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Marini India

EDITOR'S COMMENT
Your feedbacks are welcome and should be sent to: The Editor, The Masterbuilder, 102/11 (New No. 46/11), Tripti Apartments, Marshalls Road, Egmore, Chennai, India. Phone: +91 44 28555248 Telefax: +91 44 28586703
Editor-in-Chief K.P . Pradeep editor@masterbuilder.co.in Vice-Chairman K G K Moorthy moorthykgk@yahoo.co.in Director Editorial, Construction Chemicals Dr. Y P Kapoor Editor-in-Charge Ravi Damodaran Editor Nigel Narayan Associate Editors M.J. Krishna, M.K. Prabhakar Head - Content Development CE, Infrastructure & Environment Sadagopan Seshadri Contributors Bhavani Balakrishna, Sonjay, Priya, Chaitanya Raj Goyal Vice President Marketing H. Usha Devi Head-New Media Initiative Pradeep Nair Credit Controller G.B. Muralidharan Finance R. Prema Manager Digital Production K. Sravanthi Kiran Manager Digital Media Lakshmi Creative Head S. Nithiyanandam Production Manager Caroline D'sylva Digital Production Assistant R. Anand, Sudhir Kumar Singh Subscription & Circulation Team Sateesh Kuniyil, S. Sasi, Rajesh Corporate Office MB Publishers Pvt. Limited 102/11 (New No. 46/11), Tripti Apartments, Marshalls Road, Egmore, Chennai - 600 008. Ph: 044-28555248 Telefax: 28586703. Subscription & Circulation subscription@masterbuilder.in Website www.masterbuilder.co.in Karnataka No.40, 2nd Floor, 7th "C" Cross, Ashwini Layout, Koramangala, Bangalore - 560047. Phone: 080 - 25701079 / 25705888 Mobile: 09343833191 Owned and Published by K.P . Pradeep 102/11 (New No. 46/11), Tripti Apartments, Marshalls Road, Egmore, Chennai - 600 008. Printed By Ashok Natarajan Times Printers & Publishers, New No. 57 (29), Dr. Besant Road, Ice House, Chennai - 600 014. Disclaimer All rights reserved. Reproduction, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, in whole or part without prior written permission is prohibited. All views expressed in this magazine are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in the advertisements.

The future is here


s the realty sector ponders on the best possible ways to meet consumer expectations in housing projects such as beauty, comfort, adaptability, safety; and energy efficiency, Precast Concrete (PC) certainly holds the key to the future of buildings in this country. PC is indeed a multifaceted product that can be used for foundations, bearing frames, facades, walls, floors, slabs, beams, columns, stairs, balconies, roofs and almost anything and everything. It leaves a smaller environmental footprint than any other building construction method, owing to its constituents and proven controlled production processes. For builders and structural engineers, the key benefits are improved economies of scale, faster construction times and the opportunity to get that much-closer-to a perfect-mix-design. Output of CO2 emissions from Portland cement manufacturing process is well documented, and ways to reduce the consumption of cement in construction is a major research and discussion subject worldwide. PC could be one of the solutions to reduce CO2 in the already heavily polluted atmosphere. Using PC also results in lighter, structurally sound, robust structures with flat soffits that provide user-friendly and flexible layouts. PC components can be directly decorated with minimal additional work, as a result of being produced from moulds in the factory. It has the potential for reduced energy consumption and service. PC can deliver the desired strength of concrete with lower quantity of cement than in cast-in-situ construction which, can significantly impact the final output in any project. Additionally, when the consumption of cement in construction is lowered, Portland cement can be replaced with environment friendly premium binders, that can radically increase the life span of the building. Factory produced concrete has ironically not been able to get the deserved attention from builders in India despite being recognized worldwide as a product offering significant benefits. There are those who believe that the size and load restrictions on transportation, lack of good communication among stakeholders, dearth of qualified contractors specialized in PC systems and most importantly lack of guidelines, as the major barriers to the extensive use of precast concrete systems. It is in this backdrop that the Indian Concrete Institute (ICI) has set the ball rolling in what will be Indias first handbook on PC to address these concerns. The book will be specifically devoted to all aspects of Indian PC construction, including design, specification, manufacture, transportation, erection and installation. The Handbook is expected to reflect current industry best practice, featuring the latest innovative applications of PC. The hand book is intended for practicing engineers as well as those involved in the building, infrastructure and construction industry. In conclusion, the days are not very far when India will switch to PC for use in urban regeneration schemes, mass housing, paving and residential projects. The Masterbuilder, on its part, will continue to disseminate valuable information on the subject through articles, research papers, case studies besides seminars, conferences and workshops for the benefit of our readers and stakeholders.

K.P Pradeep, Editor-in-Chief


editor@masterbuilder.co.in

Gandhi Automations Pvt.Ltd

Contents

Focus: Precast Concrete


Precast Concrete for Building Systems
Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology

182
88 96 106 112 116

Editor's Comment........................10 News & Events............................20 E-Scape.....................................250 Advertisers Index........................16 Classification Index.....................18

42 50 58

Mining: Industry Analysis Mining a Sustainable Future: Integrating Need, Technology and Business
Chaitanya Raj Goyal

Komselis C.1, Blayney N.2, Hindle D.3 1Bekaert OneSteel Fibres Australasia (Brisbane Australia) 2ROMTECH Ltd (Witham UK) 3London Mining and Mineral Consultants Ltd (London UK)

Tunnel Engineering: Lattice Girders The use of Lattice Girders in the Construction of Tunnels

Mining: Equipments Modern Mining Equipment: Unearthing the India Transformation


M.K. Prabhakar, Associate Editor

Sustainability: Building Material Straw Bale: A Sustainable Building Material

Ar. Nisha. K, School of Architecture, Faculty at Bharath University

Mining: Planning and Design Mine Planning and Design Solutions: New Generation Software Packages Help Make Mining a Safer, Environment-friendly and Economic Process
M.K. Prabhakar, Associate Editor

Infrastructure: Urban Rail Transport Urban Rail Transport Trends and Policies in India: Impacts of Rapid Economic Growth
Chaitanya Raj Goyal

64 70 72 82

Mining: Underwater Marine Mining: Unraveling the Oceans Secrets


Bhavani Balakrishna

Communication Feature Autocad's New Software Quantifies Designs Sustainability: CDM Implementing Clean Hydro Electric Power Projects for Sustainable Development

Communication Feature DCS Acquires Distribution of KRHI's Tower Cranes in India

C.A. Murugesan1, Dr. V.E. Nethaji Mariappan2, Dr. D. Joshua Amarnath3 M.E. Student (Environmental Engineering) 2Scientist-D, Centre for Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics 3Professor & HOD, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Sathyabama University
1

Mining: Equipment Screening in Mining Industry Selection of Right Equipment Holds Key to Productivity
Bhavani Balakrishna

130 136

Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology

Composite: Technology Aerogel Aerogel: A Revolutionary Advancement in Thermal Technology

Prof. Anatoly L. Okhotin, President of the Baikal Union of Mining Surveyors, Director of BaikalGeoService Company, Head of the Department of Mine Surveying, Irkutsk State Technical University

Mining: Lidars Application of Laser Scanning in Mine Surveying

Realty: Policies TDS on Property Sales: Can it Trigger the Revival of the Realty Sector?
MB Bureau Report

42 50
12 The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

58

64

JK Cements Ltd

Contents

142 148

Composite Material: Carbon Fibers Smart Materials: Carbon Fibers and their Application in Civil Engineering
Chaitanya Raj Goyal

249 New Range of Dock Shelters


Interview 166 In Conversation with Stefan Lemke Sika Service AG, Corp.

Rajamane N. P. , Nataraja M. C. , Lakshmanan N , and Ambily P S 1 Head, CACR, SRM University, 2Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, SJCE, Former Director, CSIR-SERC, 4Scientist, CSIR-SERC

Geopolymer: Concrete Literature Survey on Geopolymer Concretes and a Research Plan in Indian Context
1 2 3 4

216 Industry Interaction: Steel Fibre Flooring


Report 170 Site Reaping the Benefits of High Output & Efficiency

162

Communication Feature Adding Value to Service: Mahindra's Multipurpose Genio

168 Delivering High Output Production & Efficiency 172 Cutting Edge Construction Equipments 213
Truck Loader Cranes: Extremely Versatile Machines

Precast Concrete 174 Focus: Curing Methods for Precast Concrete Applications and Their Impact
Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology

and Economical Design Aspects of Precast 192 Practical Concrete Building Structures

219 'Simplifying' the High-Rise


New Benchmarks in Terrazzo Tiles 222 Setting and Concrete Block Making Machinery

Bob Van Gils, Managing Director WBK Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. and Van Boxsel Engineering Pvt. Ltd.

200 Hollowcore Manufacturing and Factory Design


Stephen Carr C., Eng MI Mech E., Managing Director, Spiroll Precast Services Ltd.,

226 Durable Waterproofing Solutions 230 Technology and R&D: A Formula for Success 232 Ranjit More: Elected as the New Vice President of BAI 246
In-Pit Crushing and Conveying Transmogrifying the Coal Business

208 An Overview of Construction of Buildings in Precast Concrete


Mangesh Kumar Hardas, Director, Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Composite Technology Rebar 234 Effect of Yarn Size on the Performance of Hybrid Braided
Dr. Christopher M. Pastore1, Eileen Armstrong-Carroll2, Frank K. Ko31, 2School of Textiles and Materials Technology Philadelphia University 3Department of Materials Engineering, Drexel University

Composite Rebar

174 142
Cover Photo Courtesy: http://www.iom3.org.hk

208 192

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

H & K Rolling Mill Engineers Pvt.Ltd

Contents

Advertisers Index
2
2nd Int'l Conference on Speciality Chemicals Conclave 2012 (FICCI) 237 Instruct Int'l Network of Women Engineers & Scientist (WISE) 245 229 Roof India Exhibition Roljack Industries RSB Transmission (I) Ltd. (International Autoworks) 239 135 95

A
Action Construction Equipment Ltd. ACD Machine Control Co. Pvt. Ltd Ajax Fiori Engineering (I) Pvt. Ltd. Apollo Infratech Pvt. Ltd. Aquarius Engineers Pvt. Ltd. Aquarius Technologies Pvt. Ltd. Atul Fasteners Ltd. Asons Enterprise 129 217 91 99 Gate Fold 145 109 147

J
JBA Concrete Solutions Pvt. Ltd. JCB India Ltd. JK Cements Ltd. 141 Front Cover (2) 13

S
Safari Construction Equipments Pvt. Ltd. Sana Industries Schwing Stetter (India) Pvt. Ltd. Shri Parijatha Machinery Works Pvt. Ltd. Sika India Pvt. Ltd. Singh Construction Equipment & Machinery Pvt. Ltd. Sixteenth NCCI Sleek Boards (India) Ltd. Spartan Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. Speedcrafts Ltd. Stewols India (P) Ltd. STP Ltd. Style Earth 27 125 53 181 115 17 243 37 187 157 203 121 179

K
Kalyan Industries 217

L
Larsen & Toubro Ltd. Lipi Polymers Pvt. Ltd. Liugong India Pvt. Ltd. 45 57 63

B
Baicon 2012 Bekaert Industries Pvt Ltd (Dramix) Buildtech India Corporation 241 21 207

M
Mahindra Genio Malu Group Marini India (Fayat Group) Metecno India Pvt. Ltd. MM Castings (P) Ltd. MC - Bauchme (I) Pvt. Ltd. MRT Chemcials Pvt. Ltd. 7 199 9 Front inner (2) 139 61 217

C
Case New Holland Construction Equipments (India) Pvt. Ltd. Chembond Chemicals Ltd. Chetra Machinery India Pvt. Ltd. Columbia Pakona Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Construction Project Managers Congress Cosmos Construction Machinery and Equipment Ltd. Cosmos Sales Corporation 23 19 25 215 223 165 169

T
Tac System Formwork Sdn Bdh Techobl Expo 2012 Terra Firma GRC & concrete Industries Terex Powerscreen The Masterbuilder Corporate Ad. The Masterbuilder Subscription Form The Supreme Industries Ltd. Trichy Civil Services Toshaniwal System & Instrument Pvt. Ltd. 75 221 177 85 225 227 39 207 195

N
Nawa Engineers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Newton Software Pvt. Ltd. Nina Concrete Systems Pvt. Ltd. 153 113 133

D
DCS Trading & Services Pvt. Ltd. 87 Palfinger Cranes India Pvt. Ltd. Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd. Pidilite Industries Ltd. Precision Precast Ltd. (PPL)

P
Back Inner 203 Front inner (1) 199

E
Esquire CMAC Pvt. Ltd. 105

U
Ultratech Cement Ltd. Unisteel Engineering Works United Steel & Structurals Pvt. Ltd. Universal Construction Machninery & Equipment Ltd. 252 71 103 81

G
Gandhi Automations Pvt. Ltd. Greaves Cotton Ltd. 11 8

R
Rail Asia 2012 RCI Machineries Pvt. Ltd. Reliance Industries Ltd. Relyon Facility Services Pvt. Ltd. Robbins Tunneling & Trenchless Technology (I) Pvt. Ltd. Rockstar India Ltd. 233 161 /163 173 217 211 191

H
H & K Rolling Mill Engineers Pvt. Ltd. 15

V
Venus Equipments & Tools Pvt. Ltd. 31 /33 /35

I
Igloo Tiles 67

W
Wirtgen India Pvt. Ltd. 49

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Singh Construction Equipment & Machinery Pvt. Ltd.

