChesney (1999), see Cappella and Jamieson (1997), Iyengar (1991), Page, (1996), and Schiller (1996). The big seven media corporations, as I write, are AOL Time Warner, Bertelsmann, Walt Disney, the News Corporation, Sony, Viacom and Vivendi, with a combined revenue of $153 billion for 2001, and a collective market share of, for example, 80% in U.S. book publishing by revenue (Schiesel, 2002).

reliablealternativeorsupplementarysourceofsystematicinquiryand information.24 Atthispoint,therelationshipbetweenpressandresearchremainsuneasy inwaysthatsuggestthatneitherfeelsallthatwellservedbytheother.Itis commontofindresearchers,suchasChristopherForrest,aprofessorof pediatricsandhealthpolicyatJohnsHopkinsUniversity,accusethepressof,in effect,supportingpublicshortsightedness,orasForrestputsit:Thepublicreads thebottomline.Theyactonthatwithoutputtingthestudyintocontext.In politics,thereisalwaysacontext.Thesameistrueforscience,butitdoesntget reportedthatway(quotedinStolberg,2001;pWK3).Thepressisnotabove hittingbackatresearchers,asSherylGayStolberg,thereporterwhocited Forrest,respondedthat,weliveinadizzyingworld,wherescientistsproducea streamofresearch,andeachnewstudyseemstocontradictthepreviousone (Stolberg,2001;pWK3). Theproblemheremayindeedbethatthecontextforinterpretingscience goesmissing,asForrestpointsout,butthenwedolittleenoughtohelpreporters orthepublicestablisheventhemostbasiccontextorbackgroundforanygiven study..Thiswasfineaslongastheresearchwastakingplacefarawayfrom publiceyes,whereonlyanintrepidreportermightventure,interruptingthe researcherlongenoughtogetasnappyquoteorsoundbite.Ifwebegintothink aboutresearchaspartofthepublicrecord,financedassomuchofitisbypublic money,thensuddenlyourrelationshiptothelargerworldshiftsaswebecome responsibleforasourceofpublicknowledge.Whatthisgreateraccessto researchcouldmean,asIhavebeendescribingit,isprovidingacontextforour work,atechnologyenabledcontextinwhichreportersandreaderscanreadily turntorelatedstudies,overviews,policiesandprograms,thatwouldmakeclear howcontradictionsplayoutinthisdifficultworkwithknowledge.Thiswould improvethepresscoverageofresearch,butperhapsmoreimportantly,given thatscholarshipsmethodicalpursuitofknowledgeisnotwellsuitedtothefast newsfareoftodaysmedia,itwouldenablereaderstomovefrompresscoverage tothestudyitself,enablingthemtotravelasfarastheywishintoresearchs realm..25

In support of that supplementary approach, the Public Knowledge Project ran a week-long research support website with a local newspaper which allowed readers to tap into a database of links to research studies related to the papers series on technology and education, as well as join discussion forums with researchers and view pertinent teaching materials, policies, and organizations. See Prototypes at the Public Knowledge Project (http://pkp.ubc.ca). 25 Todd Gitlin (1980) addresses these issues head-on when he speaks of the press focus on the novel event, not the underlying, enduring condition; the person, not the group; the visible conflict, not the deep consensus; the face that advances the story, not the one that explains or enlarges it (p. 263).

