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STUDY GUIDE
HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education
CENTRE FOR GRADUATE STUDIES
STUDY GUIDE
First Edition (January 2011)
Prepared by:
Associate Professor Dr. Tan Toh Wah Director, Pulau Pinang Learning Centre Open University Malaysia Center for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia January 2011
Published by:
First Published:
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM). All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia.
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Contents
Course Introduction................................................................................................ 05 Welcome to HMEF 5143 ............................................................................... 05 Course Synopsis ........................................................................................... 05 Course Aims.................................................................................................. 06 Course Outcomes ......................................................................................... 06 Course Load.................................................................................................. 07 Course requirements .............................................................................................. 08 Feedback and course evaluation .................................................................. 08 Course Resources and Requirements.................................................................. 08 Set textbook(s) .............................................................................................. 08 Essential references...................................................................................... 08 Extra recommended reading......................................................................... 08 Assessment............................................................................................................. 08 Assignment Question (Sample) .................................................................... 09 Final Examination Questions (Sample)......................................................... 10 Suggested Activities for Seminars........................................................................ 10 Weekly Study Guide for Learners ......................................................................... 13 Week/Topic 1: What is Sociology of Education............................................................... 13 2: Conflicting Functions and Processes in Education: What Makes the System Work? .............................................................. 37 3: Education and the Process of Stratification............................................. 39 4: Race, Class and Gender: Attempt to Achieve Equality of Educational Opportunity, Social Mobility and Education ......................... 41 5: Students: The Core of the School ........................................................... 43 6: The Informal System and the Hidden Curriculum: What Really Happens in School.............................................................. 45 7: The School as an Organization ............................................................... 48 8: Formal School Statuses and Roles ......................................................... 49 9: Transition from School to Work ............................................................... 51 10: Further Reading ...................................................................................... 53
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Welcome To HMEF 5143
The course HMEF5143 Sociology of Education is one of the ten 3-credit core courses in the Master of Education (Option III) programme. It assumes that learners are practitioners in the field of education. Learners are encouraged to relate the content of the course to their work experiences and vice-versa in order to derive maximum benefit from the course.
Course Synopsis
In examining the social contexts of education, the course analyzes the connections across different levels of social organization (e.g. national, community, family, school, classroom) to enable the learners to understand and appreciate the ways in which schools socialize, reproduce, challenge, and possibly transform prevailing social, economic, and political relationships. It addresses questions of social structure and culture, and also investigates how individuals alone and together negotiate their social contexts. Emphasis is on the changing social characteristics of students, their families and the community. Also discussed is the socialization of teachers and whether schools are preparing students for the workplace to facilitate transition from school to work. In short, the course aims at providing the learners a good grasp of relevant theories, controversies, major empirical findings and past and present interpretations of social processes in education. Learners will also learn how to pose fruitful research questions and will be expected to develop proficiency in research methodologies relevant to the cluster of questions they choose to emphasize. The course consists of nine main topics to be covered in ten weeks during which five seminars will be conducted. Learners are expected to cover at least one topic per week and apply the relevant concepts and knowledge gained through reading the course materials to participate in each of the five seminars during the course. It is suggested that the learners read through all the topics at the beginning of the semester to obtain a general idea of what the course is about. Additional reading materials in the form of articles from journals, newspaper reports and essays will be uploaded on the myVLE from time to time. Discussions based on these materials may be conducted during the seminars. Learners will also be expected to use sociological theories, concepts and definitions to critically examine some of the following issues during their seminars:
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Indiscipline Amongst Malaysian Secondary School Students Social ills e.g. Loafing (Lepak), Mat Rempit Structural and Curricular Changes in Malaysia Educational System Private Higher Education in Malaysia Females in Institutions of Higher Learning in Malaysia Racial Polarization and Integration Impact of ICT on youth and society today or any other current emerging issues relevant to education and youth in Malaysia.
Course Aims
This course provides the theories and framework for the learners to understand and appreciate the relationships between education and the other social institutions in a society viz. politics, home, family, religion, gender, class, work etc. It will enable learners to understand, interpret, analyze and evaluate policies, practices and issues within the modern educational system in general and in Malaysia in particular. Critical thinking, research, communication and academic writing skills are developed by requiring the learners to engage themselves in: 1. 2. 3. Examining and evaluating critically the relationship between education and other social institutions in a society. Discourses on current social issues and problems related to education, schooling and youth in Malaysia. Designing and conducting meaningful research on issues related to relationships between education and other social institutions in a society.
Course Outcomes
On successful completion of this course, learners will be able to: 1. 2. State and explain the different theoretical approaches used in the study of sociology of education. Use relevant sociological concepts to understand and explain key educational issues particularly the relationship to social inequalities (race/ethnic, class, gender, disabilities).
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3.
Identify and use appropriate research methodologies in designing and conducting research on issues related to the relationship between students/youth, teachers, education and schools. Explain how schools socialize its learners and demonstrate how education is both a provider of opportunity and also reinforce of inequality in the contemporary society. Examine the implications of the changing sociological structure of schools such as pluralism. Evaluate the different initiatives taken by the government in enhancing the Malaysian school system. Identify problems with implementing reform to enhance effectiveness of schools. Assess critically the relationships between schools and the other institutions in a society. Participate in discourses on current social issues and problems related to education, schooling and youth in Malaysia Appraise sociological research and interpretations and use them to describe, analyze, and reflect upon their current and possibly future roles in the processes of education.
4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Course Load
It is a standard OUM practice that learners spend 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, learners are expected to spend at least 120 hours engaged in some form of learning activities. Table 1 provides an estimation of how the 120 hours could be accumulated.
Table 1: Allocation of Study Hours Activities Reading the module and completing the exercises Attending 5 seminars sessions ( 3 hours for each session) Engage in online discussion Completing assignment Revision Total No of Hours 55 15 15 20 15 120
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COURSE REQUIREMENTS
There is no pre-requisite for HMEF5143.
COURSE RESOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS

Set text book(s)
Ballantine, J.H. and Hammack, F.M. (2009). The Sociology of Education A Systematic Analysis. (6th Edition). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Essential references
Ballantine J. H. & J. Spade (2007). Schools and Society: A Sociological Approach to Education. Pine Forge Press. Banks O. (1976). Sociology of Education. London, B.T. Batsford Ltd. Levine D. & Levine R. (2003). Society and Education. MA, Allyn & Bacon. Bills D. (2004). The Sociology of Education and Work. Wiley-Blackwell. Saha L. (2001). International Encyclopedia of Sociology of Education. Pergammon.
Extra recommended reading

Additional reading materials in the form of journal articles, relevant chapters from books will be uploaded on myVLE from time to time.
ASSESSMENT
Please refer to myVLE.
ASSIGNMENT Objective:
The main purpose of this exercise is to develop the learners ability in evaluating critically the relationship between education and other social institutions in a society. More specifically, this assignment will enable the learners to demonstrate their ability to apply their understanding of the
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theories and concepts learned in the course to the education system in Malaysia.
Assignment Question (Sample)

Ideally, the purpose of education should be to develop every individual to their full potential and give them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow. However studies indicate that almost all the education systems are unable to accomplish this goal perfectly. Some writers may even go as far as to argue that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the social reproduction of inequality. By using the functionalist as well as the conflict theorist perspectives, examine the conflicting social functions of education in Malaysia and determine if the Malaysian educational system contributes to the social reproduction of inequality. You are required to substantiate your argument by providing specific examples or data (quantitative/qualitative) from a small scale research or investigation in a school or classroom environment. Justify the particular approach you chose in carrying out your research/investigation.
Assignment Format:
(a) (b) (c) (d) Use double space and 12-point of Times New Roman font. This assignment should contain about 4000-5000 words (15-20 pages). Provide references. References should Psychological Association (APA) format. use the American
Where possible, references should be latest (year 2005 and onwards).
Notes: Assignments should be submitted according to the fixed date. Plagiarism is not acceptable. If you are not sure what is meant by plagiarism, refer to the various websites which discuss this matter, e.g. owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts.
Late submission of assignment

Failure to submit an assignment by the due date without obtaining an official extension of time by your course facilitator will incur a penalty.
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FINAL EXAMINATION Final Examination Questions (Sample)

1. Compare and contrast the functionalist and conflict perspectives regarding the importance of social class in determining educational outcomes. (20 marks) Discuss whether or not schooling is able to overcome problems stemming from a students dysfunctional family. Is schooling the most important factor determining a persons life chances? (20 marks) Schools are often asked to meet an array of goals beyond teaching academic skills. Provide examples of several goals of education that may undermine or jeopardize the academic mission of the school. (20 marks) Identify several reasons for student apathy. What should educators do to reduce student apathy, particularly among students who seldom experience success in school? (20 marks)
2.
3.
4.
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR SEMINARS