Contents

Advertisers Index / Classification


Bar Bending & Bar Cutting Machinery Sana Industries India Spartan Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. Building Materials MRT Chemicals Pvt. Ltd. Trichy Civil Services Cement J K Cement Ltd. UltraTech Cement Ltd. Concrete Batching Plant Ajax Fiori Engineering (I) Pvt. Ltd. Apollo Infratech Pvt. Ltd. Aquarius Engineers Pvt. Ltd. Schwing Stetter India Pvt. Ltd. Singh Construction Equipment & Machinery Pvt. Ltd. Universal Construction Machinery & Equipment Ltd. Concrete Block Machinery Columbia Pakona Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Sri Parijatha Machinery Works Pvt. Ltd. Construction Chemicals Dr. Fixit (Pidilite) Chembond Chemicals Ltd. Mc Bauchemie (India) Pvt. Ltd. Nina Concrete Systems Pvt Ltd Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd. STP Ltd. Front Inner (1) 19 61 133 203 121 215 181 91 99 Gate fold 53 17 81 13 Back Cover 217 207 125 187 Wirtgen India Cranes Action Construction Equipment Ltd. DCS Trading & Services Pvt. Ltd. Palfinger Cranes India Pvt. Ltd. Spartan Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. Cranes-Safety Equipment ACD Machine Control Co. (P) Ltd. Crushing Nawa Engineers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd. RCI Machineries Pvt. Ltd. Powerscreen Rockstar India Ltd. Roljack Industries Doors Automatic Gandhi Automations Pvt. Ltd. EPC Larsen & Toubro Ltd. Facility Services Relyon Facility Services Pvt. Ltd. Fibre Reinforced Concrete Bekaert Industries Pvt. Ltd. Nina Concrete Systems Pvt. Ltd. Stewols India (P) Ltd. Flooring Bekaert Industries Pvt. Ltd. JBA Concrete Solutions Kalyan Industries Nina Concrete Systems Pvt. Ltd. Reliance Industries Ltd. Formwork Tac System Formwork Sdn Bdh High Rise Cranes Safari Construction Equipments Pvt. Ltd. Metal Building / PEB Metecno India Pvt. Ltd. OEM Suppliers MM Castings Pvt. Ltd. RSB Transmission (I) Ltd. Paving Machinery Venus Equipments And Tools Pvt. Ltd. Precast concrete Products Columbia Pakona Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Buildtech India Corporation Malu Group Sri Parijatha Machinery Works Pvt. Ltd. Style Earth Terra Firma Grc & Concrete Industries Precast Concrete Pipe Apollo Infratech Pvt. Ltd. 99 215 207 199 181 179 177 75 27 21 141 217 133 173 21 133 203 217 45 11 153 161 /163 85 191 135 217 129 87 Back Inner 187 49 Columbia Pakona Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Precast Service Providers Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Repair & Rehabilation Chembond Chemicals Ltd. MC - Bauchme (I) Pvt Ltd. Nina Concrete Systems Pvt. Ltd. Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd. Pidilite Industries Ltd. (Dr. Fixit) STP Ltd. Road Construction Machinery Aquarius Technologies Pvt. Ltd. Case New Holland Construction Equipments (India) Pvt. Ltd. Chetra Mahinery India Pvt. Ltd. Greaves Cotton Ltd. JCB India Ltd. Marini India Speedcrafts Ltd. Unisteel Engineering Works Wirtgen India Roofing Lipi Polymer Pvt. Ltd. United Steel & Structurals Pvt. Ltd. Roofing Fastners Atul Fasteners Ltd. Rubber Doors Sleek Board (India) Ltd. Scaffolding Cosmos Sales Corporation Software Newton Software Pvt. Ltd. Tiles Manufacturers Igloo Tiles TMT-Technology Suppliers H & K Rolling Mills Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Trucks Mahindra Genio Wall Putty J K Cement Ltd. Waterproofing Chembond Chemicals Ltd. MC - Bauchemie (I) Pvt. Ltd. Nina Concrete Systems Pvt. Ltd. Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd. Pidilite Industries Ltd. (Dr. Fixit) Sika India Pvt. Ltd. STP Ltd. The Supreme Industries Ltd. 19 61 133 203 Front Inner (1) 115 121 39 13 7 15 67 113 169 37 109 57 103 145 23 25 8 Front cover (2) 9 157 71 49 19 61 133 203 Front Inner (1) 121 199 215

Construction Equipment & Machinery ACD Machine Control Co. (P) Ltd. 217 Action Construction Equipment Ltd. 129 Ajax Fiori Engineering (I) Pvt. Ltd. 91 Apollo Infratech Pvt. Ltd. 99 Aquarius Engineers Pvt. Ltd. Gate fold Aquarius Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 145 Case New Holland Construction Equipments (India) Pvt. Ltd. 23 Chetra Mahinery India Pvt. Ltd. 25 Cosmos Construction Machineries & Equipment (P) Ltd. 165 Esquire Cmac Pvt. Ltd. 105 Greaves Cotton Limited 8 JCB India Ltd. Front cover (2) Marini India 9 RCI Machineries Pvt. Ltd. 161 /163 Sana Industries India 125 Schwing Stetter India Pvt. Ltd. 53 Singh Construction Equipment & Machinery Pvt. Ltd. 17 Spartan Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. 187 Speedcrafts Ltd. 157 Toshaniwal System & Instrument Pvt. Ltd. 195 Unisteel Engineering Works 71 Universal Construction Machinery & Equipment Ltd. 81 Venus Equipment and Tools Pvt. Ltd. 31 /33 /35

Front inner (2) 139 95 31 /33 /35

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Chembond Chemicals Ltd

News & Events

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
New Cat 777G Off-Highway Truck Scores High on Fuel Efficiency
and Carlson Paving Products now makes the existing line of Carlson EZ highway class screeds available on new Volvo asphalt pavers and through Volvo dealers in North America. Included in the agreement are the 8and 10-foot EZIII and EZIV Series screeds, which can be factory-installed on Volvo pavers. Carlson Paving Products will be responsible for field support of the EZ screeds. The Wedge-Lock screed is designed for use with Volvo 6000 Series asphalt pavers. The electrically heated selfcontained vibratory screed will pave a basic 10-foot-wide asphalt mat with crowning capability at the mid-point. Power Crown is standard on the Wedge-Lock and adjusts from a 3-inch positive crown to a 0.75-inch negative crown.

Apart from fuel efficiency, the 777G is quieter and produces fewer emissions. Caterpillar is introducing its U.S. EPA Tier 4 Final solution on the 777G two years in advance of the effective date of the regulation. It requires the use of ultra low sulfur diesel fuel and low ash engine oil, but requires no additional maintenance or operator input. For operations outside of areas regulated by the U.S. EPA, the 777G reduces emissions with Tier 2 or EU Stage II equivalent technology and fuel efficiency. Hydraulic oil-immersed disc brakes are now standard on all four corners of the truck. The system design increases slope holding capability and provides fade resistant, responsive braking performance. Design updates extend brake component life by increasing the force used to disengage the brakes. The optional Cat

engine brake can extend service brake life and integrates with Automatic Retarder Control, enabling fast downhill travel and reduced cycle times. The new parking brake system actuates the front brakes as well as the rear for solidly holding the truck on a slope. In addition to brake performance updates, the traction control system on the 777G is now able to differentiate between tire spin and high speed turns so it now can activate at lower speeds. Maintenance is quick and convenient with ground level service centers for both electrical connections (located on the front bumper) and fluid fill. It includes a lighted keypad with level indicators giving operators instant information on what needs filling. Caterpillar is extending its hydraulic oil filter service intervals to 1,000 hours, reducing customer life cycle costs. agreement, the Wedge-Lock screed will undergo design updates along with manufacturing and field support by Carlson Paving Products. The screeds will be sold exclusively through Volvo dealers in North America, said a recent news release from the construction equipment manufacturer. In addition, an OEM supplier agreement between Volvo Construction Equipment

Volvo CE to offer Updated Wedge-Lock Asphalt Screed and Additional Carlson Screeds
Volvo Construction Equipment has entered into a strategic alliance with Carlson Paving Products in an effort to further serve asphalt paving market needs and offer additional screed options for Volvo pavers. Through the

The release further added that the paving screed is available in two basic configurations a standard screed and a screed with 3/6 hydraulic extensions. The basic screed and all optional extensions are equipped with bolt-on replaceable, abrasion-resistant, 0.5inch screed plates. All heating elements are also easily removable without requiring removal of the screed plate. ( P h o t o C o u r t e s y : forconstructionpros.com)

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Bekaert Industries Pvt Ltd (Dramix)

News & Events

INFRASTRUCTURE
Anand Sharma Invites UK Investments in Industrial Corridor Projects
Central Statistics Office (CSO) had earlier lowered the industrial production data for the month of January from the earlier mentioned figure of 6.8 % to 1.1 %. The latest goof up could not have come at a wrong time for the government, which is already under fire from all quarters for the general economic slowdown. It however remains to be seen whether the government takes any firm steps to make sure that such errors are avoided in the future. The Union Minister for Commerce , Industry and Textiles, Mr. Anand Sharma who is in London for the 8th round of India-UK Joint Economic and Trade Committee (JETCO) Meeting, held official meetings with his British counterpart Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills, Dr. Vince Cable and the Chancellor of the Exchequer Mr. George Osborne in addition In his address at the JETCO plenary session of over 150 businessmen from both countries at the Royal Society in London, the minister congratulated the Joint Working Groups in identifying concrete projects and tangible results which are critically important for India's development and inclusive growth. In his address Mr. Sharma invited the British companies to invest in the infrastructure development projects in various parts of India including the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor and Bangalore-Chennai corridor. power and road projects, several leading infrastructure companies had to watch as newer players had aggressively outbidded them. Well, they will be having the last laugh now, since the newer players have been finding it difficult to tie up funds for the projects. In the current scenario of hardening interest rate environment, companies have been finding it difficult to source funding for the project bids that they had won earlier. (Photo Courtesy: pfmanagement.com.au)

India and Germany ink Joint Declaration on Sustainable Urban Development

One off Mistake in Industrial Production Data Baffling says Finance Minister

The Union Minister for Urban Development, Mr. Kamal Nath, and Dr. Peter Ramsauer, German Minister for Transport, Building, and Urban Development signed a Joint Declaration in the field of Sustainable Urban Development in New Delhi. Dr. Peter Ramsauer is leading a high level German business delegation to India. Sharing his views on the occasion, Mr. Kamal Nath stressed upon the immense challenges and opportunities in the urban sector in India. He informed that the Government of India is likely to launch the next phase of the Urban Renewal mission shortly with an allocation of around US$ 40 billion over the 12th Five Year Plan period. The Government of India is keen on encouraging PPP in the urban sector especially in the larger cities. The minister also informed the German delegation of the major thrust of the Government towards the development of metros in the major

Companies are Finding Funding Difficult to Come By


The infrastructure development process in the country is passing through a crucial phase, in the wake of the recent economic slowdown. With lenders finding project bids very high and equity returns depressed, infrastructure companies are finding them in a fix as they are finding it difficult to find sufficient funds. Interestingly in many of the cases of While the Chief Statistician, Mr.T.C.A.Anant may have termed the error in industrial production data recently as one off, the Union Finance Minister, Mr.Pranab Mukherjee has termed it, baffling. Mr.Mukherjee has reportedly stated that I can understand if there's an error in calculating 0.1% or 0.2 %, but from 6.8 % to 1.1 %, it is totally baffling. The

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Case New Holland Construction Equipments (India) Pvt.Ltd

News & Events

INFRASTRUCTURE
cities across the country and invited the German companies to participate. The Joint Declaration envisages promoting discussion and strategies on integrated policies and principles for urban development and revitalization in the two countries; and fostering fair, equitable, and sustainable urban communities in the two countries and the ideals of a democratic society with equal opportunity for all.

Trouble Brewing Over Hydel Projects

POWER

India Skeptical About Hydropower Targets


Just as the government is struggling to convince protestors over the Kudankulam nuclear power project, down south, trouble is brewing over hydel power projects in the northern parts of the country. A group of eminent citizens consisting of social activists, politicians, and businessmen have threatened to undertake a fast unto-death Various factors such as delays in getting environmental clearances , water rights and land acquisition has meant that the Indian government has slashed its target as far as increasing hydropower generation capacity is concerned. The news is expected to come as a dampener to those in the power sector, which is already struggling with inadequate generating capacity, which in turn is affecting the economic growth rate. The shortfall in availability of coal linkages and natural gas has already had a major impact on the power sector. According to the Power Secretary, Mr.P .Uma Shankar only 10 GW of hydropower generating capacity will be added in the five years from April 1, 2012. The investments for the purpose would be to the tune of about Rs.800 billion. (Source: Wall Street Journal PhotoCourtesy: sealordsalvage.com) over closed hydel power projects in Uttarakhand. They demanded that the National Ganga River Basin Authority to take decisions to restart work on closed hydel power projects in Uttarakhand including in BhairoGhati, Lohari Nagpala, and Pala Maneri. (Photo Courtesy: hydro-powergenerator.blogspot.com)

JV for 1980 MW Thermal Power Project in UP Approved


The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal of Neyveli Lignite Corporation for formation of a Joint Venture Company to install 1980 MW coal based Thermal Power Project in Ghatampur Tehsil, Kanpur Nagar District of Uttar Pradesh in joint venture with Uttar Pradesh Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Limited. The proposed power project by the joint venture company will cater to the demand of the state of Uttar Pradesh and other parts of Northern India. The state is among the several that is suffering on account of acute power shortage.