24

Thefinalargumenttobemadeforensuringthatresearchstandsalongside themediaasapublicsourceofinformationcomesfromtheapparentelectronic futureofthepress,whichposesitsownthreattothepresstraditionalserviceto democracy.LegalscholarCassSunstein(2001)hasperceptivelywarnedthatthe Internetisbeingusedtocreatewhatmightbethoughtofasgatedinformation communities.Readerscanpersonalizethenewsthatcrossestheirsceens,pre selectingtopicsandsources,whichmakesthemlessreadersofthenewsand moreofinfoconsumers,abletoseeexactlywhattheywanttosee(Sunstein 2001;p.5).Heholdstothebasicdemocraticprinciplethatpeopleshouldbe exposedtomaterialsthattheywouldnothavechoseninadvance.Unplanned, unanticipatedencountersarecentraltodemocracyitself(p.8).Althoughhe affirms,muchlikeDewey,theimportanceofcitizenshavingcommon experiences,whichIaddressedabove,theeducationalqualityofunplanned, unanticipatedencounterswithinformation,whichheseesascriticalto democracy,isveryclosetotheheartoftheproposalunderconsiderationhere. Peoplewithinacommunitymayhavefarfewermediaexperiencesincommon thantheydidinthepast,butoneadvantageofthisincreasingvarietyisthatit maywelldrawcitizensintocomparingwheretheyturnforinformationand entertainment,allofwhichhardlyweakens,Iwouldthink,thetiesthatbind democracytoeducation. Still,Sunsteinoffersahealthycautionforanopenaccessprojectthatisset onimprovingpublicaccesstoeducationalresearch.Ifitisgoingtosteerclearof anarrowlycastinformationconsumerism,initseffortstoimprovethescholarly qualityofthatengagement,thenpublicaccesssystemswillneedtoensurethat contraryandcriticalcommentaryarewithinaclickorsooftheworkthatit challenges,justasrelatedworkfromabroadneedstositneardomesticstudies, tokeeptheparochialismatbay.Contraryviewpointscanstillbeignored,of course,butalittlelesseasily,perhaps,andcertainlyitismoredifficulttodeny theirexistencewhentheyloombutaclickortwoaway.Theveryavailabilityof informationinademocracy,whetherpeopleattendtoitornot,Sunsteinholds, increasesthelikelihoodthatgovernmentwillactuallybeservingpeoples interests,orasSunsteincitesJusticeLouisBrandeisholding,sunlightisthe bestofdisinfectants(2001,pp.90,176).26 Ifthemeasureofademocracyisnottobegaugedbyhowmanytakeup thispublicknowledgeorhowoftentheyturntoit,thereadyavailabilityofthis knowledgecanstillbesaidtocontributetotheeducationalandcommunicative qualitiesofitscitizenslivestogether.Likethepubliclibrariesthatcanbefound
26

Sunstein also holds that the absence of the demand [to see some form of information on the part of the people] is likely to be the product of the deprivation, which I would suggest that we at least test in the case of educational research (2001, p. 111).

inthesmallestofcommunities,nolessthanthenewspapersofthesmallesttown, thepresenceandpossibilitiesofbeingabletoturntoagivenbodyofknowledge exertsitsownforceofreasonablenessandreassurance.Here,then,isourchance aseducatorsandknowledgeworkersofsomesophisticationtoextendthevital forceofthemediaasasourceofgreaterawarenessandunderstanding,aswellas tosupplementifnotchallengeitsparticularframingofwhatcanbeknownofthe world. FinalRemarks Oneencouragingbitofnewsineducationoverthelastfewyearshasbeenafew signsthatthenotorioustheorypracticegapisnarrowing.GloriaLadsonBillings (1995)commendsresearchersfortheirwillingnesstolistenandlearnfrom practitioners[which]isprovidingresearchersandteachereducatorswith opportunitiestobuildaknowledgebaseinconjunctionandcollaborationwith teachers(p.755).Withthisgrowingknowledgebaseinhand,nowwouldseem atimeforresearcherstogivemorebacktoteachersbyopeningthat collaborativelydevelopedknowledgetopublicandprofessionalsalike.The concernforreciprocityshouldinspireresearcherstopursuenewsystemsof scholarlycommunicationthatstrengthenthepublicdimensionsofthis collaborativespirit.Otherwise,itmayturnoutthatthesenewtechnologiesfor scholarshipendupservinglittlemorethantheimmediateinterestsof researchers,andassuchproveyetanotherboonforwellfinanceduniversities, leavingtherestoftheworldfurtherbehind. Thepreferredgoalthatliesahead,asIhaveoutlinedhere,isthedesign anddevelopmentofsystemsthataddressboththepublicandscholarlyquality ofourresearchactivities.Thereisnowayofpredictinghownewmediawill massageoldmessages,butwecanreasonablyexpectbothpublicdiscourseand educationalresearchtobealtered.Thus,myinterest,asaneducatorandstudent ofliteracy,isintreatingthesenewsystemsasexperimentsinhowknowledge canextenditscontributionwithinademocraticandeducationalculture,a culturethathasroomtogrow,onehopes,aspartofalargerglobalsociety.These experimentsarebestseenaspartofalongandoftendifficulthistoryinthe spreadingandsharing,challengingandaugmenting,ofideas.Assuch,itwould notbewisetodenytherisksassociatedwithsuchexperimentsinthehistoryof ideas. Inaskingresearchers,journaleditorsandscholarlyassociationstogive,as itwere,theirinformedconsentbeforeparticipatinginpublishingexperiments aimedatimprovingpublicaccesstoeducationresearch,itisonlyfairto acknowledgetherisksthismightentail.Thesepublishingexperimentsmaylead