SEMINAR 1
Learners will be expected to have read Chapters 1 & 2 of the prescribed text. They will then be able to provide a framework for sociology of education viz. its definition, purpose, theoretical approaches and research methods common used in Sociology of Education. Using the different approaches, learners will then examine critically the conflicting functions of education and schools. Topics which can be used to examine critically the functions of education and schools include: Curriculum Streaming Graduates and unemployment
In familiarizing themselves with the different methodologies used in carrying out research on issues/topics in sociology of education, learners are expected to read two research articles - one quantitative and one qualitative
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and compare the approach used in these two studies. An example of a study using the qualitative approach will be uploaded while learners are expected to look for another article using the quantitative approach themselves.
SEMINAR 2
Two topics will be covered in this seminar Education and the Process of Stratification, and Race, Class and Gender. Learners are expected to read Chapters 3 and 4 of the prescribed text and apply the theories and concepts to the Malaysian schools and classrooms. Is Malaysian society stratified in terms of social class? What do you think is the main criterion by which the Malaysian society is stratified? What are its effects of such classification on schooling and system of education in Malaysia? Topics to illuminate further the stratification process include: Equal educational opportunities in a multi-racial society Stratification of Malaysian society Social class in Malaysia or other stratification? Public vs. Private schools Curriculum
SEMINAR 3
Seminar 3 focuses on matters related to the students who make up the core of the school. Learners are expected to read Chapter 7 of the prescribed text and also other materials pertaining to Student Characteristics School Failures and Dropouts and The Informal System which includes Students Self-Concept, Home Environment, Teacher Expectations and School Climate all of which affect students behaviour and achievement. Additional articles on some of these factors will be uploaded on myVLE. You are strongly encouraged to examine critically the following topics from the student perspective. Student expectation and coping strategy Disaffection from school Student informal power structure Gangsterism Student Indiscipline Student Academic Achievement/Non-Achievement
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SEMINAR 4
To prepare for this seminar, learners will be required to read Chapter 5 and 6 of the prescribe text. In particular, they are expected to focus on the role of the teachers and administrators and critically evaluate the processes involved in the training and socialization of the teachers in the Malaysian context. The main focus should be to critically assess if teaching can be considered a profession in Malaysia. What are some of the factors that will help in making teaching a profession? It may also be appropriate to examine the concept of professional development amongst Malaysian teachers. You may also carry out a small scale investigation on job satisfaction amongst Malaysian teachers and discussion your findings during this seminar.
SEMINAR 5
By the time learners reach this stage of the course, they will be expected to be able to apply the different theories and approaches in Sociology of Education to analyze and critically evaluate issues related to schooling and the educational system. As the ultimate function of education is to socialize and prepare individuals for their adult roles, it is appropriate to use all the knowledge gained so far to critically examine the topic of Transition from School to Work. It is very common among Malaysian students to take for granted or rather to expect that they will be able to move from one level to the next until the finish their studies at the university. But in reality, at least 60% of the students will not be continuing with university education after their SPM. The question we have to ask is whether and how the schools prepare the students for their transition from school to work. As this is the last seminar, learners may also use this opportunity to discuss other social issues related to education, school and youth. Some of these issues are listed above. Learners may also use this seminar to discuss some of the relevant journal articles and chapters from books related to the course and uploaded onto myVLE.
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Weekly Study Guide for Learners

