Understanding

Gender in Agricultural Produc3on: An Annotated Bibliography for the Case of Afghanistan

Afghanistan Public Policy Research Organiza>on

Synthesis Report January, 2010

Acknowledgements This paper is based on the work undertaken by APPRO for the research project, Mul>-Donor Trust Fund for Trade and Development: Understanding the Gender Dimension of Trade Markets in Afghanistan, funded by the World Bank. APPRO wishes to thank the World Bank team for this project for their construc>ve comments throughout the wri>ng of this review. The literature review based on this annotated bibliography is published as Understanding Gender in Agricultural Produc3on: A Review of the Literature and a Conceptual Framework, available from APPROs website at: www.appro.org.af APPRO takes full responsibility for any omissions and errors. About the Authors Saeed Parto is Director of Research at Afghanistan Public Policy Research Organiza>on. He holds a doctorate in Human Geography from the University of Waterloo (Ontario, Canada) and specializes in policy and ins>tu>onal analysis in developed and developing countries. His recent work includes analysis of policy and ins>tu>onal change in development coopera>on, waste management, and technological transi>ons and innova>on. Dr. Parto is also Lecturer at the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Maastricht University, the Netherlands. Rozbih Mihran is Researcher at Afghanistan Public Policy Research Organiza>on. His areas of focus are Natural Resource and Environmental Management and Poli>cal Economy.

About APPRO The Afghanistan Public Policy Research Organiza>on (APPRO) is an independent social research organiza>on promo>ng social and policy learning to benet development and reconstruc>on eorts in Afghanistan. APPRO is registered with the Ministry of Economy (Registra>on Number: 1212) as a not-for-prot organiza>on and headquartered in Kabul, Afghanistan. APPROs mission is to measure development progress against strategic reconstruc>on objec>ves and provide insights on how to improve performance against the milestones set by the government of Afghanistan and the interna>onal donors. APPRO is staed by personnel with many years of collec>ve experience in various facets of development and scien>c research.

(c) 2010. Afghanistan Public Policy Research Organiza>on. Some rights reserved. This publica>on may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmi_ed only for non-commercial purposes and with wri_en credit to APPRO and the authors. Where this publica>on is reproduced, stored or transmi_ed electronically, a link to APPROs website www.appro.org.af should be provided. Any use of this publica>on falling outside of these permissions requires prior wri_en permission and can be sought by emailing mail@appro.org.af or by calling +93 700 538 081.

Introduc3on
This annotated bibliography is part of the research project, Mul9 Donor Trust Fund for Trade and Development: Understanding the Gender Dimension of Trade Markets in Afghanistan, funded by the World Bank. The overall goal of the project was to the constraints and explore opportuni9es for women to par9cipate and improve their posi9on in the various steps of selected value chains in farm and non-farm produc9on. The outcome of the study was to feed into the gender mainstreaming strategy of the Government of Afghanistan and the interna9onal donor community involved in the reconstruc9on eort. The intent in compiling this annotated bibliography was to take stock of the available literature and highlight the elements that could be u9lized in developing integrated approaches in analyzing gender and / in value chains, typically examined in isola9on. The publica9on of this annotated bibliography as a public document is to assist other researchers, the Government of Afghanistan ocials, the interna9onal donor community and others who have an interest in developing systemic approaches to economic development and those who have a par9cular focus on gender in economic development. The literature search was guided by the following ques9ons: 1. Which ac9vi9es are fullled by women and men and thus which roles / posi9ons do women and men have in selected value chains? Why do women have these roles / posi9ons, as opposed to the roles / posi9ons held by men? 2. How can the value-added in ac9vi9es fullled by women be increased and how can women upgrade to new ac9vi9es with higher value-added and income? What are the opportuni9es for men and women as far as access to markets and upgrading to higher-value ac9vi9es? What are the specic opportuni9es for women? At what point(s) in the value chains is there poten9al for women to gain higher nancial rewards and/or assume more responsibili9es in decision making over produc9on and/ or marke9ng? 3. What are the constraints for women and men concerning access to markets at the local, na9onal, regional and, if appropriate, interna9onal levels? What are the constraints in moving up to higher value-added ac9vi9es in the value chains under study? What are the specic constraints to women? Are there policy constraints on womens roles in these value chains, in addi9on to cultural and social constraints? 4. How can the posi9on of Afghan producers and specically of Afghan women be improved? Within the value chains analyzed, what are key steps and poten9al interven9ons to improve their posi9on? The remainder of this document is the synthesis of all the papers reviewed for this project. The reference sec9on at the end of this document contains the details on each of the publica9ons reviewed.