tomomentaryvertigo,inducedbyuncertaintiesovercareerimpactandprestige risk.Thesenewpublishingsystemswillclearlyneedtobeassensitivetothe careeraspirationsofcontributors,astotheirdesiretoseethisearnestpursuitofa knowledgehavealargerimpactinaglobalexchangeofideas.Fortunately,the earlyindicationsfromstudiesoftheimpactofejournalsareencouragingfor careerconcerns.27Theseexperimentsmayalsocauseprofessionalassociations temporaryconsternation,overtheprospectsofseeminglyirrelevantand irreverentquestionsbeingraisedaboutresearchdirectionsandpracticesfroma newlyinformedpublic.Similarly,journaleditorsmayalsoworryforthe academicfreedomoftheirauthors,nowthattherefugeofinaccessibilitywillno longerbethegreatprotectorofthatfreedom.Itwill,however,bethatmuch easiertodefendthefruitsofacademicfreedombybeingabletopresentwherea singlestudyfitswithinthelargercontextofscholarlyinquiry.So,too,canthis opennessfostergreaterpublicsupportforresearch,onewouldhope,withinan atmosphereofopendiscussionabouttherangeandscopeofacademicinquiry. Giventhepowerofthesenewtechnologicalresourcestomakeresources readilyavailable,somethingseemsterriblyamissforpeopletohavesolittle publicaccesstotheworkofsomanyscholars.Howisitthatwehavesucha substantialbodyofknowledgethatliesbeyondthereachofpubliclifeand politicalforums,privatelivesandeducationalinstitutions?Thisworldof knowingneedstobetransformedintoapublicresource,ifonlyasanalternative towhatcanotherwiseseemlikeasingularstreamofmediaconfluencecoursing throughsome500televisionchannels.Ifnothingelse,thisopenaccessto researchresourceswillputcommonassumptionsaboutthevalueofthis knowledge,whetheramongthepublicorresearchers,politiciansorteachers,to thetest. Giventheinnovativeandexperimentalnatureofthispublishing environment,itbecomesimportanttotesttheseassumptions,byassessingthe impact,acrossarangeofmeasures,ofopenaccessscholarlypublishingsystems onthepublic,professionals,andpolicyofficials(aswellasonprogressof academiccareers).Ourownresearchplansincludeaskingwhetherandhowthe designoftheseopenaccesspublishingsystemscontributetopeoplesabilityto consultpertinentresearchevidenceindecisionmaking,tocriticallyevaluate sourcesofeducationalinformation,tolinkeducationalpracticestorelated theories,andtoplaceeducationalissueswithinahistoricalperspective.Italso
27

Anderson, Sack, Krauss, and O'Keefe (2001) found that free online refereed publications are cited as often as traditional print and slightly more than closely related studies in the same area, and that these open access publications were felt by faculty to fully count for tenure. Steven Lawrence (2001) found in a study of 119,924 conference articles in computer science that more highly cited articles are more likely to be freely available online.

seemsimportanttoknowiftheavailabilityofthisresearchsupportspeoples participationincivicandeducationalforums,increasestheirinterestsin collaboratingwiththeresearchcommunity,orexpandstheirappreciationofhow researchworks.Then,thereisthequestionofhowthisincreasedaccesstoawide rangeofscholarlyresources,fromdatasetstodissertations,addstotherigorand reliabilityofpeerreviewprocesses,justasincreasedpublicengagementmay workonthedirection,design,andwritingofresearch.Iftherearegainsinanyof theseareas,theywillbemodest,atbest,butallofthemareworthpursuing,if onlyforwhatsuchinquiriescantellusaboutlearningandknowledgeinthis newinformationenvironment,aswellasaboutthenatureofourownwork. Manyofthedetailsofcreatingamoreaccessiblepublicspacefor knowledgehavestilltobeworkedout,inasimilarprocesstotheonepublic librariesfacedinthepast,astheysetouttoovercomethepublicslimitedaccess toprintoverthelasttwocenturiesthroughanumberofsuccessfulstrategies.We haveonlytoimaginehowtotakethenextstepincreatingplacestowhichpeople canturn,howeverrarelyorinfrequently,whentheyaretakenbytheurgetogo deepandfarintoexistingbodiesofknowledge.Wehavealsotorealizethat goingpublicwithourresearchwillgraduallychangehowweconductour studiesinandoutsideofschools,howwewriteaboutandconnectourworkto otherstudies,aswellastolargerandlocalworldsofinformation.Inthisway, newpublishingandbroadcastingsystemsseemboundtoreshapeboth democracyandeducation,strengtheningthelinkbetweenthem.Oratleast,I havearguedthereasonswhyweareundersomeobligationtotestsuch propositions.Letthedemocraticexperimentcontinue.

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