Week 1
Topic 1: What is Sociology of Education
All of us are involved in educational systems during our lives. We talk about the system and also raise issues and questions about the system according to the different roles (students, teachers, principals, parents, board of governors, tax payers, voters, etc) we play during different stages in our lives. Most of the questions and issues we raise about our educational system can very often be examined by drawing upon theories and research findings from the different areas of study in sociology of education. For example, the debate on whether science and mathematics should be taught in English is definitely within the realm of sociology of education. What to include in the school curriculum and whether our schools and universities are producing the type of human capital needed by our industry are also areas of interest for sociologists of education. Issues such as who should have control over what to include in the school curriculum, whether the curriculum is beneficial to all the students, whether our educational system is too examination-oriented and whether public examinations should be abolished will continue to be debated. Other social issues involving students and young adults (for example, loafing, teenage pregnancy, drugs) are also topics examined by educational sociologists. As parents, teachers, professionals and responsible citizens, all of us want to be able to provide our input in discourses on such issues. In order to better understand the issues and provide objective answers to these questions, we need to rely on previous research findings or perhaps conduct research which can throw some light on the issues. Such research is often guided by sociological theories and methods. Thus in studying sociology of education, we will equip ourselves with different theoretical approaches and knowledge used in understanding relationships between schools and the other social institutions (e.g. economics, politics, family, religion etc) in a society and consequently discuss and provide objective answers to some of the questions asked about our schools as well as educational systems and also about our society.
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Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapter 1 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. Provide a definition for sociology of education. Give examples of questions asked by sociologists of education. List some of the advantages of studying sociology of education. List and describe different Theoretical Approaches in the Sociology of Education viz. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 5. 6. Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Interaction and Interpretive Theories Critical, New and Postmodern Theories
Use these approaches to examine some of the current issues related to schooling and educational system. List and identify appropriate sociological methods used to study educational systems and processes.
Readings 1. 2. Chapter 1 of the prescribed text Additonal Reading: The following is a chapter describing the research methodology used in studying groups of 17-year old young males in West Malaysia and their transition from school to work. Compare it with the quantitative approach used in the study of disciplinary problem you are familiar with.
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Methodology: basic assumptions In describing and interpreting social behaviour and in this case, the youths' deviant behaviour and their other responses to schooling and the TSW, my basic assumption is that human beings are conscious individuals; they do not just respond mechanically to their social environment, but instead, they construct their social settings based on the choices and options available to them. Individual pupils bring with them, into the school, a unique set of previous experiences, expectations and intentions with which they define, negotiate, and respond to both structures and actors in their social environment; they create or recreate these social settings. Their behaviour is the outcome of negotiation, compromise and conflict between the definitions and concerns of different actors and thus is the product of construction and choice. In short, social behaviour is the product of individual consciousness and is thus subjective. It follows that in capturing, describing and then interpreting the ways of life of these social actors, the approach used will have to be one that focuses on the micro-sociological processes - the person-to-person interactions, rather than one which uses statistical generalisations based on a large representative sample. As individual behaviour is personal, subjective and unique to the individual, and "... in order to study and understand social life the researcher must try to share and understand the meanings and interpretations of individual actors and social groups. That means being alongside them, talking to them and observing them - participant observation" (Ball, 1986 p. 7) an approach commonly used by symbolic interactionists. Symbolic interactionism The key concept in symbolic interactionism is the 'self', the developing aspect of an individual. The individual is seen to be actively involved in interpreting his or her social world and making decisions on how to respond from the various options and possibilities available. As Woods (1983, p. 1) has written: At the heart of symbolic interactionism is the notion of people as constructors of their own actions and meanings ... What enables the construction of meaning is the individual's possession of a 'self'. It follows therefore that the study of the actor's construction of the 'self' and his/her "... action would have to be made from the position of the actor. Since action is forged by the actor out of what he perceives, interprets and judges, one would have to see the operating situation 15
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as the actor sees it" (Blummer, 1976, p. 16). This calls for the ethnographic method of research. Interactionism and ethnography Ethnography is the methodology often used to elucidate this interpretive, hermeneutic understanding of social reality by the social actors. This affinity of ethnography to interactionists' theory is evident in most of the work on school and classroom ethnographies (e.g. Hargreaves, 1967; Lacey, 1970; Ball, 1981; Burgess, 1983; Walker, 1988; Wexler, 1992). One of the methodologies often associated with ethnography is participant observation whereby the researchers become "... embedded in the perspectives of those who inhabit the socio-cultural world that is to be described and analyzed" and the researchers "... share in a direct, immediate and non-presumptive sense the phenomenal givens of the actors in order to construct an account of their cultural setting" (Ball, 1984). As a method, participant observation as stated by Becker et al. (1968, cited in Ball, 1984, p. 72) is ... a process in which the observer's presence in a social situation is maintained for the purpose of scientific investigation. The observer is in a face-to-face relationship with the observed, and by participating with them in their natural life setting, he gathers data. Although participant observation was the main methodology used in this study, data was also gathered through a combination of other means interviews, school records and some 'paper and pencil' tests during the fieldwork. Fieldwork As the research was aimed at understanding how different groups of Malaysian youths came to terms and coped with their transition from school to work, elucidating the social meanings that informed their behaviour during this transitional period was the major concern of the fieldwork. "Such understandings", according to Hammersley and Atkinson (1983), require "... that we learn the culture of those we are studying". As mentioned in the previous chapter, the working definition of 'culture' is similar to that of Walker (1988), who used "... the word to refer to the whole way of life of a social group [and] ... more precisely as the set of behavioural dispositions characteristic of the group". This working definition of 'culture' is based on "... the assumption that there is such things as cultures, and [we] have some ideas about what they are like; and we select out for analysis the aspects of what is observed that we judge to be 'cultural'" (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983).
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In order to achieve the above objectives, a comparatively long period of participant observations and other ethnographic methods were necessary to really understand the cultures and to interpret the social meanings of the ways of life in the perspective of the social groups. Thus the fieldwork for this study extended over a period of fifteen months (between July, 1991 and September, 1992). These fifteen months coincided with one of the most crucial periods in the lives of the young people when major decisions relating to leaving school and embarking on their adult lives were made. Although the study extended over a period of fifteen months, the actual time spent in the field was eleven months which were divided into three different phases which coincided with three different stages in the transition from school to work of the informants. This moving 'in and out' of the field offered me the opportunities to 'stand back' and reassess and change the design and foci of the research as it developed - 'progressive focusing' (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983). With progressive focusing, "... the research problem ... [was] transformed, and eventually its scope ... [was] clarified and delimited and its internal structure explored" (ibid). Over time, the research emphasis evolved with "... a gradual shift from a concern with describing social events and processes to developing and testing explanations" (ibid). These three phases consisted of:Phase I: (July - December, 1991) These six months covered the last stage of the school careers of the youths and their initial encounters with leaving school and (un)employment. The early part of this phase of fieldwork was school-based and was mainly concerned with gaining access and identifying informants for the study and with collecting data related to their family background and schooling. Once contact was made and the access negotiated, the 'field' also extended to activities outside the school. Therefore the fieldwork consisted mostly of participant observations in schools and also in some of the activities of the informants outside school. This phase was concerned with describing the events and processes the informants were involved in. The description enabled the construction of profiles of the cultures of each of the groups. Phase II: (Mid-March - Late April, 1992) This period coincided with the time of the year when the results of the informants' performance in the SPM (Malaysian Certificate of Education) Examination were announced. This was also the stage in the lives of the youths when major decisions regarding their futures (forms of employment or post-secondary education) based on the reality of their examination results were made. These decisions had major implications for the well-being of their adult lives. Besides describing some of the social events during this phase of the youths' life, the main focus of the fieldwork was on developing some
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of the issues discerned from the analyses of data gathered during phase I of the fieldwork. At the same time, some of the plausible explanations developed were also tested. Phase III: (Mid-June - October, 1992) At this stage of the fieldwork, the transition from school to work or post-secondary education was supposed to be stabilised. The informants were then in more permanent forms of employment or further education. As the opportunity structures confronting each of the groups were different, data pertaining to the perceptions of each of the groups on the opportunity structures and resources available to them and how they handled those structures were also collected. Again, the main concern during this phase was on developing and testing explanations. Although all the informants were supposed to have completed their secondary school education at this stage of the fieldwork, four of the six 1 'Footballers' went back to Greenwood Park as retainees to repeat their SPM examinations in 1992. Therefore part of this phase of fieldwork was again conducted in the school. However, the focus was on how the four coped with their new identities as 'retainees' or pupils again after having savoured lives as working adults while they were waiting for their 1991 SPM examination results. At each of the phases, attempts were made to trace the sources upon which each of the groups drew to celebrate their ways of life and for solving problems. Informal interviews were also carried out when the opportunities arose. Data based on informal interviews with teachers were also gathered. Making contact and sampling Access to the pupils As my initial interest was in investigating indiscipline among pupils and their disaffection from school, and how they later coped with their transition from school to work, two schools were identified prior to my beginning the fieldwork in Malaysia. These two schools, viz, Greenwood Park Secondary and Greenview Secondary (both are pseudonyms), were to some extent, noted for their incidence of pupil indiscipline and for a high proportion of pupils leaving school at the end of their lower secondary school career (15+). Furthermore, these two schools were also co-educational and consisted of pupils from the three ethnic groups. Thus