Baden, S. 1998. Gender Issues in Agricultural Liberalisa3on. This paper examines gender in agricultural markets under the impact of agricultural liberalisa9on policies. The main ndings and arguments of the study are supported by empirical evidence from Zimbabwe, Guinea, Uganda, Ghana, and Tanzania. The author argues that markets are not abstract or neutral en99es but real processes of exchange embedded in social ins9tu9ons, including gender rela9ons. Further, it asserts that the benets of agricultural market liberalisa9on have skewed towards medium and large scale commercial farmers, large-scale private traders/ wholesalers and processors, and transporters and other providers of market services. Since the majority of womens ac9vi9es are concentrated in small scale farming, processing and pe[y trading, they have gained rela9vely limited benets from liberalisa9on. Moreover the constraints on womens benets from market reforms are not only due to the small size of their enterprises, but women are also disadvantaged because both state and market ins9tu9ons exhibit gender biases which prevent them from expanding the scale of their opera9ons and diversifying their ac9vi9es; and because, due to intra-household inequali9es, they o]en do not control the proceeds of their labour. A set of research and policy agenda items conclude the ar9cle. Barrientos, S. 2001. Gender, Flexibility and Global Value Chains. The analysis of value chains needs to incorporate gender as an essen9al element if their func9oning is to be fully understood. This paper provides an ini9al contribu9on to this research agenda. Its focus is on the employment and retail ends of a buyer-driven chain, using the hor9culture value chains linking Chile and South Africa to Europe as specic examples. The paper starts by exploring how a gender dimension to the analysis of global value chains could be developed at a conceptual level. It further states that a gender approach requires the posi9oning of value chain analysis within the socio-economic context in which value chains are embedded in dierent countries. Central to the framework is the exible employment and social percep9on of female work. Because of their 9es to the household, it is deemed socially acceptable that women can be drawn into employment for one period and return to their household responsibili9es the rest of the year, leaving them li[le opportunity to upgrade or advance in economic value adding work. The framework applies this concept to both the supply and demand aspects of the value chain. Barrientos, S., C. Dolan, and A. Tallon3re. 2003. A Gendered Value Chain Approach to Codes of Conduct in African Hor3culture. This paper explores the gender sensi9vity of codes currently applied in the African export hor9culture sector from an analy9cal perspec9ve that combines global value chain and gendered economy approaches. Through an analysis of these two approaches, it develops a gender pyramid, which provides a framework for mapping and assessing the gender content of codes of conduct. The pyramid is applied to codes that cover employment condi9ons in three commodity groups and countries expor9ng to European markets: South African fruit, Kenyan owers, and Zambian vegetables and owers. It concludes that the gender sensi9vity of codes needs to be greatly enhanced if they are to adequately address employment condi9ons relevant to informal and especially women workers. 2