With several water bodies running through the state, it remains to be seen whether there are new hydro power projects are announced in the state. (Photo Courtesy: nlcindia.com)

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Chetra Machinery India Pvt.Ltd

News & Events

INFRASTRUCTURE
Installed Capacity Crosses 2 lakh MW Mark
The installed capacity in the country has crossed 2 lakh MW mark with the commissioning of a 660 MW unit of a power plant in Jhajjar in Haryana this week. With this the total installed capacity has reached 2, 00,287 MW. It includes 1, 32,013 MW capacity in thermal sector, 38,991 MW in hydro sector, 4,780 MW in nuclear sector and 24,503 MW in renewable energy sector. At the end of the 11th Plan, i.e. on 31st March 2012 the total installed capacity stood at 1, 99,627 MW said a recent official statement from the Ministry of Power. There has been large scale capacity addition during the 11th Plan with addition of 54,964 MW of fresh capacity showing a growth of 159% over the 10th Plan period during which 21,180 MW capacity was added. During the 9th Plan the capacity addi-

tion stood at 19,010 MW. The year 2011-12 also saw new benchmarks created in the capacity addition. A record capacity of 20,501 MW was added in 2011-12, out of which 5,482 MW was added in the month of March 2012 alone. It remains to be seen as to whether the Centre is able to achieve its avowed targets during the 12th plan period. (Photo Courtesy: indoenglish.wordpress.com)

Ltd. (CMRL) for an amount of approximately ` 11.34 crore. A Ministry of Urban Development statement stating this further added that an agreement will be signed between GSI, Ministry of Mines and CMRL. The works for the Phase-I are expected to be completed within schedule timeframe i.e. by 2014-15. The Chennai Metro project is expected to help decongest traffic in the metropolis and provide a safe, efficient, fast and environment friendly mode of transport. (Picture Courtesy: M3Chennai.com)

RAILWAYS

Monorail Not Suited for Chennai says Sreedharan

mode in itself. While he expressed satisfaction over the progress of work of the first phase of the metro rail project in Chennai, he expressed disappointment over the government not speeding up efforts for beginning work in the next two phases. Although monorail projects have been announced in many cities in the country, excepting for in Mumbai there has been no progress in these projects. Apart from the Tamil Nadu government, the Delhi government is also reportedly keen on a monorail system connecting certain parts of the National Capital Region (NCR).

Indian Railways to Generate Power


In a written reply to the Lok Sabha yesterday, Minister of State of Railways, Shri K.H. Muniyappa said that, the Indian Railways has already started manufacturing new generation 6000 Horse Power (HP) Electric Locomotives and Electric Multiple Units (EMUs) with modern regenerative breaking features. The Electric locomotives will be manufactured at Chittaranjan Locomotive Workshop (CLW) while the EMUs will be manufactured at the Integral Coach Factory (ICF) he said, adding that such technology will be added to more number of locomotives and EMUs in the future. The minister also said that two wind mill

The 'Metro Man' of India, former Chief of Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), Dr.E.Sreedharan has expressed his disappointment over authorities in Chennai pursuing the monorail system instead of focusing on completion of the metro rail project that is under construction. According to Dr.Sredharan, the monorail system can be used as a feeder service to the metro and not as a main

2633 sq.m Ministry of Mines Land Transfered to Chennai Metro


The Union Cabinet has approved transfer of land at inner Ring Road, Kathipara Junction, Chennai, measuring 2633 sq. metres belonging to the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Ministry of Mines to Chennai Metro Rail

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Safari Construction Equipments Pvt. Ltd.

News & Events

INFRASTRUCTURE
that the constraints in port capacity would be removed. One of the major bottlenecks identified in the past in moving ahead was the issue of securing clearances from various ministries such as Home, Defence, and Environment. In the past three months, almost all projects have secured clearances as a result of close monitoring and follow-up by PMO. New processes are being put in place to obtain security clearances speedily in future. Three major PPP projects in Mumbai (JNPT), Kandla, and Visakhapatnam totaling nearly ` 8000 crore have been awarded, creating an additional capacity of more than 79 million tons per annum. The other PPP projects are also moving ahead at full speed and most of them will be awarded within the first half of this financial year, with some of the projects being awarded within the next two months. Dredging at ports is an area that is now gaining greater attention and the Ministry of Shipping is fast tracking dredging activities. A Committee in the Planning Commission is looking into the funds requirement for dredging and a plan is being drawn up to improve the draft at ports so that larger vessels can be accommodated.

power plants of 10.5 MW capacity each, has been sanctioned for the North We s t e r n R a i l w a y a t J a i s a l m e r (Rajasthan) and the Southern Railway at Tamil Nadu. He also mentioned that, "The Indian Railways further proposes to set up wind mill plants of 72 MW capacity in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnatka, Kerla, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal" adding that it (Indian Railways), is also harnessing solar power by providing solar Photo Voltaic modules of varying capacities at Railway stations, office buildings, training institutes and level crossing gates.(Picture Courtesy: guide2chennai.blogspot.in)

According to the report, as many as 34 dams across the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda Rivers should be scrapped. ( P h o t o C o u r t e s y : uttaranchaltourism.blogspot.com)

Proposal for another Major Port at Kerala under Consideration

PORTS & DAMS

PMO Reviews PPP Projects in Port Sector


A review meeting of the PPP projects was recently conducted under direction from the Prime Minister's Office. This was a follow-up to a meeting taken three months ago in which instructions were given to the Ministry to speed up the implementation of PPP projects so

WII Report wants Dam Projects in Uttarakhand Scrapped


It was only recently that we had carried a news item which focused on the incomplete dam projects in the state of Uttarakhand and how a group of eminent citizens are planning a fast in order to expedite the completion of the projects. Now comes the news that the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has said that hydroelectric projects in the state that add up to a total of 2600 MW capacity should not be allowed as they could cause damage to the biodiversity of the state.

A proposal for setting up a major portcum-ship building centre at Azhikal in Kerala is under consideration of the Ministry of Shipping. This project is apart from the development of two hub ports each on the west and east coasts, i.e., Mumbai, Kochi, Chennai and Vishakhapatnam. A request was received from the Chief Minister, Government of Kerala for development of a Port or Shipyard project in the State, stated the Union Minister of Shipping, Mr.G.K.Vasan, in a written reply to a question in the Lok Sabha. The request was examined in the Ministry of Shipping and a Technical Committee has been constituted on 13th February, 2012 to examine and identify the site proposed by the State Government to develop the port at Azhikal.

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Gandhi Automations Pvt.Ltd

News & Events

CORPORATE
Leighton Welspun Awarded Second Alliance Contract by TRIL
ture high-voltage power products and transformers. The expansion is part of ABB's strategy to develop, manufacture and market products that meet the needs of Indian customers, as well as serving as an export hub. Mr.Pitamber Shivnani, Local Division Manager, Power Products in India, said The new manufacturing units will further strengthen our local footprint and enhance our product portfolio. They will enable us to serve our customers better as we continue to support the development of the country's power infrastructure. Leighton Welspun, has announced the award of the second alliance contract by Tata Realty and Infrastructure Ltd (TRIL).The Ramanujam IT park project was first development by TRIL with Leighton Welspun as the first major alliance contract in the construction sector. TRIL has now awarded a new project to Leighton Welspun, under the alliance model; to develop 5 residential towers on prime real estate in Kochi, Kerala, said a recent press release from the company. Sharing his views on the development, Mr Russell Waugh Managing Director (LWIN) said The Company's reputation has been built on the basis of our ability to successfully deliver complex projects on time and to exacting standards. The award of this project by TRIL is especially pleasing as it reflects a strong confidence in our capabilities by a reputed multinational organisation. We are also very pleased to be securing such an iconic project and look forward to delivering further projects with TRIL. Speaking about the project, Mr Sanjay Ubale- Managing Director (TRIL) said Leighton would add tremendous value to the quality of construction in making the Tritvam residential project amongst the finest in Kochi.
A liner handler operator positions a Megaliner.

Bolts are attached from outside of the mill only

The facilities will be located in Savli near Vadodara, Gujarat and produce highvoltage gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) and PASS (plug and switch system) hybrid switchgear as well as dry-type and oil immersed distribution transformers. The facilities are expected to be operational by the end of 2012, added the release.Dry-type transformers help reduce environmental impact and can be deployed in environmentally challenging conditions.

improves worker safety during maintenance, as the liners are bolted into position from the outside of the mill, so workers do not need to stand in the 'drop-zone' of the liners. Using larger liners means mills require fewer of them and Megaliner also has fewer attachment points compared with conventional liners, speeding up installation process further. The liners are easily and accurately positioned before bolting with the aid of highly visible, colored guiding markers. Bolting and unbolting is straightforward as the threaded portion of the standard hex-head liner bolts is protected from dust, corrosion, and general mechanical damage. Once loosened, it is often possible to remove the liner bolts simply by hand-turning them. Pneumatic or recoilless hydraulic hammers are not needed to dislodge worn Megaliners, as gravity alone is usually sufficient.

Megaliner Metso Presents a New Concept in Mill Liners

ABB Plans Investments Worth ` 250 Cr in India


ABB, will invest around ` 250 crore to build new facilities in India to manufac-

Metso, has announced the launch of its new shell liner. The new Metso Megaliner shell liner keeps downtime in large mills to a minimum, utilizing an innovative design that offers speedy replacement. The shell liner additionally

Caterpillar Launches Manufacturing Facility in Chennai


Caterpillar India has launched its manufacturing facility on the outskirts of Chennai. The General Manager of Caterpillar BHL Worldwide, Mr. Robert

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Venus Equipments & Tools Pvt. Ltd

News & Events

CORPORATE
Droogleever inaugurated the new facility. The new backhoe loader manufacturing facility located in Thiruvalluvar on the outskirts of Chennai is expected to further bolster the strength of the global major in India. than 40 personnel including 11 Chinese experts for the crawler crane line. The company has designed and acquired several service vans equipped with testing, and repairing apparatus. that there are more staff, resources, and support dedicated to the Potain brand in the UK than ever before.

Manitowoc to Sell Potain Cranes to UK

CIL Targets 470 MTs Coal Production for 2012


The CMD of coal major, Coal India Limited (CIL), Ms.Zohra Chatterji has while reviewing the performance of the company for 2011-12 stated that , Coal India Limited (CIL), the Maharatna coal mining, ended the fiscal 2011-12 with a production of 435.84 Million Tonnes (MTs), more than 4.52 MTs compared to previous fiscal, registering a growth of 1.0%. Now it is fully geared up to put up a spirited performance in attaining the optimistic target for 2012 which has been fixed for 470 Mt The CMD said that the PSU has turned around the crippling negative growth of 19 and 16.9% in the month of August, September 2011 due to unprecedented rains and ended with a positive growth of 1% this fiscal. Production picked up in February 2012 recording 17% growth over the previous year as the entire Coal India team geared up to meet the challenge.

According to Mr.KevinThieneman, Country Manager- India, ASEAN & China, the new facility, the company's fourth in India would help position the company to meet industry growth and serve its customers with the broadest range of products.

Sany India Commences Crawler Crane Production Line

Manitowoc has announced that it will sell Potain top-slewing cranes direct to customers in the UK. The agreement covers all cranes in the manufacturer's range including, MD top-slewing, MDT topless, MCT topless city and MR luffing jib ranges. According to Mr. Steve Barnett, Managing Director, Manitowoc, UK, the new arrangement brings greater resources to the domestic UK market. He further added that Selling Potain cranes directly will enable us to react faster to customer inquiries and to raise awareness of the full capabilities of the product line. He said, Over the past five years, the Potain range has grown by new models and technologies across the board, including a variety of capabilities to suit the diverse nature of modern construction sites. Nobody in the UK knows Potain cranes better than our team, so we look forward to getting in front of customers and highlighting the latest technology advances in tower cranes. The announcement to sell top-slewing cranes directly follows the decision earlier this year to appoint Ladybird Crane Group as distributor to sell Potain self-erecting cranes exclusively in the UK. The two new developments mean

Sany Heavy Industry India has announced the inauguration of its first state of art and fully integrated crawler crane production line. Consul-General of Peoples Republic of China, Mr. NiuQingbao and Mr. DilipMohitePatil (MLA) were present as the chief guests for the inaugural function. Mr. Richard Deng (MD of Sany India) and Mr. T.R. Badarinarayan (CEO) along with several of the company's prestigious customers were also present for the function. The company has established 6 regional offices and 18 service stations and recruited an expert team of more

She further added that maximum production in a day touched a record 2.03 MT, coal off take reached an all time high of 231 rakes in a day while satisfaction of the power sector was maintained at 94% recording 2% growth over the previous year. Coal production and off take in March were the highest ever in a single month since inception.

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Venus Equipments & Tools Pvt.Ltd

News & Events

SUSTAINABILITY
increased investments in the renewable energy sector in the near future.

US $25 Million Pledged for Joint Indo-US Clean Energy Research


The Ministry of Science and Technology has announced the selections for three consortia projects under the Indo-US Joint Clean Energy Research and Development Center (JCERDC). The JCERDC is being established under an agreement signed between the Governments of India and the United States of America which commits an amount of Rs 125 crore (US$ 25 million) in funding over five years to institutions in India by the Government of India with equal amount of grants to organizations in the United States by the US Department of Energy for taking up collaborative research in the fields of advanced biofuels, energy efficiency in buildings and solar energy. In addition, Indian and US consortia partners from industry have pledged matching funds for this program, said a recent press release from the ministry. These consortia led in India by the Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology-Hyderabad and CEPT University-Ahmadabad will bring together experts from national laboratories, universities, and

Solar Power Plant in Allahabad becomes Operational

industry in both India and the US to leverage their expertise and resources to unlock the huge potential of clean energy technologies that can reduce energy use and dependence on fossil fuel, and accelerate the deployment of renewable energy sources. The three lead Indian institutions have partnered with three lead US institutions National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the University of Florida, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). The program would be administered in India by the bilateral Indo-US Science and Technology Forum and in the US by the Department of Energy.