1 Pupils who fail their SPM examinations for the first time are normally eligible for retention - usually in the same school, to repeat their form five following the release of the examination results.
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they satisfied the conditions set out in my original research proposal which stipulated that: For the study, the sample will comprise a group of about fifteen to twenty disaffected pupils (both boys and girls from the three major ethnic groups in Malaysia) who are in the final year of their lower secondary school from one or two secondary schools in the state of Penang. The sample will be followed for a period of one year during which they will be observed in situations both inside and outside the classrooms (including their places of work). This will be followed by in-depth interviews. Besides interviews with the sample, interviews will also be held with the school heads, teachers, parents, peers and employers. Moreover, as I had also taught in both these schools previously and was well acquainted with the principal of Greenview Secondary and knew briefly the principal of Greenwood Park Secondary, negotiating access through both these 'gate-keepers' of the schools was not a major concern. Preliminary Visits Before embarking on the actual fieldwork, I visited the principals of both the schools on a number of occasions during December, 1990, which was 3 the beginning of their 1990/1991 academic year . Both of these principals welcomed me and unofficially agreed to my request when the possibility of conducting a research in their schools was discussed with them during one of my 'pre-fieldwork' visits. Both these 'gate-keepers' (the principals) were also interested in, and sympathetic to the problems to be investigated. However, even though both the 'gate-keepers' had consented to my carrying out the research in their schools, it was the gaining of access to both the teachers and pupils that was my major concern during the planning stage of my research. This anxiety arose because the fieldwork would involve observations of the pupils during lessons, and I was fully aware of the fact that most Malaysian teachers do not like the idea of being observed while teaching. As permission to carry out the research had been granted by the principals, most of the teachers 4 would have no choice but to agree to have me present during their
2
I was once a trainee teacher at Greenwood Park and had also taught science and mathematics as a qualified teacher at Greenview Secondary.
3
Academic year in Malaysia begins in December and ends in early November.
4
Malaysian teachers are generally 'docile' and have little or no autonomy over matters relating to the running of the school or the curriculum. They have to carry out whatever order issued from the various authorities (Ministry of Education, State Education Department and the Headmasters). Even though they may disagree with some of the orders issued from the 'top', most of them will still carry them out, though perhaps with some form of silent protest.
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lessons even though they would have preferred privacy. Thus extra care was taken not to antagonise any of the teachers when I negotiated access to the pupils with them because as the next level of 'gatekeepers', the teachers had great influence in determining my access to the pupils. The facts that the research focus was on the pupils and that the classroom observation was a means to gain access to the pupils and to an understanding of their behaviour in the classrooms, and not on the teachers themselves, were often emphasized whenever any negotiation was carried out with the teachers. The purpose of these 'pre-fieldwork' visits was to familiarize myself with the school and, more importantly, to become acquainted with the teachers whose co-operation was greatly needed and would determine the success of my fieldwork. During these 'pre-fieldwork' visits, most of 5 the teachers agreed to my request to observe the pupils during their lessons. Some teachers did express their apprehensions, preferring to wait till the beginning of the actual fieldwork before making their decisions whether to allow me to be present during ring their lessons. Informal discussions with both the principals and some of the school teachers were carried out during these visits. Besides assessing the ease of access to the teachers and the pupils, these discussions were used to identify the initial research focus and determine the overall research design and the questions to be asked. Based on the feedback and observations during these 'pre-fieldwork' visits and discussions, the research design was modified; and subsequently Greenview Secondary was dropped from the study. This sampling decision to concentrate on only Greenwood Park Secondary was taken for the following reasons: Although it would have been relatively easy for me to gain access to and acceptance by the staff at Greenview Secondary since I had taught there previously and my intention was warmly welcomed by the staff, it would be difficult for me to gain the complete trust and confidence of my wouldbe informants because of my previous role as a teacher, and worse still, as the disciplinary teacher in the school. As many of my former colleagues were still teaching there, there would undoubtedly be many more interactions with the teachers rather than with the pupils. As a result, there was a distinct risk of my being seen to be associated with the teachers by the pupils. Furthermore, it was also highly probable that some of the siblings of my would-be informants had been taught by me previously. Both these factors could be detrimental to my aim of trying to
5
Two of the teachers teaching in form five were also my former students and thus they were in a way obliged to agree to my request to be present during their lessons.
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establish myself as a neutral researcher in the school. Secondly, it was also felt that even though the study would be more representative by drawing samples from two different schools, it would be very timeconsuming and at the same time unrealistic to carry out effective participation observations in two different schools situated at two different locations given the relatively short time span I had for carrying out the fieldwork (cf. Ball, 1984). Thirdly, it was also felt that, because of their family background, most of the pupils at Greenview Secondary would not have the means to engage themselves in many of the out-of-school activities that are expected of some of the pupils in urban areas. That would also mean that the study would end up as just ethnography of pupils' life in school. It must be pointed out that, although Greenview Secondary was dropped from the study, it was not necessary to have a substitute for it. The main reason for having two schools in the first place, was to ensure that there would be enough informants for the study. With the modifications to the research focus and design, it became unnecessary to carry out the study in two schools. Modification of research focus and design During one of the visits to Greenwood Park Secondary, a number of interesting issues pertaining to the school was highlighted by the principal. For example, he pointed out that, although disaffection from school was a problem at every level, it was more disturbing for him to see many of the form four pupils (aged 16+) playing truant and disrupting lessons. He said that they were supposed to be pupils of above academic abilities since they had to pass their SRP examinations before they were promoted to form four. His comments prompted me to reassess my research focus. The pressing problem in Greenwood Park seemed to be with the upper secondary pupils and not with the lower secondary pupils as originally envisaged. Since very few pupils would leave school at the lower secondary level after the abolition of the SRP examination in 1993, I formed the view that it would be more realistic and meaningful to study pupils who would be leaving school at the end of their upper secondary school. However, if the research design were to be modified to focus on pupils in form four as suggested by the principal, it would mean following the pupils for at least two years before they would make their transition from school to work. Given the time constraint, the other logical alternative was to focus on pupils from form five. Subsequent discussions with some of the teachers at Greenwood Park confirmed my hunch that there would be enough disaffected form five pupils at Greenwood Park for me to carry out my study. Thus the research design was modified to focus on some groups of form five pupils who were in the final stage of their secondary
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school careers and who were going to sit for their SPM examinations in November, 1991. That meant that these pupils would be followed during their last five months of their school careers and then right through to the time they were in permanent employment or further education in September, 1992. Another sampling decision taken during the initial stage of the fieldwork was to leave girls out of the study. Although it was recognized that there was a need for the girls' voices to be heard - especially Asian girls - the constraints of time and methodology made it difficult to include them for the purposes of this study. My reasons for deciding to focus exclusively on male groups were twofold. In the first place, as a male researcher, it was relatively difficult for me to gain access to the many female friendship groups which would be likely to feel rather uneasy in their interactions with me. In many of the classroom situations, the girls almost always stopped whatever activity they were engaged in and kept quiet, or pretended to carry on doing their reading or homework, whenever I approached them. For instance, they might have been actively involved in some group activities - talking or singing some Chinese or Malay pop songs - prior to my intervention. Secondly, as my fieldwork also required me to be a participant observer in the groups' activities outside school, it would not only have been unwise but also quite impossible for me to 'tag along' with their activities. A middle-aged man in the company of teenage girls would almost always arouse the public's suspicions, for he might be taken to be a pimp or as someone having connections with the underworld luring young girls into vice - a common and rampant occurrence in the state. Access to the teachers Although access to the school had been successfully negotiated during the pre-fieldwork visits, the initial stage of my fieldwork was filled with much apprehension and anxiety about gaining access to the pupils. As access to the pupils was through classroom observations, it was vital for me to convince some of the teachers to allow me to be present during some of their form five lessons. As it was common knowledge that the majority of the qualified teachers did not like been observed, it was natural for me to envisage problems with teachers who were rather apprehensive about my request during my initial visit at the beginning of the year. Furthermore, my initial feedback indicated that, for reasons best known to the teachers themselves, some of them were only prepared to allow me to be present during some but not all of their lessons with the form five's. In spite of my repeated reassurance that my concern was with identifying some of the pupils, many of the teachers still felt threatened by the idea of 22
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my following them to their lessons. On the whole, most of the teachers were reluctant to have me following them to their classes and tried to convince me that there was nothing interesting happening in their classrooms, that their pupils were not responsive and that it would be very dull for me to sit at the back of their classrooms. The following are examples of what some reluctant teachers said to me: "This is the last semester. There won't be much teaching. I will be doing revision most of the time. There isn't much to be observed ... Many of them will be absent ... most of them do not want to study any more". "I can't teach when only a handful of them are present". "There won't be much teaching this term ... There will be all sorts of examinations this semester ... I don't think you'll be able to observe anything from our lessons". "There is nothing much we can do with the 5E. I don't think it is a good idea to observe us teaching in 5E". Very often, the teachers also wanted to know the reasons why 6 Greenwood Park was chosen for my study . The same reasons were also given as my answer to all the pupils who wanted to know why their school was selected for my study. Most of the pupils had the impression that their school was chosen because it was a notorious one. Access to the pupils However, it would be unfair to say that all the teachers were sceptical about my presence in the school. Some of them were in fact very helpful and co-operative. For example, on the first day of my fieldwork, after finding out about the purpose and nature of my research, a female teacher not previously known to me invited me to her English lessons in 5D and 5B and suggested that she would stop her teaching ten minutes earlier so that I could talk with her pupils after her lessons. This, according to her, would not disrupt her lesson as her pupils needed some