Bolwig, S., S. Ponte, A. du Toit, L. Riisgaard, and N. Halberg. 2008. Integra3ng Poverty, Gender and Environmental Concerns into Value Chain Analysis: A Conceptual Framework and Lessons for Ac3on Research. The paper combines exis9ng but largely separate bodies of knowledge on ver9cal and horizontal aspects of value chains in a framework centred on changes in value chain posi9ons including inclusion, exclusion, and changed terms of par9cipa9on and non-par9cipa9on as experienced by small producers and agricultural businesses and their communi9es in developing countries. It develops a conceptual framework to overcome shortcomings in stand-alone value chains, livelihoods and environmental analyses by integra9ng the ver9cal and horizontal aspects of value chains that aect poverty and sustainability. The ver9cal analysis focuses on dimensions of value chain such as governance and coordina9on, standards and cer9ca9ons, func9onal division of labour, linkages, performance requirements, and the implica9ons of these dimensions for rewards and risks and the possibility for improving these for upstream chain actors in developing countries. The horizontal analysis involves poverty dimensions like analysis of income and resources, livelihood strategies and employment, vulnerability and risk, inequality, and examina9on of the terms and (pre)condi9ons for inclusion, par9cipa9on, exclusion and non-par9cipa9on into a value chain. It also includes environmental dimensions such as the availability of natural resources, the impact of the local environment on health, and life cycle assessments. Gender is treated as part of the horizontal analysis. The key elements of the gender dimension are the incorpora9on of gender sensi9vity into all elements of the framework, recogni9on of the importance of gender dierences for changes in value chain posi9on and the impacts on poverty and environment, and a view of the economy that includes both market-oriented ac9vi9es and reproduc9ve (unpaid) work that underpins produc9ve work . The integra9on of the horizontal and ver9cal dimensions enables us to understand the governance structure of the value chains, iden9fy ac9on points, promote upgrading, assess both risks and rewards, and consider mul9ple dimensions of horizontal elements through a broader framework. Brym, R.J., M.W. Gillespie, and R.L. Lenton. 2005. In Faint Praise of the World Banks Gender Development Policy. The ar9cle a[empts to overview the World Banks gender development policies on women, especially in the developing countries. It outlines the standard cri9ques of the Banks policies by social scien9sts and feminists. For instance , the nega9ve impact of the Structural Adjustment Programs on the poor in some countries such as Zambia; biased support of the World Bank policies by the wealthy countries; and the falling of addi9onal burden of childcare on women due to the introduc9on of user fees for educa9on and health services as a result of priva9za9on are among the issues discussed. 3

The paper con9nues with a discussion of the challenges to the eec9veness of the revised Bank policies since 1999 to address the previous shortcomings. According to the ar9cle, there are two constraints to gender development policies of the World Bank. The external constraint relates to the macro-economic policies of Western nancial ins9tu9ons, which encourage the priva9za9on of government services, import liberaliza9on, the elimina9on of agricultural subsidies, and pro-market measures. The internal constraint are products of the social structures prevalent in the less developed countries that manifest in the economic, religious, and poli9cal arenas. The authors recognize the important role of the World Bank in drawing a[en9on to the gendered nature of economic development, but point to two main aws in the Bank policies. First, their policies do li[le to improve the posi9on of women in less developed countries and, second, the Bank fails to explicitly acknowledge and address the religious and poli9cal sources of local governments resistance to gender equality. Chemonics Interna3onal Inc. 2005. Value Chain Analysis: Mapping maize, sunower and coOon chains Prepared for USAID Uganda. The report describes a tool for rapid value chain mapping of three agricultural products in Uganda. The objec9ve of mapping the maize, co[on, and sunower value chains is to clarify and quan9fy the associated risks and costs value adding agricultural produc9on. The report is intended as a means to facilitate the introduc9on of focused, viable, and sustainable sources of nance for agricultural value adding produc9on through extending the services of the current nance ins9tu9ons. The study nds many low risk, short term lending opportuni9es for transporta9on, processing, marke9ng, and input supply have to date received li[le a[en9on from legi9mate lenders. It also concludes that several opportuni9es exist for nancing value adding produc9on when the input and output markets are be[er understood by lenders, governments, and the interna9onal aid agencies. The study concludes by calling for a revision of exis9ng policies so as to relax or eliminate taxes on lenders in agricultural nance and the provision of greater levels of credit to all points of the agricultural value chain. Elson, D. 1993. Gender-Aware Analysis and Development Economics. The paper cri9cally examines the extent to which neoclassical and structuralist approaches to the economics of development are gender-aware, and nds both paradigms seriously decient. It examines some of the factors that hinder the produc9on of a fully gender-aware development economics and suggests ways in which improvements can be made. It is argued that both macro and microeconomics within the neoclassical framework fail to address gender issues as the former is gender neutral while the la[er is based on the assump9on that ra9onal humans make ra9onal choices based on sound and complete informa9on. According to the authors, preferences are not gender-neutral and they are heavily inuenced by the socio-economic and cultural characteris9cs of the environment in which the choice makers operate. In the context of a society characterised by gender inequality, womens percep9ons are constrained in choice making insofar as their own interests, needs, and 4

rights, undermine their bargaining powers within the household as well as in the society. Conversely, domes9c and other produc9ve work by women remains neglected at the macroeconomic level. Changing these inequi9es requires more in-depth understanding of the gender aspects of the division of labour in produc9on. This necessitates gender disaggrega9on at the occupa9on level, household, as well as commercial level.