The country's most densely populated state got its first solar power plant recently. A solar power plant has started functioning on the outskirts of Allahabad. The 5 MW solar power plant has been developed as part of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission by EMC Ltd, a Kolkata-based company. The project is expected to give further impetus to the state's renewable energy development process. It remains to be seen as what is the strategy that is adopted by the newly elected government in the state for giving boost to renewable energy projects, which have become imperative given the precarious power situation Uttar Pradesh finds itself in these days. (Picture Courtesy: mygreeneducation.com)

PM Seeks Korean Expertise in Promoting Green Technologies

Singh, during his recent visit to South Korea has invited Korean investment in this crucial area. South Korea is known for its technology expertise in the area of renewable energy generation. The Prime Minister during his address to a select gathering of the Korean industry said, We are determined to pursue a strategy of green growth. We are committed to increasing energy efficiency and the share of renewables, including solar and nuclear power, in our energy mix. There will be large business opportunities and I am aware of Korean capabilities in environmentally friendly technologies. It however, remains to be seen whether the Prime Minister's visit translates into

Projects Aggregating to 221 MW Capacity Commissioned under JNNSM


The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched by the Government in January 2010. Under the mission, grid solar power projects are set up by solar project developers on build, own and operate basis. These projects are selected through an international competitive bidding process.

As the country grapples with an increasingly difficult situation, vis--vis the power sector, all eyes are now on the government's strategies to promote the growth of the renewable energy sector. The Prime Minister, Dr.Manmohan

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Venus Equipments & Tools Pvt.Ltd

News & Events

SUSTAINABILITY
So far an aggregate capacity of 221 MW has been commissioned under JNNSM, subject to verification of documents, according to the Union Minister of New & Renewable Energy, Dr.Farooq Abdullah. In a written reply to a question in the Rajya Sabha, Dr.Abdullah stated that the projects for entire capacity for the target of 1100 MW under JNNSM Phase 1 have been allocated. Finance Department would restrict the expenditure to the approved cost and no additional expenditure beyond approved cost may be permitted unless the revised estimate gets approved following the prescribed procedure. The project authority must seek the approval of the Command Area Development Plan from the Planning Commission for those commands where the command area works are not completed so far. Also the CAD works will be executed concurrently with the project implementation so that the participation of the stake holder farmers is ensured right from the stage of project planning through implementation to maintenance. This will ensure that the outlay on the project is converted into enduring outcomes in the form of assured and sustainable irrigation benefits to the farmers. The paripassu implementation of the CAD works would be monitored by the Planning Commission.

A 1,360 acre Forest that owes its Existence to One Man's 30-year-long Efforts

The Molai woods in the state of Assam in India serve as a safe haven for countless birds, deer, tigers and other species that are affected by habitat-shortage. The 1,360-acre woods echo the dedicated efforts of 47-year old Jadav Molai Payeng, who committed his life to create this lush forest ecosystem. It began about 30 years ago, in 1979, when Payeng spotted numerous dead snakes on a sandbar; they were washed ashore during a flood and left to die in the heat after the waters receded. Upon alerting the forest department, requesting them to grow trees in the area, he was told that nothing would grow on the barren sandbar, though he could try planting bamboo. Payeng, who was 16 years old at that time, painfully recalls that he began the venture, with nobody to help him as no one was interested in it. Eventually he moved to the site and started working full-time to create the forest that now stands as a lasting landmark. Such an outstanding project came to the notice of Forestry officials only in 2008. Gunin Saikia, the Assistant Conservator of Forests expressed his amazement over Payeng's efforts, stating that Payeng would have been regarded as a hero if he had been in any other country. (Source: Tree Hugger)

The projects based on solar photovoltaic technology were allowed to be completed in a period of 12 months for batch I (January 2012) and in 13 months for batch II (February 2013). The projects based on solar thermal technology were allowed a period of 28 months (May 2013). An extra period of up to 6 months is allowed against encashment of bank guarantees and payment of liquidated damages as per JNNSM guidelines. (Picture Courtesy: publicdomainpictures.net)

Madhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project Approved


The Planning Commission has given investment clearance for the scheme Madhya Pradesh water sector restructuring project (MPWSRP). The project is estimated to cost Rs. 1919 crore(at the 2011-12 Price Level), said an official government statement. The project shall be completed in the financial year 2014-15 and Plan account would be closed by 31st March 2015. Project may accordingly be executed as per the approved outlays in the State Annual Plans. The State The statement further added that the Madhya Pradesh Government shall ensure that any civil works under the Madhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project (MPWSRP) that involve any scope of additional utilization of water in the scheme falling under Ken, Tons, Betwa, Chambal and Sindh basins may be taken up only in consultations with Central Water Commission. (Pic Courtesy: cnlipsoncorp.en.madein-china.com)

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Sleek Boards (India) Ltd

News & Events

WORLD NEWS
Japan could go without Nuclear Power
the construction industry as well, as evident from statistics. Construction employees who were affected by the collapse in the housing market are making their entry in the industry as entrepreneurs, leveraging the recent surge in the home remodeling segment and the slight increase in new home building projects. In 2011, new entrepreneurs in the U.S. construction industry accounted for 24 percent of the domestic entrepreneurships, despite the six percent drop in overall business creation in the same year. The National Association of Home Builders states that the amount spent for renovating single-family homes increased from $112 billion in 2009 to $116 billion last year. Remodeling projects that once shared only a quarter of the expenditure on new construction has now exceeded the total expenditure on new construction. Statistics show that multiunit housing has already begun to thrive in 2011, while single-unit housing projects are likely to pick up, as the number of permits in this segment has risen by a significant number. The Bureau of Statistics shows that constructionbased employment rose from 5.4 million in 2010 to 5.5 million in 2011. However, the industry has a long way to go to arrive at the pre-recession levels, considering the 2006 monthly measurements that exceeded 7 million. (Source: WSJ Picture Courtesy: members.virtualtourist.com)

There have been indications that the Japanese government could well be on its way to phasing out nuclear reactors in the near future. Addressing a recent seminar, the country's Trade and Industry Minister , Mr.Yukio Edano has been quoted saying that ,the number of nuclear operators operating across the country may go down to zero, perhaps momentarily from May 6. The news comes at a time when another major economic powerGermany has stated its commitment to phase out nuclear power projects. It remains to be seen as to what kind of impact the news has on anti-nuclear protestors in countries like India. (Photo Courtesy: arstechnica.com)

Year-long Closure of North Korean Universities as Students are Dispatched for Construction Work

Construction Industry Picks Up in the US with Increasing Entry of New Entrepreneurs

In view of its avowed goal of 'reemergence as a prosperous country' in the coming year, North Korea is reported to have closed universities for almost a year, as students will form a part of the workforce necessary for its massive building campaign. According to Japan's Kyodo news agency, classes will be held only for graduating seniors and foreign student during the period. Such an extent of closure last took place during the famine periods of the 1990s. Peter Hughes, the UK ambassador to Pyongyang, said that the academic sacrifice from the part of the students was essential to attain the targets in their new

housing projects, before the centenary of the nation's founder president Kim I1sung's birth. The government has promised to construct 100,000 accommodation units to overcome the prolonged housing shortage in the capital. Construction assignments for prestigious events are usually assigned to the military, but building teams are busy with a lot of other projects. The country's 105-storeyed Ryugong skyscraper that was commenced in 1987 and stopped due to the subsequent periods of starvation and economic struggle will also be completed by 2012, as promised by foreign engineers. (Source: The Guardian Picture Courtesy: stuff.co.nz)

A recent report from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor states that the number of Americans involved in new businesses rose 60 percent in 2011 from that of 2010. The trend applies to

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

The Supreme Industries Ltd

Mining Industry Analysis

Mining a Sustainable Future:


Integrating Need, Technology and Business
Chaitanya Raj Goyal

he extensive research and development undertaken across the globe in the past few decades has largely been successful in changing the face of many industries and has led to new and improved trends in technological applications. The mining industry being a key indicator of and a major contributor to a nations economy, is no exception to this transition in technology.

Mining and mineral processing in India have a huge potential to become important sources of income and driving forces behind broader economic development of the country. While the issues facing mining industry appear familiar year-to-year, the factors influencing the industry are moving to a new level of extremity. Increased liabilities and costs of environmental and safety issues,

lower grades of minerals in traditional mining activities, advent of new biochemical processes, larger, automated and more sophisticated robotic equipment along with more specific, accurate, precise and expensive engineering have gradually led to more productive and economic alternatives over the traditional process and activities. Amid constant commodity price gyrations

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Mining Industry Analysis

bauxite, titanium ore, chromites, diamonds, and limestone. Gold, copper, zinc and uranium reserves have also been identified, though in a more limited volume. In terms of production, India ranks third in production of coal and lignite (80% of the mines in India are coal mines), second in barites, fourth in iron ore, fifth in bauxite, and seventh in manganese ore. Among the several mineral deposits that India owns, it has so far succeeded in exploring only 67% of the available resources. This has prevented the country from realizing the full economic potential of this industry. Currently, the overall contribution of mining to the countrys GDP is just above 2%, which is very low as compared to other mineral-rich nations such as Australia, Canada and South Africa, where the industry's contribution to the GDP is 5-25%. Technology has been a key enabler in these countries. The Indian mining industry is in transformation and the systemic change that began in the mid-1990s is now gaining steam. Mining Machines: Automation and Robotics unfold the future Not surprisingly, the global breakthrough in automation and robotics has contributed drastically to the mining technology. Automation and control systems are shaping the mines of the future as the technology moves into generation-3. Such systems are emerging as a major competitive factor for mining companies as they struggle to cope with spiraling labor costs and dwindling resources. Mining companies are dealing and counting on larger, faster, automated mine machine and equipment to support the production targets and keep the mine running for profits. Such capital-intensive mining assets require a more reliable, rugged and site specific operating and maintenance framework to sustain long term business needs. New concept technologies such

and a widening talent gap, costs associated with wages, taxes and capital investments have also reached new peaks. It thus becomes all the more important for this sector to move on from its ongoing techniques and methodology to embrace the new, improved and efficient technology thus ensuring a profitable, safe and ecofriendly functioning of the industry,

finally contributing its share in building the sustainable future we all dream of. Changing times: Current Indian Scenario Indias variety and abundance of resources makes it highly receptive to the changes in mining technology. Including only the identified reserves, India has the fourth-largest coal reserves in the world and significant reserves of

Picture Source: www.ign.com

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43

Mining Industry Analysis

Advance in the mining sector has given rise to more productive, safer systems. Seen here is the underground core drilling rig, the Diamec U4.

and dumping cycle for a Low Haul Dump (LHD), excavator guidance systems, automated charging process in underground mining, among others. For researchers and engineers who understand the importance of this transformation, the vision of the future of mining contains unmanned trucks communicating with each other and helping each other decide which haul road to take with automated drill rigs sending drilling rate data directly to the mine database and then out to the 3D models used by robotic shovels for grade control and so on, and the best thing about this vision is that all of this is already happening, and the goal of a fully automated mine is close to being realized. Ensuring Productivity and Safety Safety still continues to be a major issue in the mining industry with underground coal mining leading the charge. Globally there is increased pressure for mines to operate safely and move towards zero harm. Best practices have included programs such as behavior-based safety to produce significant improvements. However, it seems that improvements have reached a stage of little or no improvements and that new insight is required for the next breakthrough. Safe operation at mining sites require analyzing machine health, process measures and operator fatigue in real-time. Although they would not attain field readiness in time to help workers trapped by the mine collapse, a number of new technologies will enter service in the next few years that could drastically increase mine collapse survival rates. These technologies differ in their use, but all use advanced sensors to help miners locate fallen colleagues, alert rescue teams and flee to safety. New smart programs and technologies, such as location awareness technologies, GPS, RFIDs and collision detection/avoidance improve the safety of each employee both during daily business-as-usual and during catastrophes/accidents. Companies have also begun to deploy sophisticated

as, state of the art sensing, control, and planning systems that will enable the automation of mining activities - primarily excavation and material handling are being developed. Successful development and deployment of this technology will allow surface and underground mining to be carried out more efficiently, safely, and with less human intervention than is currently required. Automation will ultimately enable mining operations to proceed in remote and harsh environ-

ments, such as on the surface of other planets. Few examples that can be stated to depict the extensive development in automation and robotics in mining till date are the effective and safe telerobotic mining equipments like rock breakers, automated swing loading technology for electric mining shovels, cruise control and Digital Terrain Mapping (DTM) technologies in operation on a scale model dragline, automated haulage

An image of a coal mine, mined using the Strip coal mining method.

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Larsen & Toubro Ltd

Mining Industry Analysis

Ergonomically-designed cab on the longhole drill rig.

and automated Identity and Security Management programs that systematically and centrally track employees access rights, location, duration, training, safety certification, permissions, compliance and site security. Also, security information is integrated and available to those who need it, including security and human resources.