6
The following were some of the reasons I gave for choosing Greenwood Park for my study:a. Sample: I required a school which was representative of most normal secondary schools in urban cities in Malaysia. I also required a school which was not only co-educational but one which had a fair representation of the three main ethnic groups in the country. b. Gate-keeper: As I was acquainted with the headmaster who was not only very receptive of my request but also interested in the study itself, it was therefore natural that I had chosen the school where I could be certain that there would be full cooperation and easy access to the research setting. c. Former Colleague: Four of the teachers at Greenwood Park had been my former colleagues and therefore it would be to my advantage to work with people I was familiar with. d. As a teacher trainee in the late 1960s, I had also taught for half a term in Greenwood Park and thus the school was special to me.
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7
practice for their forth coming oral English examination . Furthermore her pupils could also be told something about British schools and British pupils which would be of interest to them. At the beginning of those two lessons, she introduced me as a lecturer writing a book on young people and their problems and that my purpose in coming to their school was to talk to the pupils and understand their problems. This was a fair introduction, as explaining it as a Ph.D. project would not be meaningful to them. The intention of my visit and what was expected to be carried out during the following four months of my stay in the school were later elaborated by me during the question and answer sessions. Many of the pupils were also keen to find out how they could participate in the project. It would have been ideal if the teacher had been teaching all the form five classes. Since she only taught two of the form five classes, my access to the other pupils had to be renegotiated with some of the other, rather reluctant, teachers. My concern about the scepticism of the teachers was rather short-lived. The opportunity to visit pupils in the other form five classes arose the 8 following day when the teacher in-charge of arranging 'cover' time-tables told me that I could go and see some of the form five pupils on that day if I covered (took over) the lessons of two of the form five teachers who had to leave the school to attend a meeting outside the school that morning. The offer was gladly accepted and my wish to share the load of their cover lessons, especially those in form five, in the future, was also made known to the teacher concerned. Covering lessons in the form five classes would not only enable me to spend more time with each of the classes but would enable the pupils to interact more freely with me. It meant that there would be very little or no inhibition on the part of the pupils when their teachers were not present. This 'break-through' worked out well for me and subsequently, the school office boy would always hand me a cover time-table on my arrival in the school each morning. On average, there was at least one teacher away from the school everyday sick leave, meetings, in-service courses, examining oral Malay and oral English. This "very immediate sense of 'sharing'" (Ball, 1984) not only paved the way for a close working relationship with the teachers, but also allowed me free access to the pupils. The teachers also began to appreciate my presence and looked forward to seeing me everyday as
7
All SPM Examination candidates have to sit for the oral English examination which is held in early August.
8
In Malaysia, it is known as a 'relief' time-table and the period is known as a 'relief' period. Whenever a teacher is absent, his or her teaching load for the day is distributed among the other teachers who are free during those periods. Usually, there will be no teaching and the main duty of the 'cover' teacher is to maintain discipline in the classes he or she is assigned to.
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some of their burden of covering lessons for other teachers would be taken over by me. Covering for teachers (especially those teaching in form five) who were absent gave me the opportunity to mingle more with the pupils. By the end of the first week, I had been to all of the five form five classes and had met some of the form four pupils as well. By then most of the pupils knew who I was. I also made it a point to be seen not as a member of the staff and every available opportunity was used to demonstrate to the pupils that I was not a teacher in the school. The idea was reinforced further by me choosing not to follow the norms of the other teachers, for 9 example, by coming in and leaving the school at times convenient to me. I also chose not to be present during the weekly school assembly when all the teachers had to be seated on the stage. I also mingled with the pupils in the school canteen during the recess or just hung around the 10 motorcycle shed to interact with some of the boys . Mingling with the pupils both inside as well as outside the classroom, gave the pupils the opportunities to build up their trust and confidence in me. I also chose to wear only white shirt and dark coloured trousers (quite similar to the colour of their school uniform) so that when I sat amongst them, I could easily be mistaken as one of them (cf. Delamont, 1984). This led to some of the pupils unconsciously patting me on the shoulder when they crowded round the group to join in whatever activities they were engaged in. In fact, on one occasion, a Malay boy was rather embarrassed when he realised that he had been pressing on my shoulder throughout the whole session when he came to join some of the other pupils who had 11 crowded round a desk to watch a gambling game . He apologized to me and remarked that "Sir , it's dangerous sir! Don't wear white shirt sir ... I thought you were one of us".
12
9
On some days, I would come in or leave the school during the recess time so that the pupils could see me coming in or leaving the school.
10
I had to acquaint myself with some knowledge of motorcycles - terminologies, the latest models, their engine capacities and types of modification to the engine to make it more powerful - in order to participate in their discussions.
11
It was a form of gambling by tossing two coins. Under normal conditions, that game would be disallowed by the teachers. However, to show that I was not a teacher, I had to go against my conscience to allow them to carry on occasionally.
12
It is the normal practice for Malaysian pupils to address male teachers as "sir". Even though I was addressed as a "sir", the salutation was more out of the respect they had for me as an adult and not as a teacher in the school.
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Although specific forms were assigned to me for my 'cover' periods, it was soon discovered that access to the other Form five pupils could also be gained without adhering strictly to classes assigned to me according to the cover time-table each morning. Besides going to those classes assigned to me, I could actually go into any of the classes which had no 13 teacher at that time. This arrangement worked out well for me as easy access to the pupils could be obtained without me having to negotiate access with each of the teachers. The disadvantage of this strategy was that I was unable to obtain any observation data pertaining to the pupils' behaviour and their group cultural practices during their lessons. As the fifth formers were at the last stage of their preparation for the SPM examinations, there was very little teaching during that time of the year. Among the teachers who went to class, most of them spent their time revising past examination papers with the pupils. In retrospect, I am of the opinion that even if I had been able to gather data on classroom observations during their lessons, it would have not made a significant difference to my study. The confidence and trust I gained through my constant presence in their classrooms made up for the classroom observation data that I was unable to gather. By the end of the second week, most of the pupils had also got used to my presence in their classrooms and would usually carry on doing 14 whatever they were doing without taking any notice of me . By not following the teachers to their classes, my initial assurance given to the teachers that the research was really focused on the pupils and not the teachers was reinforced. This new arrangement also meant that it was necessary to reconceptualise my research design, and data pertaining to the informants' school careers had to be gathered through other means instead of through observation in the classroom. This led to the use of the 'sentence completion' tests (adapted from Hargreaves, 1967). Some of the data was also based on the informants recall of previous events - a form of oral history. However, the truth of these stories was often established by having the informants relating the events in a group so that they could counter-check and confirm the details narrated by one another. Sometimes the details were also confirmed by referring to some of the school records and through casual discussions with the teachers - a form
13
It was not uncommon for some teachers not to go for their 'cover' lessons assigned to them. Furthermore, there were days when as many as twelve teachers were away from the school and it was impossible to arrange cover teachers for some of the classes.
14
It is the normal practice for all the classes to greet their teachers who come in at the beginning of each lesson. I was glad that the practice was not accorded to me after the second week of my fieldwork at Greenwood Park.
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of 'triangulation' (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983) and in particular 'data triangulation' (Denzin, 1970 cited in Burgess, 1984). There were more opportunities to mingle with the fifth formers when the SPM oral Malay examination (for Greenwood Park, it lasted for a week) began during the third week of my fieldwork. There was hardly any teaching as many of the teachers were away as examiners in other schools. Even though I could sense that the trust the boys had in me was increasing as the days went by, I was still sceptical about the confidence they had in me. My confidence was greatly boosted during the beginning of the fourth week when one of the Malay boys (the Footballers) told me that one of the female teachers had been enquiring about my activities with them and what they had told me so far. The boy told her that it was a secret between us and even though the teacher told the boy that she could easily find out the details from me, the boy told her that they were confident that I would not let them down. Role of the researcher The dilemma of the limited roles available to a researcher in the school setting is pointed out by Wolcott (1975, p. 122) when he said that There are relatively few formal roles in schools, and the roles available are not necessarily attractive for accomplishing research that must be based on limited rather than on total involvement ... unless one places himself [sic] behind a podium, a typewriter, a broom, or the principal's desk, there simply are no other roles .... In almost all the ethnographies on schools, teachers or pupils, the researchers usually took on the role of a teacher at some stage of their research (For example, Hargreaves, 1967; Lacey, 1970; Ball, 1981). Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the researcher assuming the role of a teacher have been set out in these studies. The major concern when a researcher takes on the role of a teacher is always that the trust and confidence the pupils have in the researcher will be jeopardised when researcher is also seen as a member of the staff. Because of the ethos of the school, particularly at the time when the fieldwork was conducted at Greenwood Park Secondary, and partly because of the apprehension of some of the teachers, my role as a researcher was greatly enhanced and yet at the same time I was able to assume the role of a 'cover' teacher to gain access to the classes I wished to go to. At the same time, there was full cooperation from all the administrative staff at Greenwood Park and there was free access to any document deemed necessary for my study. This free access to the 27