Gammage, S., N. Diamond, and M. Packman. 2005. Enhancing Womens Access to Markets: An Overview of Donor Programs and Best Prac3ces Prepared for the USAID. This overview looks at a number of DAC (Development Assistance Commi[ee) members ini9a9ves in light of their abili9es to transform womens economic ac9vi9es, increase their access to markets, and ul9mately to secure equitable and pro-poor growth by ensuring that women are not excluded from the benets of the development. To this end, the authors provide a typology of donor approaches to gender and development. The organizing framework used to group dierent approaches is the en9tlements and capabili9es analysis of poverty and depriva9on. En9tlements are dened as the bundle of resources that an individual or group of individuals commands for the purpose of consump9on, produc9on, or exchange. Capabili9es are the individuals or groups freedom and abili9es to deploy their resources.

The paper iden9es the gender-related constraints that limit equitable access to or outcomes in four types of markets: labour markets, in which individuals sell their labour and are remunerated by wages; nances markets comprising a broad range of products and services oered by nancial intermediaries, such as banking, credit, savings, insurance, pensions, and mortgages; goods markets that summarize both the market for inputs into produc9on processes and outputs from produc9on processes; and services markets, which encompass the delivery, purchase, or hiring-in of services that can enhance or upgrade produc9ve ac9vi9es.

A major nding is that projects that focus on capabili9es are dispropor9onately likely to have emerged from processes that analyzed gender inequali9es and sought to address gender-based exclusions or barriers to market entry and par9cipa9on. Projects that focused exclusively on en9tlements were more likely to have emerged without an explicit gender analysis or focus.

Further ndings show that ac9vi9es concentrate dispropor9onately on micronance, diversifying agricultural produc9on and rural livelihoods. Far fewer projects address training and workforce development; labour market intermedia9on; and generalizing nancial instruments for insurance, social security, and pensions. The majority of projects and programmes pursue an en9tlements approach concentra9ng on direct inputs such as credit, storage, and transport. Fewer projects and programmes are based on a capabili9es approach to increase womens ability to enter markets, nego9ate with buyers and sellers, and posi9on themselves higher up the value chain. Projects that provide capabili9es and en9tlements may be more successful when nested within programmes and sector wide ac9vi9es that address structural exclusions and barriers.

A number of recommenda9ons conclude the paper: use of gender analysis tools to design, implement, and evaluate projects and programmes undertaking a value chain analysis to iden9fy opportuni9es for womens broader par9cipa9on in markets improving micro- meso- macro-linkages pursuing a lifecycle or livelihoods approach suppor9ng en9tlement and capability programmes promo9ng clustering and networking expanding access to credit and nancial services, and addressing informality Government of Afghanistan. 2008. Afghanistan Na3onal Development Strategy: Execu3ve Summery. The document outlines the na9onal strategy for security, governance, economic growth and poverty reduc9on in Afghanistan between 2008 and 2013. Separate strategies in each sector such as security, jus9ce, energy, educa9on, health and nutri9on, agriculture and rural development, social protec9on, and private sector development and trade are to guide the reconstruc9on and development eorts. A number of cross-cujng issues such as regional coopera9on, counter narco9cs, an9-corrup9on, capacity development, environment, and gender equity are also elaborated. The gender equity goals in the ANDS are priori9zed as follows: to a[ain the 13 gender-specic benchmarks for the Afghanistan Compact/I-ANDS, including the ve- year priori9es of NAPWA; to realize the gender commitments that are mainstreamed in each of the ANDS sectors; and to develop basic ins9tu9onal capaci9es of ministries and government agencies on gender mainstreaming The strategy is aimed at improving womens socio-economic status as well as their par9cipa9on in decision- making at various levels within the government, community, and the household. The long term strategic vision for agriculture and rural development focuses on social, economic, and poli9cal well being of rural communi9es, especially poor and vulnerable people, while s9mula9ng the integra9on of rural communi9es into the na9onal economy. Establishment of micro, small and medium size rural enterprises, sustainable management and use of natural resources, access to safe drinking water, expansion of road networks, and small-scale irriga9on systems are some of the areas on which the strategy aims to work. Grace, J. 2004. Gender Roles in Agriculture: Case studies of ve villages in northern Afghanistan. The purpose of this report is to contribute to a greater understanding of the roles women and men play in the dierent stages of agricultural produc9on as well as other produc9on and income-genera9ng ac9vi9es in rural Afghanistan. It also looks at whether these roles change over 9me, in order to gain a greater understanding of how exible gender roles can be, what factors can inuence their change, and how this room for manoeuvre may be used to improve access to livelihood opportuni9es.