"The future of mining contains unmanned trucks communicating with each other and helping each other decide which haul road to take with automated drill rigs sending drilling rate data directly to the mine database."
The ultimate goal of the future mining safety programmes should be the complete elimination of mining occupational disease and injury. They should continue to develop new technologies and enhanced training programs, but the latter should be strengthened to recognize and correct substandard conditions and practices that contribute to mine accidents. Productivity increment is another very important need of the hour. Increasing productivity and reducing costs often present trade-offs for most

companies. Mining companies of the future will need to improve both simultaneously without sacrificing customer service, safety or operational flexibility. Some traditional costs levers such as labor, supplies and vendor services can be adjusted through renegotiation, integration, virtualization and other strategies. More profound productivity and efficiency transformations can occur when fundamental business processes are redesigned to become lean or streamlined, and advanced

analytics and optimization is used to support the decision making process. Overall mining automation could also result in significant cost savings. For example, travel time to and from the surface can take hours, reducing productive work by as much as 50 percent in a typical eight- or 12-hour shift. Automation, particularly remote operation, of mining equipment could double productivity. There also seems to be additional benefits to a decreased number of workers in the mine. Such change might include the elimination of large, power-hungry fans that control the flow of air through the mines. If miners were no longer underground, such an expense could be eliminated! Scheduling for the mine must be integrated from mine operation to shipping, including blend design and dynamic order book allocation to stocks in the system wherever they are. Quality and efficiency programs, such as Six Sigma, are also being utilized to manage productivity and to define optimal processes. Well-designed and implemented management controls and processes will be needed in the future, to facilitate and engender a high-productivity environment. There will be increased demand for greater attention to detail and understanding of various processes and cross-discipline

Mechanized scaling with hydraulic hammer

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Mining Industry Analysis

manage consumables such as carbon, water and fuel from end to end, as well as providing new capabilities in performing trade-off analysis on productivity vs. environmental impact. These programs also may extend to footprint management, waste management, ecosystem risk management, mine closure and re-habitation, tailings placement management and stewardship management. What does the future hold for Indian mining industry? In recognition of the nations sluggish progress in the industry, the Indian government has introduced a new framework for mining, which has expanded the scope for modern technology in all aspects of mining, from prospecting to production. The New Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Bill 2011 is expected to encourage investments in technology. The working group for mines for the Twelfth Plan envisages a large part of the planned investments to go towards the acquisition of high-end technology. It also lays emphasis on the establishment of a detailed and regional inventory of resources in all mineral-bearing areas of the country through the use of stateof-the-art technologies. Since the Indian mining industry is still at the lower end of technology use, there is a major opportunity for technology providers to introduce solutions in this market. This can increase the production of minerals in India and increase the markets competitiveness. With growing mineral production, there will be a greater thrust on improving safety standards through technology

A 3-D impression of Kemi mine showing the open pit, the underground development and the ore bodies

cooperation. Management will also need to oversee the integration of the subprocesses (coal haulage and ventilation, for example) into a truly continuous process. Environmental outlook Public perspective sees mining as old, dirty, dangerous and environmentally contentious. The rising focus and publicity on environmentalism and newfound focus on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) creates pressure from governments, customers and shareholders, with mining being a prominent target for environmental outrage from all corners. There is clearly a direct trade-off between exploitation of natural resources and conservation of environment and human habitat. In the past, due to lower environment consciousness, the trade-off was always decided in favor of exploitation. This is appalling! Yet, environmental

fundamentalism can also prove to be costly and will prevent a number of people to remain without access to basic necessities of life. This apparently intractable tradeoff has to be resolved. The bottom line is that striking a balance between conservation (protecting environment and rights of indigenous people) and meeting the resource needs of a developing economy implies additional costs and requires the use of superior technology. In the past, this trade-off has been addressed by creating a public sector monopoly. This has not delivered the desired results. The alternative approach has been to encourage natural resource exploitation by organized and progressive private sector companies that are tightly regulated. For mining companies, being green will need to be more than a marketing campaign. New technologies and programs now exist that are able to

Two computer generated views of Agnico Eagle's Suurikuusiko gold mining project

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47

Mining Industry Analysis

use for better prediction and control of hazards. Opportunities exist across all segments of the Indian mining sector, which is largely dominated by coal along with other minerals (metallic, non-metallic and atomic) that play a significant role in meeting the domestic and export demand as well. Rio Tinto

and iGATE Corporation, which provides business outcomes based solutions under the brand iGATE Patni, have recently announced an Indian base for their Mine of the Future program. Mine of the Future program introduces nextgeneration technologies for mining operations that aim to reduce costs,

increase efficiency and improve health, safety and environmental outcomes. The transformation in the Indian and global mining sector is becoming apparent, and the next 10 years will completely change the mining industry as significantly as the 25-year transformation of the engineering industry. Some of the changes that will befall how mines are managed include the increased use of planning parameters, metrics, the control of machine use and maintenance and mine financing.

"Mining companies of the future will need to improve both simultaneously without sacrificing customer service, safety or operational flexibility."
As miners expand to farther reaches of the world, they also face heightened levels of community involvement and environmental oversight, particularly as extreme weather events continue to take a toll, unpredictability and instability across the industry rises. Irrespective of such happenings, mining is, was and shall continue to be the cornerstone of human civilization. Mining operators are also facing significant changes in their workplace, as the industry moves from human-intensive operation to more tele-operated and automated methods. The mine operator of the future looks more like a video gamer than a miner, as the industry moves towards virtual and remote technology. Sustainable mining will be the creed of the global mining industry for the upcoming decades and beyond, reliant on clean, bulk mining systems with the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as the underpinning. Mining in future will have a different technological visage, but certainly not unrecognizably so as a whole host of innovative technologies wend their way to new levels of productivity and performance for sustained competitiveness of the industry.

Routine check-ups and services are a must for a sustained productivity level. Seen here is a visual inspection being carried out on a MT5010 mine truck with full load

India mining sector is seeing new light as government driven incentives are on the rise

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The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Wirtgen India Pvt.Ltd

Mining Equipments

Modern Mining Equipment:


M.K. Prabhakar, Associate Editor

Unearthing the India Transformation

he huge potential for mining equipment in a country like India can be gauged from the fact that despite having some of the largest reserves of natural resources, mining activity still contributes only about 3% to the GDP . There has been pressure on the government to come out with policy initiatives to speed up growth of the mining sector in recent times. On its

part the government has been taking steps including the approval of the much awaited MMDR Bill 2011 by the Union Cabinet late last year. Further reforms in the sector are expected to bring in a whiff of much needed fresh growth initiatives in the sector. Increased participation by private players, many of them global majors in mineral exploration is one area that is expected

to provide the much needed thrust to the mining sector as early as during the 12th Five Year Plan period (2012-17). The increasing thrust to the mining sector automatically means good news to mining equipment supplier. The market for mining equipment in the country has been pegged at over ` 9000 crore by industry analysts, a number which is expected to grow

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Mining Equipments

exponentially in the coming few years. While the shortage of coal linkages may have been regularly hitting headlines in recent times, the fact remains that India has some of the largest reserves of natural resources in the world, including coal. In fact, the country is estimated to be sitting on coal reserves of over 260 billion tonnes. Similarly, the country also has significant reserves of iron ore, bauxite, lignite, chromite, thorium, limestone, mica, etc, deposits of which are spread across various parts of the country. With such vast potential available, it is not surprising that sophisticated mining equipment has been making its entry into the country in recent times. The mining equipment industry in the country is entering a crucial growth phase. While from the turn of the century onwards through the last decade, the focus of suppliers was to establish a firm presence in the market , either by setting shop on their own or through strategic business tieups with domestic players, the forthcoming decade is predicted to be one of growth, both in terms of volume and entry of new technology.

The number of high capacity dragline excavators is increasing gradually

Technology Revolution in Surveying Mine surveying is one of the most challenging parts of the mining process. Advances in digital technology have meant that there has been a sea change in the kind of mine surveying equipment used these days. The primary survey instrument- Total Stations, is now a highly digitalized piece of equipment. Total stations which are electronic theodolite integrated with an electronic distance meter (EDM) component are used for recording the absolute location of tunnel walls in the case of underground mining, apart from ceilings and floors. Latest models enable the recorded data to be downloaded into a CAD program, which in turn allows mine engineers to compare the data to the designed layout of the tunnel. Use of total stations which are incorporated with laser scanning technology means that surveys that earlier used to take weeks together can now be completed in a matter of few hours. Latest models with laser scanners can be operated by a single person and can do a variety of surveying including, mine face mapping, highwall surveying,

Robotic Total Stations have considerably simplified the surveying process

and geotechnical analysis. Robotic total stations that are available these days allow the operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an assistant, as the operator can hold the reflector and control the total station from the observed point for accurate readings. Present day models also complement aerial LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), which is an optical remote sensing technology that is finding increasing application in surveying now-a-days. The use of laser and GPS guided robots surveying deep mines is another interesting development in the field. These robots or remote surveying vehicles apart from collection of data are also used for filming deep mines. Similarly, laser guided systems also enable prediction of slope instability in the case of open cast mines, relaying the information to the site team, which can then take necessary steps. This current niche market segment is dominated by several small players. The situation is expected to change soon with several global players in the field of mine surveying equipment now eyeing the growing Indian market. A slew of new models of surveying equipment including, laser scanners, GPS survey equipment, laser distance

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Mining Equipments

Ready for the heavy haul- leading global truck makers are eyeing the fast growing Indian market for heavy haul mining trucks

meters, mining compass and surveying accessories are expected to make their way into the Indian market in the near future, given the proposed thrust to the mining sector by the government. Entry of High -Tech Surface Mining Equipment With open pit mining being a popular option in the country, India has

emerged as a potential market for a variety of mining equipment used in such operations. The market for equipment such as dumpers, dozers, shovels, draglines, dozers, graders, high capacity excavators, and highwall miners is on the rise. Several global players have entered the Indian market with their offerings in this fast growing segment in mining equipment.

Talking about surface mining, there is perhaps no other exhilarating sight than watching a monstrous dragline excavator at a mining site. The types of dragline excavators used in mining operations typically weigh around 2,000 tons, with some of the large ones weighing even over 8,000 tons. Commonly used in strip-mining operations to remove overburden above coal and also for tar-sand mining, their bucket volume ranges from 40 to 80 cubic yards. The length of the boom ranges from 45 to 100 meters. Some of the large models are capable of moving up to 450 metric tonnes of material in a single cycle, making them imperative for large scale open pit mining operations. They are gradually making an appearance in Indian mines. Powered by electricity unlike other mining equipment, they are generally connected directly to highvoltage grids. Making an entry along with huge dragline excavators are the power shovels that are used for excavation and removal of overburden in open-cut mining operations. They are also used for loading of minerals, especially coal in India. Equipped with buckets ranging from 8 to 80 cubic meters, these mean

Highwall mining holds immense potential in India

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Schwing Stetter (India) Pvt. Ltd

Mining Equipments

machines are expected to increase in number in the near future, with the government keen on increasing focus on mineral exploration. The spurt in mining has also meant an increased demand for high capacity excavators. BEML for example, offers a complete range of large excavators tailored for the mining sector. Volvo is another company that offers crawler excavators catering to this segment as part of its EC Series. JCB is another company that is offering tracked excavators under the JS Series, wheeled loaders under the ZX Series and the DX Series backhoe loaders. Caterpillar, another global name in mining equipment offers large excavators featuring the CAT ACERT technology that work towards optimizing engine performance and lowering exhaust emissions. LiuGong India is another leading name in the field which offers a range of excavators in the 6 T to 45 T capacities. Another leading name Wirtgen India offers surface miner models such as 4200 SM and 2500 SM which are widely used in limestone mines.

Tata Motor's heavy haul truck, the Tata Prima 2528 K tipper

Heavy haul trucks are another segment that has received a boost thanks to the spurt in mining activities in the country. Competition is intense in this segment, with newer players entering the fray at regular intervals of time. A good example is the rapid growth of Kamaz Vectra, with its wide range of heavy haulers with GVW up to 120T.

Longwall mining systems have become the staple in coal mines

Tata Motors, an established name in the field had earlier come out with the Tata Prima 252.8 K tipper, especially designed for off-road deep mining application, featuring 1,200 x 24 mining tyres and a robust chassis. Ashok Leyland has also been focusing on the mining sector with its new models featuring its U truck platform. BharatBenz and Mahindra Navistar have also entered the fray with their models. Caterpillar had during Excon 2011 launched its successful 770G and 772G off-highway truck models for the sector. Volvo is another big name that offers articulated haulers with payload capacities ranging from 24,000 kg to 39,000 kg. Another area which has seen gradual growth in recent times is that of blast hole drilling. Specialized blast hole drilling equipment is used in open cast mining. Usually crawler or truck mounted, the drilling rigs are used for holes ranging in diameter from 150 to over 200 mm and up to 40 meter in depth. These machines are used for drilling either vertical or in certain cases, inclined holes during open cast mining. Companies like Sandvik and Atlas Copco are offering a variety of drilling equipment for mining applications in the country. Another new technology that has

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Mining Equipments

A variety of options are now available to carry men and material in mines

made an impact on the Indian mining sector is Highwall Mining. With many of the open cast mines in the country reaching their pit limits, overburden has become high and coal extraction therefore, uneconomical. The use of sophisticated highwall equipment enables extraction of large amount of untapped coal deposits. The machines can extend life of open cast mines and work by first making forays into the highwall of open cast mines with a series of parallel entries driven into the coal seam. Another major advantage offered by highwall machines is that they can be operated unmanned. Research institutions like the Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR) have been instrumental in pioneering this technology, which has been used in projects of M/s Singareni Collieries in Ramagundem, Andhra Pradesh. Giving these sophisticated pieces of equipment good company in open cast mining projects are the omnipresent dozers and graders. There are several leading players including, JCB, Volvo