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school, teachers and pupils enabled me to build up not only a bond between myself and the informants, but also a trusting relationship with members of the staff. At the same time, by not having to exercise the authority expected of a teacher, I also gained the trust and confidence of the pupils. Thus I had the best of both worlds - enjoying the benefits of being treated as a member of the staff and thus getting access to many of the official documents such as school disciplinary records and registers; but at the same time not having to be 'authoritative' (in the eyes of the pupils) as expected of a teacher. For example, I did not insist on maintaining discipline in the class whenever I went for my cover lessons a move away from the normal perceived role of a teacher. This was in a way very similar to what Fuller (1984, p.102) had wished for when she gathered data for her doctoral thesis: I wanted to be able to observe and participate as a way of being available to pupils. I wanted to avoid being placed in a position of 'authority' in relation to the pupils - in particular I wished to avoid, as far as possible, being categorized prematurely by them as a teacher. My dual role was the most ideal one any researcher doing an ethnographical study in a school situation could reasonably hope for. On reflection, the bond and trust I had built up with all my informants within a comparatively short duration of less than a month, can be attributed to this double role that I was able to play during the initial stage of my fieldwork. Entry to the group By the end of the third week, the two main groups of friends who eventually became the key informants of the study were identified (through observations and sociometric tests). One of the groups, the 'Young Masters' was involved in scouting. At the end of the third week, one of the scouts in Form 5A invited me to accompany them in attending a campfire at a neighbouring girls school. During that week, some of the boys had been helping the girls there to put up an arch and other gadgets necessary for the campfire. According to the boys, the campfire was the place where I could find out "how some of the boys get to know girls" and "... other activities of the young people". The campfire was actually a gathering of scouts, girl guides and members of the Malaysian Red Crescent (Red Cross) Societies from some of the other secondary schools in the state. The boys were delighted to see me there and had introduced me as their "sir". After the campfire, the boys invited me to join them for supper at their usual joint at the promenade. I paid for the
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15
supper . After supper, two of them asked me whether I minded if they 16 smoked to which I replied that they could do whatever they liked and whatever they normally did as I was not part of their school authority. The two started smoking and another two joined in later. They were a bit tensed at first but were relaxed when no sign of approval or disapproval was indicated by me. They talked freely among themselves and I could sense that they were saying things without any inhibition. There was vulgarity in their talk and action. I knew then that the outing was a success and the beginning of many more to come. I was into some 'real' fieldwork participating in the activities of these young people. I had at last gained their trust and confidence. The story about me attending the campfire and giving the boys a treat soon spread among the fifth formers, and subsequently I was flooded with invitations to attend other campfires, Buddhist Society Sunday School and other weekend activities. However, a decision to concentrate on only those activities involving the boys who eventually became my informants, had to be made. Thus I was very careful in not offending some of the other pupils when I could not accept their invitation as I still needed them to provide me with information to 'validate' some of my data. This bond built up through participating in their outside school activities paved the way to many of the frank discussions and interviews with the informants, especially the Young Masters. Because of the numerous outside school activities of the Young Masters, I was in the beginning very much identified with this group of friends and some of the scouts in 5A. Subsequently, the Malay Footballers who saw themselves as the equivalent of the Young Masters also invited me to join in their outings as they did not want to lose out to the Young Masters. Nature of the Fieldwork The main concern during the initial stage of the fieldwork was to identify the informants for the study. Based on information gathered during my initial discussions with some of the teachers, I set out with some indications of some of the groups of pupils whom (for example, the Young Masters and the Footballers) I should look out for during my observation to discern friendship patterns in all the form five classes. In order to
15
Being the only working adult among the group, I would be embarrassed if the boys had to pay for my supper as well. Furthermore, I considered it a worthwhile investment if I could strengthen my bond with the group by paying for their supper.
16
It was their habit to smoke after a meal.
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confirm the friendship pattern discerned, I also carried out a sociometric test on all the pupils in form five. Once the four groups of friends were identified, I spent most of my time participating and observing them during their activities both in as well as outside the school. The following is a summary of the fieldwork: 1. Participant Observations in 2 main settings:(a) In school: (the informants' ways of life in school) This was carried out through the observations of the fifth formers (from 5 different forms) during their 'free' periods when there was no teacher and no teaching.
Table 3.1: Summary of Participant Observations in Classroom Situations Total number of school days (between 1.7.91 and 18.10.91) Total number of days spent in school (between 1.7.91 and 18.10.91) Total number of days spent in school (between 1.7.92 and 1.9.92) Total number of 40-minute periods relieved Other observations in the classroom 79 days 55 days 14 days 48 periods 43 periods
Table 3.2: Summary of Participant Observations Carried out in Non-Classroom Situations Venue No. of times
school canteen bicycle/motorcycle shed car porch (b)
18 12 3
Outside School (leisure activities) Once a link with the informants was established, I got myself invited to some of their outside school activities. I became a participant observer in some of their activities and a non-participant observer in others. At times, I was a competent participant and occasionally an incompetent participant so as to gather more in-depth information and seek clarification of some of the 'styles', 'lingo' and behaviour of the groups. For the group which met almost every evening, I was also at their usual 30
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meeting place on most of the evenings. For the other groups which met on an irregular basis, I would also try to be at their appointed meeting place whenever I was invited to go along. Some of those outside school activities were school related (e.g. campfire in another school) while others were mainly their own leisure activities (e.g. discos, birthday dinners and parties, gambling, playing snooker, motorcycle racing or just hanging around the promenade). Table 3.3 below provides a summary of the frequency and the different contexts in which participant observations were carried.
Table 3.3: Summary of Participation Observations in Events Outside the School.
Events Campfire Birthday parties/dinner Dinners Driving around town 'Joy-ride' as a pillion rider with informants Motorcycle racing (as spectators) Fast Food Outlets (e.g. MacDonald) Suppers Discos/Afternoon Tea-dance Snooker centre/club Hanging around promenade/shopping arcade Hanging around their usual meeting places The School Canteen (after they had left school) Visits to Informants' houses Visits to Informants' place of work Conducted tour of "Itchy Alleyway"
No. of times 2 3 5 8 1 2 6 24 5 4 9 34 3 5 3 1
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2.
Interviews Interviews were carried out with three main categories of people. They were the informants, the teachers and the informants' peers. Some of these were individual interviews and some were conducted as group interviews. Individual interviews Each of the informants had at least one interview to gather information relating to their bio-data. Some had more. For example, some of the Young Masters had six interviews. The following information was collected during some of those interviews; and some of this information was also checked with the official records kept by the school: Bio-data, orientation to school and teachers, aspirations and expectations, subjects liked and disliked, leisure activities, family background, friends and parental control. Other individual interviews were impromptu when the informants talked about or were interviewed about their past and present activities or issues emerging from their activities. Group Interviews Group interviews (both formal and informal) with members of each group were also conducted whenever the opportunities arose. Some of these interviews were held in their usual meeting place, others were conducted in the school library or some fast-food chain outlets in the city or during one of their 'night-outs'. Some of the interviews were impromptu, while others were pre-arranged. For example, the Goodies used the interviews as opportunities for their group outings. Each of the groups was also interviewed as a group when they were still in school and also after they had left school. Most of the group interviews centred around topics relating to their perceptions of their own group identity and those of the other groups. Table 3.4 on the following page is a summary of the frequency of group interviews with the groups.
Table 3.4: Summary of Group Interviews No of group interviews Young Masters Footballers Goodies Softies 13 8 6 3
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Usually a tape recorder was used to record the conversations during outings and interviews. Based on the experience gained during the fieldwork, I could not agree more with Oscar Lewis (1963, p.xii) who maintained that The tape recorder ... has made possible the beginning of a new kind of literature of social realism. With the aid of the tape recorder, unskilled, uneducated, and even illiterate persons can talk about themselves and relate their observations and experiences in an uninhibited, spontaneous, and natural manner. Although some researchers maintain that some informants may feel threatened by the presence of a tape-recorder, my experience indicated otherwise. As much of my data was based on the narratives of my informants, my tape-recorder (with its recording button switched on), was usually left in either my shirt pocket or on a table. In fact, at times, some of the informants would even carry it for me. Most of my informants had got so used to the idea of seeing my tape-recorder as part of the setting that sometimes they would even check if the recording button had been switched on, and replace the old tape with a new one when the tape ran out. Sometimes, they would also play back some of the recordings and make further comments on what they had said. One of the 'Young Masters' even volunteered to interview one of his 'mates' on his 17 involvement in gangsterism on my behalf . The interviews were mainly focused on the groups' perceptions of their own and other groups' identity and styles besides discussions on issues emerging from some of their activities. Some of the topics discussed included attitudes towards school and teachers, motorcycles and motorcycle racing, gangsterism, job-hunting and work, girl friends and marriage, parental control, sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS, and other related topics. Interviews with the teachers Teachers selected for interviews were those who were teaching or had taught the informants and those who were in-charge of extra-mural activities in which the informants were involved. Usually, the interviews centred upon issues relating to the informants' academic abilities and their involvement in the various school activities and also the teachers' perceptions of the
17
The interview turned out to be most informative as the informant who did the interview was also involved in gangsterism previously and thus he was able to elucidate much information based on his own knowledge about gangsterism.
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informants. All the interviews were conducted in the school: either in the office or in the staff room. The assistant head teacher in-charge of pupils' affairs was interviewed both formally as well as informally on the general ethos of the school and also the informants' discipline during the past two years. An interview based on an analysis of the school official disciplinary records for 1989/90 and 1990/91 was also conducted. Total number of formal interviews with principal: Total number of formal interviews with the assistant head: Total number of teachers interviewed: 4 2 12
Interviews with the peers of the informants The aim of these interviews was to establish the norms or characteristics of each group as seen by their peers. This included the informants' class-mates and some of their 'mates' who were no longer in school. Number of interviews with peers: Young Masters' peer: Matthew's colleague: Matthew's 'god-son': 3. 6 1 1 Footballers' peer (SP): 1
School Records Data from school records was also collected. It consisted of information relating to the informants' bio-data, family background, attendance for 1990/91, disciplinary records for 1989/90 and 1990/91, performance in the SRP (Lower Certificate of Education) Examinations in 1988 and 1989; performance in the SPM (Malaysian Certificate of Education) Examination in 1991 and 1992. Fifth formers Responses to the following tests (a) (b) Sociometric Test (See Appendix II). Sentence Completion Test - School Orientation (See Appendix III).