Through interviews with a number of villagers the authors document the types of ac9vi9es men and women are involved in including agriculture, livestock management, and non-farm labour such as trade, tailoring, carpet-weaving, hat-making and other. The paper nds that within the three villages studied, economic and socio-cultural factors such as social s9gma, land-owning, economic returns, age, wealth, types of assets, household composi9on, and to some extent ethnicity aect gender roles. It also argues that economic reasoning can some9mes play a larger role than cultural norms in determining the alloca9on of labour. Mens control over the sale of agricultural and other products, as well as their view of womens ac9vi9es as lacking economic value, reduces womens bargaining power within the household. Gndz, C. and D. Klein. 2008. Conict-Sensi3ve Approaches to Value Chain Development Prepared for USAID. The paper a[empts to provide ini9al thoughts on integra9ng conict-sensi9ve value chain analyses and interven9ons in conict-aected situa9ons. Recognizing the impact of any development project on the peace and conict environment in a conict-prone region as inevitable, it puts forward a number of issues to be considered when studying value chains and designing programmes. In the paper three aspects of conict- sensi9vity of value chain are discussed: (a) conict analysis, (b) iden9fying value chain/conict interac9on, and (c) op9ons for project design and implementa9on based on (a) and (b). A number of ques9ons can be devised to prole the conict, the main actors, causes and the dynamics of the conict. The same factors could then be inves9gated in rela9on to the value chain by asking, for instance, what rela9onships exist between the value chain actors and conict actors or where the overlaps are. In a similar way, the rela9onship between the value chain and the causes of the conict can be studied in the context of physical and economic security and vulnerability, geographic reach, war economies, and unemployment. This approach can iden9fy the value chain/conict interac9ons at dierent levels, impact of a wider conict on the value chain or a conict present in a value chain, for example. The paper moves on to integrate conict- sensi9ve approaches in value chain project design and implementa9on. Since both value chain analysis and conict-sensi9ve approaches follow systema9c steps to cover prescribed components such as strategy, design, inputs, ac9vi9es, outputs, outcomes, and impacts, the paper suggests that integra9on can provide a more nuanced and richer approach. Interna3onal Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 2009. Gender and Livestock: tools for design. This paper outlines the main gender issues in livestock and discusses a number of important ques9ons () before designing livestock projects directed at mainstreaming gender and empowering women in this sector. The ques9ons for project design range from land ownership, access to capital and knowledge, and ownership of livestock to division of labour, informa9on and relevant indicators, and the role of farmer organiza9ons. Considera9on of factors such as the role of women, womens safety, social and cultural norms, womens workload, their access to assets and markets, and role of social networks are among the issues to be considered in project design.