CE, Chetra, LiuGong India, etc who cater to this growing segment. Underground Mining Equipment The availability of specialized equipment, along with software tools meant for accurate reserve estimation have been the contributory factors for the increasing preference of underground mining over open cast mining these days. A slew of new types of machinery and technology have entered the Indian market today. Also fueling their demand has been the rising emphasis on an environment-friendly mining process, apart from the demands of economizing the entire mineral extraction process. A good example of machinery incorporating latest technology for underground mining can be found in the form of Longwall mining equipment. Typically longwall mining involves mining a long wall of coal in a single slice. The panel of coal that is being mined could be sometimes even 3-4 km long and range in width from 250 to 400 meters. Longwall mining machine

consists of a series of hydraulic jacks, also called chocks or shields. These chocks are placed, side by side, and are typically 1.75 meters in width. Each shield can about 30-40 tonnes. The machine also includes a shearer that cuts the coal from the coalface. The shearer alone can weigh between 75 to 120 tonnes. Powerful electric motors, in the 850 kW capacity range power these mean machines. Continuous miners are another good example for sophisti-cated pieces of underground mining equipment that have made an entry into the Indian market. India traditionally has not been a country where continuous mining has been popular. Industry analysts point out to the higher initial capital investment, along with the presence of hard rocks, as reasons for the method not becoming popular as yet in the country. Popularly used in Room and Pillar mining operations, continuous miners consist of powerful cutters, some of which can extract a whopping 35 tons of coal per minute. As the name suggests,

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Mining Equipments

continuous miners while extracting coal, continue to load the material onto a conveyor, making it a much more economically viable process, than the earlier cyclic method, when mining had to be stopped for loading. Latest remote controlled models of continuous miners have started making an appearance on the Indian horizon and according to industry analysts it is only a matter of time before the economies of scale and competition brings down their cost and its market grows in India. Along with continuous miners, roof bolting machines are also making an increasing number of appearances in mining sites in India. The roof bolter is a hydraulically powered machine that installs rock bolts in mines in order to secure mine roofs. These machines work by drilling directly into the rock strata and enable mine roofs to be selfsupportive. Roof bolters can typically drill anywhere from 3 to over 10 feet into the rock. As the number of underground mines increase in the country, roof bolters have become important types of mining machinery. Rounding off the mining equipment range used in underground mining are the ventilation fans and rock dusters. Since coal dust is highly inflammable and there is always a possibility of explosion, rock dusters are used to apply inert rock dust on the coal dust. Mine ventilation fans, similarly, play a key role in helping keep the mine environment safe and clean while removing noxious gases such as Co2, NOx, methane, and SO2. Mining Transportation With the amount of material mined becoming larger, quicker transportation of the extracted mineral or ore , along with miners ,is another important area on which mining equipment suppliers have been concentrating. Underground rails for example are now a common feature in most of the large coal mines. Electric powered, to avoid exhaust emissions, shuttle cars are another example for vehicles that are used to haul refuse from underground mines. These days remote controlled versions

Mining applications benefit immensely from modern conveyor systems

of these rubber-wheeled vehicles are also available. Working in tandem with shuttle cars are the scoops that are used for heavy haul work inside the mines. Electric powered personnel vehicles enabling quick and safe transportation of miners is another addition that has resulted in the increase in underground mining operations. India with its vast coastline has also been earmarked for its potential in deep sea mining. Specialized vessels and barges could become more common place in Indian ports in the next few years time. Deep sea mining usually involves mining at about 1500 -3000 meters below the oceans surface. Sulfide deposits containing precious metals such as gold copper, cobalt, silver, zinc and manganese, etc are extracted using the process. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are now becoming the staple as far as deep mining is concerned these days. Another key component of the transportation of mined material is the conveyors, which are used extensively both underground and overland. Conveyors are typically used in tandem with mining machinery and help in speeding up mining operations. Conveyor suppliers are focusing on

mobility and flexibility these days. Easy to set up and dismantle type of conveyor systems are in demand in mining applications. Similarly, a lot of research and develop-ment is going on in the field of getting the conveyor surface right, since the belt needs to carry a variety chemically reactive materials, ranging from wet ash to gypsum, titanium, clay, etc, apart from being able to withstand under varying temperature. Exciting Phase Awaits Suppliers As the country is poised to enter a crucial phase of growth in mining operations, a slew of new products, featuring latest technologies are expected to make their way into the Indian market in the next few years. With thrust on mining sector being on the top of agenda of the government, and with India being endowed with some of the largest reserves of natural resources, the next decade could witness the country becoming one of the key markets for mining equipment globally. Picture Courtesy
www.bestcoaltrading.blogspot.in Tteinternational.com, Scienceimage.csiro.au Katowicethecity.com, Wrna-minelife.com www.team-bhp.com, www.bestmachinetechnology.blogspot.in

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Lipi Polymers Pvt.Ltd

Mining Planning and Design

Mine Planning and Design Solutions:


New Generation Software Packages Help Make Mining a Safer, Environment-friendly and Economic Process
M.K. Prabhakar, Associate Editor Editor

he rapid strides made in the field of software development have literally touched every conceivable field. Mining is no exception. The emergence of modern mine planning software has had a drastic impact on mining operations. Gone are those days when the word mining used to conjure up images of candle-lit headlamps and men in cages being lowered to the depths of the earths crust carrying pick-axles. With the advent of mine planning software

and automated machinery, mining operations are at the cutting edge of technology. Mine planning and design has come a long way from the earlier days of hand-held calculators and basic spreadsheets. One of the biggest drawbacks earlier was the fact that while all the design issues had to be addressed in 3D, the planning was being done in 2D. What this in turn meant was a long drawn mine planning process. Mine planning and design are

areas that have undergone a sea change; thanks to the advent of modern mine planning and design solutions. The arrival of mine planning software has meant that reaching the most ore at the lowest possible cost is no longer as difficult a proposition as it was earlier, without the use of such sophisticated tools. Good mine design, which involves preparing the optimum layout for exploration , so very essential for the success of mining

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Mining Planning and Design

where specialized software with their modeling capability gained prominence. The industry had been waiting patiently for tools that would help them stop wasteful mining and the arrival of specialized mine planning software meant that the perfect solution was available. The intense competition among nations, quite literally, digging deep into their reserves of natural resources, was another factor that was fuelling the demand for such software packages. Many of the earlier mine planning software packages were actually products of research initiatives of leading Universities. The growing market for such software meant that by the early 1980s several leading software development companies had jumped into the bandwagon and began peddling their mining solutions. Many of the leading companies that had been funding their own research initiatives for developing mine planning software abandoned their efforts midway after the entry of leading software development companies into the fray. Integration with other Software Packages Another important reason for the increased usage of mine planning software in recent times has been the

ability of developers to come out with features that enable these packages integrate with other software products. For example, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is a staple of the mining industry, with its all pervasive influence on working procedures in mining operations is compatible with almost all the latest mine planning software packages. Modern day packages enable import and export of GIS formats, leading to an integrated environment, where every possible data is used for optimized algorithm computation, leading to superior quality of modeling and mine design. Similarly, modern day mine planning software packages are able to communicate data with other software packages in a generic file format. Developers are making sure that they incorporate features that enable easy integration with other database or spreadsheet software packages. Economics & Environment The increased usage of mine planning software tools has been necessitated to a large extent by the increased emphasis on economics, safety, and environmental considerations today. Open pit operations that were the norm, for example in the case of coal mining during the 70s and 80s are no

operations , owes itself to the arrival of specialized mine planning software. Contrary to popular perception mine planning software has been in existence for well over three decades now. It was in the 1970s that mining companies began to use them extensively, especially in the western parts of the world. One of the primary factors which lead to the early use of such software was economics. Wastage had to be reduced and this is

With deposits getting marginal underground mining has gained preference over open pit mining, leading to increased use of mine planning and design software

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Mining Planning and Design

planning (which is usually done before the start of the mining operations) and environmental monitoring during the mining operation and after the closure. Modern mine planning and design software packages are being designed keeping in mind all these crucial considerations. Modular Design The latest versions of mine planning systems deal with a variety of functions that are present as part of mining operations. The simpler versions that earlier existed were adept at nonintegrated functions, which is not the case today. For example, since the entire mine planning process deals with assimilation and manipulation of various data, software developers have to take into consideration the database management factor into account. The database management component has to be in turn integrated with other components dealing with 3D modeling and visualization, which play a key role in mine design. Similarly the software package must contain tools that help in reserve calculation. Developers today are focusing on modular software packages, where each module is able to communicate with each other, while all of them together communicate with a core program.

Modern mine planning systems enable accurate reserve estimation

longer considered the only choice. Underground mining technology has undergone a revolution, thanks to the ability of mining engineers to predict reserves more accurately using specialized software. The greater depth of deposits and the increased emphasis on environmental considerations and safety has meant that mining engineers, quite literally leave no stone unturned in making sure that the project adheres to all these aspects, while also making economic sense. With investments running into millions of dollars, accurate geological data and reserve estimation, enabling almost perfect economic projection has become the norm these days. The modern day mine planning software tools are able to handle large sets of data with speed, enabling mining engineers to assess the given geological data, prepare 3D models, and analyze the economic and geological viability of mining operations. The use of specialized software tools enables engineers to conduct structural interpretations and find out whether there is any structural interference, aspects which in turn help in determining the method of mining. The high capital investments involved in underground mining has made the use of sophisticated data prediction tools imperative these

days. This is apart from the advantages in terms of safety and environment that the use of specialized software enables in underground mining projects. Mining companies are required to follow stringent environmental and rehabilitation codes in order to minimize environmental impact these days and this is an area where mine planning systems play a key role. The codes and regulations pertain to environmental impact assessment, development of environmental management plans; mine closure

Mine planning software ensures optimum utilization of mining equipment

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MC - Bauchme (I) Pvt Ltd.

Mining Planning and Design

operational conditions, modern software can also help mining engineers to make modifications and show the impact immediately. This way project managers can analyze multiple scenarios and arrive at the right solution. A Minefield of Opportunities The trends indicate that the mining industry is increasingly becoming reliant on mine planning software. As reserves become more marginal, developers are faced with newer challenges to come out with solutions in an increasingly competitive market. Software solutions offer the only way out when it comes to making even marginal deposits an economically viable option. Developers are also faced with the challenge of ensuring that the mine planning software packages continue to become more user-friendly, even when becoming more sophisticated due to the changing nature of the mining processes. Making workflows to be captured easily and making them repeatable is the challenge that lies before software developers. This would mitigate the issue of shortage of skilled labour, a critical factor to consider in a country like India, to a large extent. A spurt in availability of latest mine planning software is inevitable in a country like India, where the government has clearly spelt out its intention of increasing focus on newer explorations. The approval of the Mining and Mineral (Development & Regulatory) Bill 2011 by the Union Cabinet late last year was a step that signaled the intentions of the government which is keen to increase the contribution of mining sector to the GDP , which is abysmally low at about 3 % to about 9 % in a few years time. With further reforms expected in the mining sector in India, and with the entry of overseas players, the next few years could see an intense competition among leading mine planning software developers to garner their share of the market. Photo Courtesy
www.zocalopublicsquare.org, www.minecad.com, www.sovereigngoldgh.com www.greatmining.com, www. deswiksoftware.com

3D modeling and simulation have helped in cutting down costs and speeding up the mining process

Visualization & Simulation The ever-increasing graphical capabilities of modern mine planning software packages has been one of the key reasons behind their rising popularity. Developers have realized that in order for a product to be successful in the market, the user has to be able to interact with it easily and effectively. Many of the latest software packages, apart from having an extremely userfriendly GUI (Graphical User Interface) also allow for further customization of the settings. Enhanced graphical environments enable 3D visualization, apart from making the process of integrated use with CAD functionality more effective. Representation of data in a dynamic setting is what makes the latest mine planning software tools enable mining engineers to do a thorough analysis of the mining operations in a simulated environment. Dynamic representations of the mining process can help in highlighting issues related to grade estimation. For example, a mining engineer can now slice an entire block and find out its impact on the structural integrity of an underground mine. Some of the latest mine planning software tools also enable integration with real life machinery functions. With sophisticated mining equipment being use, it becomes important that the

machinery functions are taken into consideration as part of the mine design process. Simulation is the name of the game these days from aviation to mining. The latest mine planning systems are increasingly reliant on dynamic visualization processes. Simulation of processes such as shovel and earthmoving operations or blasting when offered in a 3D environment give an accurate picture of the actual extraction process to mine engineers. Modern day packages such as Xpac, SimMine, Vulcan, CAE Mining, etc, come with sophisticated visualization modules. The comprehensive set of tools enables mine engineers to analyze blocks by moving them in a variety of ways, thanks to the interactive design icons that are part of the mine planning systems. Optimum utilization of mining equipment is also ensured due to the simulation processes. For example, engineers can now accurately predict equipment cycles as part of the particular project. Similarly the limitations that could be possibly be encountered with certain types of mining equipment can also be accurately determined even before the project, which in turn enables project managers to cut down on expenditure making the mining process more economically viable. Apart from their ability to simulate actual

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Liugong India Pvt.Ltd

Mining Underwater

Marine Mining:
Bhavani Balakrishna

Unraveling the Oceans Secrets


ith large scale investments of around USD 1 trillion in public infrastructure during 201217, the demand for base metals in India is expected to keep growing. And this is a global phenomenon. Hence, it should come as no surprise that organized players in the mining sector are now looking at oceans as a rich potential source of metals and minerals. Deep sea mining has recently garnered attention with Nautilus Minerals, a Canadian based company, acquiring a 20 year mining lease by the Government of Papua New Guinea to commercially explore the sea floor for high grade massive sulphide deposits. Marine mining is not a new concept. It can be dated back to the

sixties and seventies and diamond companies have been focusing on marine mining since the last 25 years or so. With respect to minerals, the major focus are on mining manganese nodules that are usually located at depths below 4000 meters, cobalt crusts along the flanks of undersea mountain ranges (between 1000 and 3000 meters), and massive sulphides and the sulphide muds that form in areas of volcanic activity near the plate boundaries, at depths of 500 to 4000 meters. Manganese nodules consist of manganese, iron, silicates and hydroxides and they grow around a crystalline nucleus at a rate of only about one to 3 millimeters per million years. Cobalt crusts are generally found in

in regions with high volcanic activity at depths of 1000 to 3000 meters on the flanks of submarine volcanoes such as the territorial waters around the island states of the South Pacific. The crusts accumulate when manganese, iron and a wide array of trace metals dissolved in the water (cobalt, copper, nickel, and platinum) are deposited on the volcanic substrates. Technologically, the mining of cobalt crusts is much more complex than manganese nodules. For one, it is critical that only the crust is removed, and not the underlying volcanic rocks. In addition, the slopes of the volcanoes are very ragged and steep, which makes the use of excavation equipment more difficult. Cobalt crust mining would also have a significant impact on the benthic organisms.