4.
Because of the high absenteeism rate of the fifth formers during that part of the year, not all the fifth formers, (including the informants) took the sentence completion test. However, for the informants who did not take the sentence completion test, separate interviews based on items in the sentence completion tests were conducted.
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Problems and delights of the fieldwork One of the most satisfying experiences gained from the fieldwork was the confidence and trust the informants had in me. In obtaining the detailed and intimate data of the life stories of these young people, I used neither secret techniques nor truth drugs. Sympathy and compassion for the subjects were the main ingredients I used in gaining the trust and confidence of the informants. What began as a professional interest in their lives turned into warm and lasting friendship. Basically, it was their sense of friendship that led them to include me in their activities and to tell me their life stories. In a way, they were also moved by my sustained interest in them. The constant contact I kept with most of the informants was a crucial factor in increasing their confidence. For example, when Andy, one of the boys from 5A who always participated in the Young Master's activities, was involved in a serious motorcycle racing accident, the Young Masters contacted me when they failed to get in touch with Andy's parents. Some of the problems related to the fieldwork have been documented in the previous sections, and others will also be presented in later chapters (see for example Chapter 5). One of the major problems faced relates to the translation of the interviews. The translation of the different Chinese dialects and the Malay language has presented formidable and in some ways insoluble problems, particularly in attempting to find the equivalents for slang expressions, idioms, and jokes with sexual innuendo. Although I avoided offering a literal translation by trying to capture the essential meaning and flavour of the language, some of the personal styles of the individuals, as well as the unique quality and charm of the original narratives, were lost as a result of the translation. Conclusion Based on a combination of methodologies used in ethnographic and survey studies - participation observation, interviews, oral history, official records, paper and pencil tests - accounts of the social life of four groups of Malaysian youth during their transition from school to work or further education are composed using a particular paradigm chosen from the numerous approaches available to me. What I did was similar to Wexler (1992) in his study of three high schools in an urban city in North America:
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The participants speak and I record and selectively represent their voices. But to pretend that this is simply a dialogical construction of the facts of the case would be arrogant, exploitative and deceptive. I hear their voices in my ears, and I speak my words, conditioned by my place in historical social movement and by the language and analytical resources available to me. (Wexler, 1992, p.2) What follows in the next four chapters is therefore my understanding of the social life of four groups of friends during their transition from school to work, and it is presented as a structured narrative. Study questions 1. 2. Write down some questions you have concerning schools and related them to questions asked by functionalists. What are some questions concerning education that come to mind when using functionalist theory? Conflict theory? Interactional theory? Critical postmodern theory? Feminist theory? What is ethnography? Give an example of an investigation in a school setting in which ethnography is used. What are the main steps to be taken in designing and carrying out the investigation? In carrying out the same investigation, is it possible to use a quantitative approach and how?
3.
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Week 2
Topic 2: Conflicting Functions and Processes in Education: What Makes The System Work?
A society is made up of a number of institutions family, politics, economy, education, religion, and a host of other institutions. Each of these institutions has a role to play in ensuring the continuance of the existence of the society. Some of these roles may be controversial as well as conflicting. Education and schools under the structural-functionalist perspective is a socializing agent to ensure that the young are socialized to become useful individuals who can contribute to the existence of the society. For example, schools are expected to produce citizens who are law abiding (inculcating discipline to the extent of just obey orders and instructions and not questioning the authority); but the present school curriculum emphasizes the importance of seeking truth through questioning is in conflict with the role of producing citizens who are law-abiding and respect their elders and authorities. Schools are also the place where young people are prepared for their adult roles and also for the workplace. Thus schools have a number of important functions in ensuring the continuing existence of the society. The main emphasis here is the socialization the process by which individuals in societies are been groomed both voluntarily and involuntarily to be useful members of societies and also to play specific roles in societies. This is where sociologists debate about power, access that give rise to inequality in societies. From the perspective of the conflict theory, sociologists argue that schools are used by those in power (usually the middle class) to ensure that only values which are beneficial and consistent with their social class are inculcated through the school system. However these values are not similar to what children from working class families observe at home. Schools in that sense are more problematic for the working class children and this may be the main cause for the under performance of children from lower income families in schools. In examining each of the functions of schools, you will find that Surrounding each function or purpose of education are debates about power, access, whose knowledge, and knowledge for whom (Ballantine & Hammack, 2009).
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Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapter 2 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to: 1. List and describe the five main social functions of education viz. socialization, transmission of culture, social control, selection and allocation, and change and innovation. Demonstrate that the processes or means by which these functions are achieved are varied across societies and among social groups. Discuss the dynamic nature of educational system and processes which may result in the functions having both positive and negative outcomes.
2. 3.
Readings 1. 2. Chapter 2 of the prescribed text. Additional reading materials will be uploaded on myVLE.
Study questions 1. If you were to visit a kindergarten and observe the type of socialization experiences of the children, what are some of the experiences that are likely to be different from those in their homes? In what ways are these experiences different? How can teachers best prepare students for the future? What are the main objectives in including moral education in the Malaysian curriculum? In trying to prepare students for their future, teachers have more or less decided on the future roles for their students. Discuss.
2. 3. 4.
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Week 3
Topic 3: Education and the Process of Stratification
Occupational and financial success and subsequently the social-economic status (SES) of an individual is very often linked to his/her academic achievement. This is particularly evident in Malaysia where parents will do their level best to ensure that their children are enrolled in the best schools and provided with tuition classes so that they will obtain the maximum number of distinctions in public examinations. This is done in the hope that their children will eventually win one of the prestigious scholarships to study in one of the prestigious universities overseas a stepping stone for them to be successful in their adult roles. Success in education is thus an important factor in enhancing social mobility and deciding the future status of an individual. It is therefore not uncommon for parents nowadays to try to compete for a place for their children to be enrolled in one of the elite government schools. This belief is further reinforced when some schools are classified as controlled schools reserved for the high achievers and advantaged. For those who are unable to get into one these elite schools and who also have the financial resources, it has also become a norm for them to be enrolled in some of the private and international schools which are deemed to be able to better prepare their children to succeed in life. In this section, you will be using both the functional and conflict theories to explain the stratification system and its role in education and society, and equality of educational opportunity. While looking at the variables responsible for the stratification of the Western society, you will critically evaluate if education is responsible for sorting Malaysians into future societal roles. Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapter 3 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to: 1. Explain the phenomenon of stratification and social class; and elaborate on how it is determined by several variables, including wealth, power and Provide major explanations of stratification from the functionalist and the conflict, neo-Marxist perspectives. Explain with examples the effects of stratification on academic achievement. 39
2. 3.
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4.
Elaborate on how social classes are reproduced in the school through various mechanism such as elite and private schools, tracking and ability grouping and teacher expectations.
Readings 1. 2. Chapter 3 of the prescribed text. Additional readings will be uploaded on myVLE.
Study questions 1. 2. 3. 4. Discuss how social class, race, subculture, or sex has affected your educational experience. Talk to teachers or school officials about school policies that influence stratificaion: testing, ability grouping, teacher expectation. Think of cases in which the positions of individuals in the stratification system have influenced their educational achievement. Consider students who are at the bottom of the school achievement hierarchy. What factors do you think contirbute to their position in the system? Using the information provided in Box 3.1 (pp 103 104) in your prescribed text, discuss the relevance of the factors listed that are influence Malaysian teachers expectation of their students. What are the effects of these expectations on the strategies and approaches used in teaching students from different background and academic abilities?
5.
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Week 4
Topic 4: Race, Class and Gender: Attempt to Achieve Equality of Educational Opportunity, Social Mobility and Education
Introduction From the previous topic, you would have seen that the process of stratification has significant effects on schooling and achievement. Findings related to the effects of schooling indicate that a complex interaction between schools and family contributes significantly to the academic success of individuals and subsequently inequality of opportunities. We will continue our discussion by focusing on the problem of gender, class and race all of which contribute to differences in expectations, environment and school experiences. Although examples provided in Chapter 4 of your text are specific to America, you are strongly encouraged to relate them to the Malaysian context and critically review some of the initiatives in overcoming the inequality of opportunities in Malaysia. Some of the issues worth discussing include girls performance in Science, the unequal representation of gender (more females than males) in institutions of higher learning in Malaysia, the New Economic Policy and the New Economic Model. Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapter 4 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Provide the meaning of equality of educational opportunity Explain how the concepts of equality and inequality are applicable in Malaysian society. Explain the effects of socialization based on race, class and gender on achievement in school.
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Readings 1. 2. Chapter 4 of the prescribed text. Additonal materials will be uploaded on myVLE.
Study questions 1. 2. Provide examples of how schools and teachers socialize their students into their respective gender roles. Interview a group form 3 boys and another group of girls about their aspirations, future career plans. Repeat the same interview with students from different ethnic groups and social class background. What will you find when you compare these aspirations?
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Week 5
Topic 5: Students: The Core of the School