Kaplinsky, R. and M. Morris. 2001. A Handbook for Value Chain Research Prepared for the IDRC. The objec9ve of this handbook is to assist researchers in designing and execu9ng value chain research, with a par9cular aim at framing a policy environment which will assist poor producers and poor countries to par9cipate eec9vely in the global economy. The main body of the handbook is divided into three parts: Part 1: a broad overview dening value chains, introducing key concepts, and discussing the contribu9on of value chain analysis as an analy9cal and policy tool. Part 2: describes the theore9cal underpinnings of value chain analysis. Part 3: lays out a methodology for undertaking value chain research. The topics discussed include deni9on and explana9on of a value chain and its types, comparison of value chains and its importance, value chains in the context of globaliza9on, key analy9cal concepts, innova9on and upgrading in value chains, value chain analysis, a methodology for understanding value chain research, mapping value chains, governance of value chains, and the role of class, gender, ethnicity, and income groups in value chains. The concluding chapter provides tools on how to conduct value chain analysis and a series of policy implica9ons. The handbook is targeted at both an academic and a prac99oner level. Kelly, A. and S.C. Teoh. 2008. Afghanistan: Commercial Agricultural Development Project Fact Finding, A Memorandum of Understanding, (Dra^), Prepared for the Asian Development Bank. The paper provides an overview of the current (2008) state of the agricultural sector in Afghanistan, challenges and opportuni9es for improving the sector, as well as a proposal for a mul9-year development project to achieve a number of objec9ves to this end. The key problems outlined in the document include weak regulatory processes, poor infrastructure, limited access to nance, and security-related issues. Recognizing these problems in connec9on to exis9ng projects with a focus on the produc9on base in hor9culture and livestock in some regional areas, the paper proposes priori9zing strategic market-based interven9ons to address constraints and improve commodity returns and produc9vity so as to complement the exis9ng ac9vi9es. More specic targets are; agribusiness value chain development in core commodi9es, regional specializa9on in ac9vi9es, pilot ac9vi9es, development of market distribu9on infrastructure, as well as public-private sector partnership to address the gaps that undermine value chain eciency and increase transac9on costs. Kemal-ur-Rahim, K. 2003. A Review of Hor3cultural Marke3ng and Post-Harvest Condi3ons in Afghanistan. Through a review of secondary data, reports, and surveys, and interviews with market traders, local chamber of commerce and relevant governmental ministries, as well as visits to post-harvest facili9es, the authors present an overview of the status of hor9cultural sector in Afghanistan in the post-Taliban era. Constraints as well as opportuni9es to improve the quality and marke9ng of the products are studied and discussed. It highlights the lack of post-harvest handling, nance, access to markets and informa9on, market infrastructure, market share, and varie9es as the major constraints. The absence of well maintained road

networks is iden9ed as the most serious constraint. The study also lists the economically most important crops as raisins, apricots, pistachio, almond, melon, pomegranate, potatoes, onions, tomatoes, okra, and eggplant with specic recommenda9ons on how to increase value adding ac9vity in each of the crops. Laven, A., A. Senders, C. van Wees, and R. Snelder. 2009. Gender in Value Chains: Emerging Lessons and Ques3ons A Dra^ Working Paper. This paper a[empts to develop a framework for the analysis of gender in value chains by integra9ng two separate frameworks on gender empowerment and chain empowerment. According to the authors a gender empowerment framework dieren9ates between the concepts of women and gender and focuses on resources, agency, and achievements. The chain framework, on the other hand, uses a matrix of chain management plo[ed against chain ac9vi9es as a tool for strategic thinking about chain development. Drawing on a number of case studies on dierent value chains from around the world the authors report that their hybrid framework is useful in understanding dierent gender and value chain dimensions. For instance the integra9on of the two frameworks can provide insights into the internal dimensions of value chains such as ver9cal and horizontal integra9on, and external dimensions such as gender dynamics in the household and the community and the ins9tu9onal context including norms, rules, and values. Lister, S., T. Brown and Z. Karaev. 2004. Understanding Markets in Afghanistan: A case study of the raisin market. This study is one out of three case studies by AREU on raisin, carpets, and construc9on materials funded by the World Bank . The aim of the studies is stated as enhancing the understanding of the role of markets in aec9ng the prospects for growth and the distribu9on of the benets of growth in Afghanistan. The study documents the produc9on and marke9ng of raisins in Afghanistan based on 35 interviews with grape growers, raisin traders, raisin exporters, government ocials and others involved in the produc9on, processing and export of raisins in Mazar-e-Sharif, Kabul, and Peshawar in Pakistan. A]er documen9ng the process of raisin produc9on, trade, and marke9ng the paper concludes that the quality of the goods and the structure of marke9ng limit both the current export poten9al and the value returned to dierent actors in the chain, par9cularly the producer. Similar to the other case studies (carpets and construc9on materials), this paper illustrates that the func9oning of markets is preven9ng greater compe99on in these trading processes, reinforcing exis9ng structures of control and power. The market constraints increasingly limit the benets from reaching the less-advantaged producers, and at the same 9me maintain the posi9on of the producers who already dominate trading in Afghanistan. Maani, R. 2003. Priori3zing Export Opportuni3es for Hor3culture in Afghanistan. The paper presents a pragma9c approach to iden9fying opportuni9es for exporta9on of hor9cultural products. It aims to gain an in-depth understanding of the supply and the value chains, and the major constraints and limita9ons in the hor9culture trade in Afghanistan.