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Mining Underwater

Polymetallicsulphides are produced worldwide in underwater volcanic regions by "black smokers." These black smokers are formed when seawater seeps into the porous sea bottom, is heated and re-emerges through vents carrying dissolved minerals. When the hot water hits the cold sea floor water, the minerals precipitate, creating chimney-like towers called black smokers. Over time, these towers collapse and accumulate to form ore deposits, some of which are rich in gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc. Marine Mining Laws In 1982, due to a lot of commercial interest in manganese nodules and cobalt crusts, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was established and the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in Jamaica was created. The UNCLOS was the basis for signatories legal rights to use the marine resources on the sea floor outside national territorial waters. However, marine mining was slow to gain momentum due to the

India was the first country to invest in real estate on the ocean floor, acquiring rights to 150,000 sqkm of territory in the central Indian Ocean from the UN in 1987
availability of onshore deposits and prohibitive costs involved in the development of technology. Marine Mining Technology Mining of sulphides involves use of some equipment from the oil and gas sector, marine dredging and offshore diamond mining methods. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) that are used to excavate the seafloor for laying oil and gas pipelines are used for cutting and lifting sections of the deposit. These are then vacuumed and pumped up a flexible pipeline to the vessel at the surface. Canadas Nautilus Minerals is the first company worldwide to commercially explore the sea floor for high grade massive sulphide deposits -Solwara 1 -

under development in Papua New Guinea. The Solwara 1 massive sulphide deposit lies in the eastern Manus Basin on the floor of the Bismarck Sea at approximately 1,600 meters depth. The site is bordered on the north by the island of New Ireland and to the south by the island of New Britain, and is 50 kilometers north of the town of Rabaul in East New Britain Province. The mining process will involve the following Removal of unconsolidated sediment and hard rock from the areas to be mined - approximately 130,000 tonnes of unconsolidated sediment and 115,000 tonnes of rock will be dumped on sea-floor outside of the mining area; Levelling of vent chimneys and cutting of a mining bench with the sea-floor mining tool; Open-cut mining and pumping of the ore slurry via the Riser and Lift System to the Mining Support Vessel at the surface. The Riser and Lift System consists of a pipe attached to the seafloor mining tool. A pump

Launching of the Remote Operating Vehicle (ROV)

A Remote Operating Vehicle (ROV) on deck of a vessel

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Mining Underwater

Continental plate margins Depth below sea level Distribution of cobalt crusts Occurrences of manganese nodules Occurrences of black smokers

- 2000 m - 4000 m - 6000 m deeper than 6000 m

attached to the bottom of the Riser and Lift System will pump the slurry to the surface. The pump will be hydraulically powered by return water from the surface; Separating the ore from the slurry (dewatering) on the Mining Support Vessel and its transfer to a shuttle. The dewatering system consists of screens, centrifuges, hydrocyclones and disk filters. Water separated during the dewatering process will be pumped back to the seafloor and used to drive the Riser and Lift System pump; and Transport of the dewatered ore to temporary storage facilities at the Port of Rabaul, from where it will be shipped to overseas processing facilities

sea mineral resources in the Indian Ocean on lines similar to its contracts with other countries including China. In pursuance of this agreement, the Ministry of Earth Sciences has undertaken exploration activity for which a total area of 75000 sq. km. in the Central Indian Ocean Basin is available to it. India hopes to be amongst the few countries of the world which would be able to explore for deep sea mineral resources in the years ahead. Indias Polymetallic Nodules programme is oriented towards exploration and development of technologies for

eventual extraction of nodules from the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) allocated to India. INR 319 crores has been allocated for this programme in the Eleventh plan. Surveys have been carried out in Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB), and an area of about 7860 square km has been initially identified for the First Generation Mine Site. As a part of phasewise development of mining system upto a water depth of 6000 meters, National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), an autonomous Institute under the Ministry has designed, developed and demonstrated a prototype shallow bed mining system capable of working upto a depth of 500 meters. Some of the requirements / challenges during the design and development of the underwater mining system involved the following: The seabed is extremely soft ( 2.5 to 7.5 kPa shear strength) to support any heavy equipment Mining equipment has to traverse through ocean floor of varied topography without getting damaged The equipment has to sweep large areas and collect nodules with high efficiency to obtain economical production rates The mining system should be

India in Marine Mining As per the resolution of 30 April, 1982, India along with France,Japan, the USSR and four transnational consortiums was given 'Pioneer Investor Status' by UNCLOS III. India was the first country to invest in real estate on the ocean floor, acquiring rights to 150,000 sqkm of territory in the central Indian Ocean from the UN in 1987 for preliminary exploration activities. The International Seabed Authority has entered into a 15-year contract with India in the year 2002 for pursuing exploration activity for deep

Underwater mining equipment being launched as part of the commercial exercise to explore the Seabed for sulphide deposits

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Igloo Tiles

Mining Underwater

capable of being deployed and retrieved easily Environmental disturbance must be minimum both in ocean floor and in the surface

The Underwater Mining system is a crawler based system which moves on the sea-bed under remote control from the mother ship at top. The crawler has been designed to operate on the soft sea-bed and has special track belts with involute teeth to compact the bed during motion. The crawler vehicle has a manipulator arm with a cutter to sweep the seabed and mine sand and a positive displacement pump to deliver the sand slurry to the mother ship through a flexible hose. The main drives of the crawler are hydraulically operated. The crawler vehicle has transducers for measurement of velocity, drum speed, heading, sand concentration etc. and has a closed loop control for speed, heading and slip. An umbilical cable with outer steel armour carries the weight of the crawler vehicle during launching and retrieval. The cable has copper conductors and optical fibers for power and data transmission respectively. During launching floats are attached at

appropriate locations to enable the flexible riser obtain S-shaped profile at the bottom. The cable and hose are attached at regular intervals to ensure that both behave as a single unit. On reaching the sea floor mining operations can be started after obtaining the S-shaped profile. Pumping operations was tested at 410meters depth successfully. The crawler was subsequently augmented for long term operation and successfully tested off Goa Coast at a depth of 451m. In the next phase, the mining vehicle was augmented with nodule collector and crusher system and its performance was demonstrated at 500 meters. The flexible riser concept is being used in this system. The entire structure is indigenously designed and fabricated at NIOT. The system is designed for mining rate of 8 tons/hour of wet nodules with nodule abundance of 5 to 10 kg/m2 in sea floor. The crushed nodules are pumped to the surface by a solid handling pump capable of delivering 45 m3 of slurry per hour. To facilitate docked launch and retrieval of the underwater mining system, a knuckle boom type Launch and Retrieval System (LARS) was

Nodule Resources in the Indian Claim Area ( 150,000 sq.km)

Wet Nodules Dry Nodules Manganese Cobalt Nickel Copper Total Metal

759.00 MMT 607.00 MMT 144.00 MMT 0.85 MMT 7.00 MMT 6.58 MMT 158.35 MMT

In-situ Resources of Polymetallic Nodules in the Pioneer Area

Nodules Manganese Cobalt Nickel Copper Overall length Overall Width Weight in air Weight in water Depth of operation Operational speed Max speed Max slope Slurry Discharge Concentration Mining Output

380.00 MMT 92.59 MMT 0.55 MMT 4.70 MMT 4.29 MMT 6200 mm 4200 / 3400 mm 18.5 tons 7.9 tons 500 m 0.5 m/s 0.75 m/s 8.5O Upto 45 m3/h 30 % (max.) 8 t/h (max.)

Particle Size (max.) 10 20 mm Flexible Riser System Hose Size Hose Spool length Hose-cable joints Hose Winch Hose Spool Speed 75 mm 100 m At 6m intervals 500 kg (SWL) 0.5 m/s (max.)

Power Supply, Control and Instrumentation System Cable Electro-mechanical multi-conductor Breaking Strength Power Data Acquisition Transducers Watch for Cable Auxiliary Winch
Sand mining machine

500 kN 120 kW at 3000 V PXI based system Velocity, heading, Pitch, roll, vision 1.6 m dia. x 1.4 m length 12 Tonnes 2 Nos

Signal Transmission 2 optical lines TCP/IP

Cable Spool Speed 0.5 m/s

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Mining Underwater

Dock launch and retrieval system for underwater mining systems

added to the mother vessel. Difficulties in launching using A Frame were thus overcome. The underwater mining machine could be docked underwater at 3.5 meters below water level at maximum operating radius of 14.5 meters. A remotely operable in-situ soil testing equipment was developed jointly with Sevmorgeo, Russia for measurement of in-situ properties of soft sea floor (<2.5kPa). The equipment has an accuracy of +/-2% of full scale, cone stroke of maximum 6 meters and three cones to cover ranges 0.05 to 10 kPa, 0.1 to 25 kPa and 1 to 50 kPa. It has a rod diameter of 45mm and a vane range of 0 to 10 kPa. A Remotely Operable Submersible (ROSUB 6000), capable of operating at 6000 m water depth has also been developed and tested successfully at a depth of 5289 m. Construction of new ocean going research vessel for exploration and mapping in the open sea with state-of-the-art survey equipment commenced in the month of March, 2011 and the vessel is expected to be delivered in September, 2013 to replace R.V. Samudra Manthan. The process of acquisition of a new geotechnical vessel with drilling facility in shallow waters has begun and this vessel will also be available for surveys in 2014. Impact on Environment With an undersea mining project already on the go and the likelihood of more such activities what with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (COMRA) just securing its exclusive rights to explore 10,000 square kilometers of seabed in the southwest Indian Ocean in an area off the coast of Africa, there is no doubt that undersea mining is on the rise. However, the key question is if these minerals can be mined on a large scale without causing significant damage to the environment and the nearby ecosystem. Picture Courtesy

Demand is driving advances in ocean going survey equipment

www.nautilusminerals.com

www.masterbuilder.co.in The Masterbuilder - April 2012

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Communication Feature

DCS Acquires Distribution of KRHI's Tower Cranes in India


RHI, one of the top brands of tower cranes in China, has made its foray into the Indian market. Mr.Fu-Jinting, Chairman KRHI group was in India recently as a part of the important Chinese delegation for the BRICS Summit. During his visit he also launched his partnership for KRHI Brand tower crane sales in India with DCS Trading & Services Pvt Ltd. KRHI has carved a niche for itself through its range of tower cranes and is reputed for its excellent after sales support services. The company is rated AAA+ for the past 10 years and offering CE Marked cranes. Another major advantage with the company is the fact that they have their own R & D department and have to their credit more than 20 patented products. All cranes manufactured by the company are put through a series of rigorous quality control checks before shipment. The cranes with their unique mast are specifically designed for heavyduty jobs. Mr. Rajeev Kumar (CEO-Crane Division, DCS Trading & Services Pvt. Ltd.) and Mr. Jack Ma (KRHI Export Manager) signed the co-operation letter, marking the entry of KRHI into the competitive Indian market. The launch party was held at Hotel Hilton on 26th, March 2012 evening. DCS Trading in fact bagged two tower crane

orders during the launch party and signed the sales contract with M/s Quazar Infrastructure. The Managing Director of Quazar Infrastructure Mr. Badal Sharma was present on the occasion to sign the order and present it to the company. Mr. Abhay Kasbekar, one of the Director's of DCS trading & Services Pvt. Ltd. was also present on the occasion. DCS is 15 year old organization having a wide spread network of branches across the country and is well known for its prompt and excellent after sales service. DCS has built up a strong reputation for best-in-class products and services

and top quality delivery through successful execution of numerous projects across the country. Under the strong leadership and with a far-sighted vision, the company has been meeting the needs of growing pool of customers. The promising outlook in the booming construction industry has meant that the top management of the company is focused on leveraging its inherent strengths and expertise in the field to take advantage of the vast opportunities in the market and position the company strongly for future growth. The company offers comprehensive services, with respect to tower cranes, right from initial consultation to dismantling, encompassing all aspects crane management services. The company's team also visits customers for determining and offering advice to customers on choosing the right cranes for their respective requirements.