Introduction Schools are the main socializing agent in preparing individuals for their future productive roles in the larger society. However, the outcome of the socializing process is different with some fitting into the system and derives maximum benefits from the school system (i.e. academic achievement) while some dropping out of the system and not performing well in their future roles. As students make up the largest group of participants in a school, they play an important part in influencing the academic climate of the school. In this topic, you will be looking at the many processes in the school that will affect students behaviour and achievement. The following is a summary diagram showing the many sociological variables linked to students academic achievement and behaviour. Please note that it is the result of the interactions of these and other variables both inside and outside the school system that lead to this unequal outcome of schooling:
Input Home & Family Socio-Economic Status Ethnicity Parental Educational Background Amenities Location: Rural/Urban Self IQ Self Concept Expectation Throughput (Process) School Setting/System Type Medium of Instruction Other Informal System Streaming Co-curricular Activities Teacher Rapport Interest Commitment Expectation Parents Rapport Interest Commitment Expectation Peers Rapport Role Model Expectation Expectation Self Expectation Output
Academic Achievement and Student Behaviour
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Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapter 7 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to: 1. Describe and demonstrate the relationship between student characteristics and the school organization and academic achievement. Identify and explain causes of school failures and dropout. Identify the variables contributing to existence of school climate and demonstrate how these variables can affect student achievement. Demonstrate how students environment (viz. home environment, family background, parental involvement, family aspirations and social class background) affect students achievement in school.
2. 3. 4.
Readings 1. 2. Chapter 7 of the prescribed text. Additonal reading materials will be uploaded on myVLE.
Study questions Discuss all the questions listed under Putting Sociology to Work on page 256 of your prescribed text.
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Week 6
Topic 6: The Informal System and the Curriculum: What Really Happens in School
Introduction The following news report Probe on Rawang School with Schoolboy Gang was published in the Star on 25 May, 2010:
Hidden
PETALING JAYA: The Education Ministrys day school management division and the Selangor education department have been instructed to investigate a secondary school in Rawang where its students are alleged to be committing intimidating acts. The Starprobe team went undercover to talk to students, former students, parents, teachers and residents, revealing a sorry story of triad activities, drug distribution, alcoholism, vandalism and sexual crimes. The Starprobe report said students at a co-ed secondary school in Rawang, Selangor, dreaded going to school every day knowing what awaits them when they step into the compound. Groups of boys randomly pounce on their schoolmates almost every day, demanding protection money ranging from RM8 to RM36. Those who refuse to pay are assaulted or mocked until they pay up. Violent attacks, rapes and drunken binges by schoolboys spewing fourletter words are all common in this school. And its not just fellow students who are afraid. Residents outside the school are equally afraid of these schoolboy gang members. Rawang assemblyman Gan Pei Nei said she was aware of the disciplinary problems at the school ranging from gangsterism and gang fights to molest. What are your initial reactions after reading the headlines? What are some of the questions that you would raise as a teacher, a parent or a Malaysian? Who is actually in control of the school? What is the educational climate of the school? Imagine yourself to be a student or a teacher in the school, how would you cope with going to school everyday? Was there any learning taking place in the school? How does the school climate influence the 45
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students motivations, aspirations and achievement? What are some of the actions that you would take if you were the school administrator or a state education department officer? In this section, we will be looking at the informal system and processes that take place in the school. An understanding of the informal system and hidden curriculum will enable us to better understand the many issues related to the motivations, aspirations and achievement of the students. It is also important that you familiarize yourself with the different theories used in understanding the phenomenon of student indiscipline and disaffection from school. You will be able to discuss the above from a sociological perspective after you have read chapters 8 and 9 of the prescribed text and also participated in the seminar. Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapters 8 & 9 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Appreciate the fact that besides the formal system of schools, the informal system also shapes students school experiences. Identify variables in the informal system that affect students school experiences and their academic achievement. Define educational climate and explain its effects on school effectiveness. Appreciate the existence of power dynamics in the informal system and the effects of the power dynamics in the social interaction and relationship of the participants. Use some of the theories used in the study of disaffection from school to explain disciplinary problem in schools.
5.
Readings 1. 2. Chapters 8 and 9 of the prescribed text. Additonal reading materials will be uploaded on myVLE.
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Study questions 1. 2. 3. What are some of the coping strategies that you as a teacher use in one of your class with students with low academic ability? What are some of the factors contributing to the occurance of bullying in a school? Provide a solution to the School with Schoolboy Gang quoted at the beginning of this topic.
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Week 7
Topic 7: The School as an Organization
In this section, we will be looking at the school as an organization. We will also be looking at schools as bureaucracies. Learning Objectives Upon completing reading Chapter 5 and carrying out the learning activities, learners should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify the components and subsystems that make up the social structure of the school. Discuss the roles played by each of the subsystems in ensuring the smooth operation and existence of the school as an organization. Appreciate the fact that school goals reflect the concerns of the larger society, the community, participants in the school and individuals. Describe the characteristics of bureaucracy and discuss the problems in using a bureaucratic model in education settings.
Readings 1. 2. Chapter 5 of the prescribed text. Additional reading materials will be uploaded on myVLE
Study questions 1. By refering to Fig. 5.1 Open System Model of Educational Organization on page 156 of your prescribed text, describe the social system of the school you are currently attached to or one you are familiar with. In what way is a bureaucratic organizational model useful to schools? In what ways can it be dysfunctional?
2.
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Week 8
Topic 8: Formal School Statuses and Roles
In this topic learners will be examining the different statuses that come with the formal roles different participants play in the educational or school system. In performing these roles, the actors have to carry out their role responsibilities according to their role hierarchy. Very often this involves much negotiations as well as using different coping strategies. In this process some participants are more successful than others. Both students as well as teachers roles and coping strategies will be explored. In examining teachers role, learners will also be looking at teacher preparation and licensing, teaching as a profession and also teacher burnout. Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, learners will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Explain the meaning of role and role hierarchy Draw a diagram to illustrate the role hierarchy in the Malaysian school system List the role responsibilities of each of the participants in the school organization Explain why and how the goals of education are often ambiguous, contraditory, and not universally shared and leading to confusion in role expectation. Give specific examples of teachers coping strategies. Explain the factors causing teacher burnout. Evaluate if teaching can be considered a profession.
5. 6. 7.
Readings 1. 2. Chapter 6 of the prescribed text. Other relevant reading materials will be up-loaded on myVLE
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Additional reading: http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2010/11/28/education/7451610&s ec=education You may use the above material in your seminar discussion. Study questions Answer all the relevant questions listed under Applying Sociology to Education on pages 185, 199, 211 and 214 of your prescribed text.
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Week 9
Topic 9: Transition from School to Work
Introduction As it is acknowledged that the main function of the school is to socialize individual for their future economic productive roles, we would expect a school leaver to be able to fit into the world of work immediately upon leaving school - a seamless flow. But in reality, this is not the case. The transition from school to work in reality is problematic more so in Malaysia as students have been socialized into believing that academic achievement at the university level is the key to a career of their choice. Thus they will need to ensure that they are able to carry on until they complete their studies at the university level. This is achievable for those who are academically inclined and also have the financial means to do so. But unfortunately, at least 60% of the SPM school leavers have to stop at this level and start their journey into adulthood. On looking back, they suddenly realized that the schools had not prepared them for this shock. The world of work is definitely very different from that of the school. We will now examine from the sociological perspective the process by which students cope with their transition from school to work. Try to recall your own experience of leaving school and entering the world of employment. Did the school actually prepare you for such a transition? This topic serves as a summary of all the topics you have covered in this course. The reading material is a synthesis of the many sociological theories and concepts you have learned so far and applied in a Malaysian context. Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, learners will be able to appreciate the ways in which the different sociological theories and concepts can be applied to understand educational issues and problems. Readings Relevant sections from a thesis by Tan (1994) Male Youth Cultures and the Transition from School to Work: A Malaysian Case Study will be uploaded on myVLE.
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Study questions Although academic credentials are important for the upward social mobility of individuals, there are other means and resources by which those who are not academically inclined or disaffected from school can succeed in life. What are some of the theories and concepts you can use to discuss the above from a sociological perspective?
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Week 10
Topic 10: Further Reading
A compilation of readings and notes on various topics will be uploaded on myVLE to enhance your understanding of the topics you have covered in this couse so far.
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STUDY GUIDE

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

CENTRE FOR GRADUATE STUDIES

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

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HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

COURSE RESOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS

Extra recommended reading

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

Assignment Question (Sample)

Where possible, references should be latest (year 2005 and onwards).

Late submission of assignment

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

FINAL EXAMINATION Final Examination Questions (Sample)

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR SEMINARS

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

Weekly Study Guide for Learners

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

school canteen bicycle/motorcycle shed car porch (b)

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

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HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

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HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

Academic Achievement and Student Behaviour

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education

HMEF 5143 Sociology of Education