The produc9on of spices and fruits such as cumin, gs, grapes, melon, peanuts, pine nuts, pistachios, pomegranates, raisins, and walnuts are studied and their export opportuni9es are priori9zed based on their opera9onal feasibility and income poten9al. The authors put products such as dried apricots, cumin, peanuts, pomegranates and raisins at the higher ends of the scales for opera9onal feasibility and income poten9al in the short term. In the long term dried gs, grapes, and melon score high in income poten9al but low in opera9onal feasibility. Millns, J. 2007. Value Chains for Agricultural Products in Afghanistan. The paper takes a broad look at the current status of value chains (producer to consumer) in Afghanistan and the current constraints for private sector investment and growth, par9cularly in rela9on to poten9al import subs9tu9on strategies and developing export opportuni9es for agricultural products. By lis9ng a number of interven9ons and studies on value chains by aid organiza9ons and donors including the World Bank, USAID, ADB, and EU over the last few years, the author presents an overview of the value chains in hor9cultural and livestock products throughout the country. The paper highlights issues such as farmers lack of informa9on about proper maturity indices or their inability to grade the products by quality, lack of informa9on about the size and/or appearance of products at the harves9ng stage, and the inadequacy of the roads for transpor9ng the products. The paper also highlights constraints rela9ng to markets, organiza9on of produc9on, and nance for value adding ac9vi9es. Recognizing the need for rural development and livelihood ac9vi9es as a requirement for strengthening market linkages, a number of recommenda9ons are made, based on the available informa9on on completed and on- going donor programmes, ini9a9ves to build capacity of the farmers and reinforce an enabling ins9tu9onal environment, and programmes that include farm management curricula at voca9onal training schools. World Bank. 2008. High-Value Agriculture in Bangladesh: An Assessment of Agro-Business Opportuni3es and Constraints. The paper examines the status of high-value agriculture and agro-business in Bangladesh and recommends measures to eliminate/reduce constraints and improve opportuni9es for development of these sectors. It outlines the factors deriving the growth of high-value agriculture and related agro-business, including the impact of structural changes in domes9c food demand, growing domes9c demand for high-value agricultural products, as well as the inuence of related global developments. Through a number of case studies in fresh and brackish water aquaculture, small-scale poultry, fruit and vegetable sector, high-value rice, and diary, opportuni9es and constraints for high-value agriculture and related agro-business are iden9ed and discussed. Suggested measures to address the iden9ed issues include removing policy distor9ons and pursuing policy opportuni9es, upgrading the infrastructure, promo9ng good governance, improving technology, benchmarking for enhanced produc9vity and reduced transac9ons costs, scaling up best prac9ces and lessons learned,

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improving consumer and producers awareness of food quality and safety, improving the regulatory environment, be[er and stable marke9ng, strengthening market research, crea9ng/strengthening private agricultural organiza9ons for producers, processors and exporters, as well as crea9ng mechanisms for be[er public/private dialogue and alliances. World Bank, FAO, and IFAD.2009. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a joint work of the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD. Its purpose is to act as a guide for prac99oners and technical sta in addressing gender issues and integra9ng gender-responsive ac9ons in the design and implementa9on of agricultural projects and programmes. It reaches out to technical experts to guide them in thinking through how to integrate gender dimensions into their opera9ons. It aims to deliver prac9cal advice, guidelines, principles, and descrip9ons and illustra9ons of approaches that have worked so far to achieve the goal of eec9ve gender mainstreaming in agricultural opera9ons of development agencies. In the Sourcebook, agriculture, forestry, sheries, livestock, land and water, agro-industries, and environment are all included in the deni9on of agriculture. The focus on the agriculture sector includes accoun9ng for the uctua9ons of agricultural livelihoods and rural poverty. The Sourcebook is targeted at key actors within interna9onal and regional development agencies and na9onal governments, research communi9es and non-governmental organiza9ons and, specically, opera9onal sta who design and implement lending projects and technical ocers who design thema9c programmes and technical assistance packages.

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