For further details:


DCS Trading & Services Pvt. Ltd.
Plot No 169, Road No 11, Prashasan Nagar, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad - 500096. Ph: +91-40-2355813, Fax: +91-40-2354113, E-mail: rajeev@dcstrading.com Web: www.dcsts.com

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Unisteel Engineering Works

Mining Equipment

Screening in Mining Industry


Bhavani Balakrishna

Selection of Right Equipment Holds Key to Productivity

creening is a vital step in the processing of minerals. Screening is largely used for sizing or classifying particles by size, scalping (to remove the coarsest size fractions in the feed material so that they can be crushed or removed from the process), grading (to prepare a number of products within specified size ranges viz. in quarrying and iron ore, where the final product size is an important part of

the specification), media recovery (for washing magnetic media from ore in dense medium circuits), dewatering (to drain free moisture from wet sand slurry), trash removal (screening of grit, wood and oversize material) and desliming (removal of - 500 m material). An inefficient screening process at the primary, secondary or tertiary stage can lead to a high percentage of fines remaining in the oversized material, thus

creating high recirculation volumes and more wear and tear on downstream processing equipment. This in turn can lead to increased downtime. Selecting a right type of screen can reduce the wear on the crusher, avoid unnecessary recirculation, resulting in lower production costs and more correctly sized product. It is also necessary for downstream processing in accordance with the design throughput requirements

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Mining Equipment

double deck screen is an intermediate product. Types of Screening Equipment Screening equipment can be static or mechanically vibrated. Vibrating equipment uses either stratification (screening with a vibrating bed where in the vibration of the screen deck agitates the material causing it to stratify, allowing the larger particles to remain on the top deck, and the smaller particles to fall through the openings of the screening surface.) or free-fall screening. If we use the double inclination used for stratification (from 10-15 up to 20-30 degrees) we are in free fall, meaning that no particle layer can build up on the screen deck. The particles will now be sized directly via the screening media, giving a higher capacity, (or a more compact installation), but also less sharpness in separation. While the market is flooded with different types of screening equipment, the most common models are linear motion horizontal, linear motion inclined, circular motion inclined, elliptical slope inclined or multislope/banana. Horizontal lowhead or linear vibrating screens have a horizontal or near-horizontal screening surface, and therefore need less headroom than inclined screens. Horizontal screens must be vibrated

with a linear or an elliptical vibration produced by a double or triple-shaft vibrator. The accuracy of particle sizing on horizontal screens is superior to that on inclined screens; however because gravity does not assist the transport of material along the screen they have lower capacity than inclined screens. Linear motion horizontal screens lend themselves to sizing when the cut point is 0.5-100mm. They are used in densemedium recovery and dewatering, and are the most popular type of screen used in coal preparation and mineral processing. Linear motion inclined screens are used where tonnage has increased, but space limitations do not allow for larger models. They can also be used in place of circular motion inclined screens where customer preference dictates. Circular motion inclined screens are mainly used for scalping and are also popular in the aggregate industry. Due to the circular motion, material tumbles or rolls down the screen, which helps to reduce clogging of the openings. Elliptical motion inclined screens are used primarily in the aggregate industry and operate in a similar way to circular motion models. Depending on the placement of the drive, they can speed up the travel rate

and is an essential part of maintaining plant production. Screening can be performed using screens equipped with one or two screen surfaces called also decks. A single screen provides two products. The product from the top is called the oversize while the one which passes through the screen is the undersize. Material passing one screen surface but remaining on the next one in a

Horizontal linear motion screening equipment has enjoyed tremendous success in the highly demanding and competitive mining industries throughout the world.

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Mining Equipment

of feed material, and slow down material discharge, which can help to increase efficiency. Banana or Multi-slope screens have become widely used in hightonnage sizing applications where both efficiency and capacity are important. The multislope/banana screen can be used in almost all coal applications, and is popular for mineral recovery and scalping. Banana screens typically have a variable slope of around 40-30 degree at the feed end of the screen, reducing to around 0-15 degree in increments of 3.5-5 degree. Banana screens are usually designed with a linear-stroke vibrator. The steep sections of the screen cause the feed material to flow rapidly at the feed end of the screen. The resulting thin bed of particles stratifies more quickly and therefore has a faster screening rate for the very fine material than would be possible on a slower moving thick bed. Towards the discharge end of the screen, the slope decreases to slow down the remaining material, enabling more efficient screening of the nearsize material. The capacity of banana screens is significantly greater and is reported to be up to three or four times that of conventional vibrating screens.

Banana or Multi-Slope Screening machine.

Choosing the Right Screen Specifying the right screen involves providing the manufacturer with necessary information such as the production goals, tons per hour, material type, feed gradation and top particle size, particle shape, application type wet or dry, type of screen media and deck opening, and the method of material feed. The above information can help the manufacturer customize the screen setup for maximum performance. Screen media material choices

include wire cloth, perforated and flame-cut plate, polyurethane, rubber and hybrid media, which combine wire screens with polymer strips. Factors that affect media choice are many, but largely concern the given screen box parameters, material characteristics, and production goals. Screen capacities vary widely depending on the material characteristics and the separation required. Market Trends The industry seems to be inclining towards larger screens. One of the main reasons for this is the emphasis on minimizing the cost per ton of the product. With the ability of comminution circuits to process high tonnages, it should not come as a surprise that the larger screens are in demand. Again, the desire to reduce several crushing and screening lines within an installation has resulted in the development of higher-capacity crushers and larger screens over the past few decades. Using larger, wider screens allows mining operations to employ fewer screens, significantly reducing up front plant construction costs and long term operating costs such as electricity, individual screen maintenance upkeep, and wear material costs. Though a larger machine is significantly higher in price, the capex for multiple smaller machines take up more real estate and

Linear Vibrating Screening machine

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Tac System Formwork Sdn Bdh

Mining Equipment

with multiple feeding and discharging of products, the increased cost of the larger machine is generally seen to be justified. Customers are looking at ways to reduce the cost per tonne of product produced, and therefore are collaborating with major companies to work together on circuit advancements. Apart from larger machinery, there is also a need to reduce the weight, complexity

The Lokotrack ST272 TrackMounted Mobile Screen standard unit is capable of producing 3 sized fractions and accepting feed material up to 600mm (2ft) and feed the oversize material directly on the Primary Crusher. It is ideal for both Iron Ore and River Gravel application

The Lokotrack ST272 mobile screening machine

Market Players The market is largely dominated by global players such as Metso, Sandvik, Weir Minerals, Terex and Powerscreen. However, in response to the mining boom and subsequent demand for larger screens in emerging markets, global manufacturers are finding competition from local equipment providers. Chinese imports available in the market intensify the competition. Therefore, the manufacturers are now aiming at providing high-quality, reliable

machines customized to local conditions along with good service and support. Metsos mining screen range comprises the MF (Multi Flo) Linear Motion Curved Decks RF (RiplFlo) Circular Motion Curved Decks and LH (Low Head) Linear Motion, Horizontal Decks. It has recently introduced the Ellipti Flo screen that can work with any screening media, but due to its combination of high acceleration and elliptical motion, the screen is able to perform with rigid high % open area

Niraj Srivastava
Vice President, Technical Support Crushing & Screening, Mining and Crushing Technology Metso India

and power requirements of the modern machinery. There is a definite trend towards full life-cycle services rather than purely the initial cost of machine, as well as extended warranties and service contracts. With the increased use of autogenous and semi autogenous grinding mills combined with the requirement of higher throughput, the use of finite element analysis (FEA) is also now well established among manufacturers of screening equipment to find stress points in their design and other validate other parameters. Eventually sieve analysis, weight, shape, desired cut size, moisture and several other factors determine the surface area and type of machine required to attain the efficiency and product quality required by the client.

Metso's recent introduction, the Ellipti Flo screen

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Mining Equipment

media without clogging, increasing the screening capacity. Common linear motion screens needs to operate with a flexible media to prevent clogging. The Ellipto Flo Screens can also replace the Banana Screens for product screening for dry application where the capacity requirement is very high, moisture is high and finer separation is required. A very large Banana can be replaced with a moderate size Ellipto Flo Screen and thus saving the structural and engineering cost besides performing better in the high moisture. Metsos standard range of screens includes single and double decks with dimensions 1.8 m to 4.2 m wide and 4.8 m to 8.5 m long. Metsos popular Lokotrack ST272 Track Mounted Screening Unit is a large two-deck, two bearing screen offered by Metso that has a wide range of screening media to suit the application vast variety of applications from crusher feed preparation to fine screening and recycling. Sandvik screens for scalping, separating and sizing minerals and coal are available in single, double and triple-deck versions and both horizontal and inclined models up to 3m wide and 8.3m long. The horizontal LF screen series has been purpose-designed for classification screening duties as well as for scalping in mining applications. The Sandvik SC screen, an inclined screen with circular motion is appro-

Based on our 20 years experience in supplying equipment and services to various process industries, BHP has a strong focus on equipment reliability, good and consistent performance and prompt services.

Sunil Batra
Executive Director, BHP Infrastructure

priate for screening after primary and secondary crushing, as splitter screen to divide flows within a plant, and for final screening of finished fraction. The Sandvik XS screens are built with extra heavy-duty applications in mind. They are circular motion inclined screens with two or three decks, and can be fitted with wire mesh, polyurethane and rubber screening media or steel plate on the top deck. The XS screens are designed for screening immediately after a primary crushing operation. The Sandvik CS screens are intended for heavy-duty, medium and fine screening applications.

The range is also available with a successful water spray system.The MSO inclined screen has a circular motion stroke in the center of the screen and elliptical stroke at the feed end and discharge end. The primary advantage is that it increases the material speed at the feed end while decreasing the material speed at the discharge end. It is obvious that the combined effect of these aspects results in a more accurate screening. Weir MineralssLinatex vibrating screens are supplied as linear motion units and are able to be tailored to suit the unique needs of a specific application. Their current screen range consists of 5 core product lines: both single and double deck horizontal and multi slope (banana) screens, and dewatering screens. Depending on machine size and application, the drive system is either exciters or out-of-balance motors. The dewatering screens incorporate a sloping back deck section, fitted with slotted aperture panels. Slurry is fed uniformly along the top of this back section, which acts as a vibrating drainage panel. The main deck slopes upward at 3- 5 and is fitted with slotted apertures. Ranging from 0.3m (11 7/8) to over 4m (13 1/8) wide, and up to 10m (32 7/8) in length, these single or double deck screens are popular in a variety of applications, including coal

BHP Infrastructure's TRAILBAZER "WS" series, WS 1200 Cone Crusher Screening plant.

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Mining Equipment

sizing and DMS drain and rinse applications. Excitation is via twin outof-balance exciters and screens may be fitted with modular rubber / polyurethane or woven/wedge wire media. The Linatex banana or multi slope screen is capable of achieving exceptional throughput per screening area. The screen is a high capacity, low bed depth, high velocity machine and may include any number of deck slopes from two to as many as six, varying from 45 through to horizontal on the last slope. Powerscreen, part of the Terex Materials Processing segment of Terex Corp, has three product ranges of tracked mobile screens Chieftain incline screens, Warrior heavy-duty inclines and H range horizontal screens. The Warrior range offers several high-

Mobile Crushing, Screening and Washing equipment from Powerscreen

The Powerscreen range has become a first choice for customers in the mining and construction industries. Our tracked crushers and screens offer the customer the optimum flexibility, giving users in mining, construction or recycling the benefit of true plant mobility. Our range of machines operate in the toughest environments and feature nominal set-up times, market leading productivity and excellent reliability. Our plants are designed to minimize environmental impact with low running costs while saving on inefficient transport of material across and between sites.

Rajen Khoda
Director of Sales - South Asia and Middle East Sales, Powerscreen

capacity, heavy-duty models capable of screening and separating a variety of material, from the compact Warrior 800 with 280t/h capacity, through to the 2400 with 800t/h capacity. Warrior screens can be used for sizing or scalping before or after a crusher. They are suited to heavy-duty applications and accept much larger feed than Chieftain models. The Powerscreen H range features horizontal screens designed to handle high volumes of sticky materials for exact, fine sizing. In mining, these are useful for making exact product, where grades are important. The H range is available in two or three-deck models, and is designed to accommodate recirculating, recrushing systems with adjustable blending. The Powerscreen H range is ideally suited to applications such as natural and crushed aggregate, coal, iron ore, recycled concrete and asphalt. BHP Infrastructures TRAILBAZER "WS" series of Wheeled Screening Plants is designed for heavy duty operation at mines and quarries and for contract screening. The range includes plants that will attain capacities from 200 TPH to 400 TPH. The screening plants are fitted with either circular motion inclined screens or elliptical motion horizontal screens. The Trailbazer "WS" Series Screening Plant has a Double Deck Vibrating Grid that screens

out oversize, and a generous Feed Hopper from which a variable speed Belt Feeder extracts material onto a heavy duty Double Deck or Triple Deck Vibrating Screen, from which onboard product conveyors discharge the required sizes of product. The result is that the standard screening plant produces three or four sized products. The standard wheeled chassis comes complete with all equipment and conveyors including electrical control panels. To start operations the screening plant is simply connected to an electric supply source, the conveyors are opened and screening can begin. Each screening plant is designed for ease of access to facilitate maintenance and replacement of screening media. Joest, an international leader in vibration technology joined hands with Elektromag for providing a wide variety of vibrating screens to match the high requirements of the mining, coal, ore and quarrying industry. Large High Capacity Banana Screens are designed using the latest technologies and using the thin bed screening to improve performance in removing fines. Screens up to 4,20 m width and 8,00 m length have been manufactured. Photo Courtesy
www.mining-technology.com, www.tradeindia.com, www.conecrusherchina.com, www.metso.com, www.bazerworld.com, www.mhwmagazine.co.uk www.focusonaggregates.com,

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Universal Construction Machninery & Equipment Ltd

Mining Lidars

Application of Laser Scanning in Mine Surveying

Prof. Anatoly L. Okhotin


President of the Baikal Union of Mining Surveyors, Director of BaikalGeoService Company, Head of the Department of Mine Surveying, Irkutsk State Technical University

aser scanners, often referred to as Lidars, have comparatively only recently been introduced into the mine surveying kit. They bring to the table a host of additional capabilities as compared to their counterparts. Lidars are categorized into Aerial, Terrestrial and Underground. Aerial scanners are intended for surveying of extended areal and linear objects. In mining the new areas of designed mining companies, existing open-cast mining sites and collieries, oil and gas pipelines, roads, and power transmission lines are related to such objects. Formerly the similar objects were mapped by aerial surveys and there was no other alternative for a long time. Undoubtedly, laser ranging has a number of advantages over aerial surveys. The technology of field works is simple. After a short processing the coordinates of surveying points are got in a users coordinate system. The quality assessment of field works including a completeness of laser reflection point clouds and orthophoto mosiacs is performed at the same aerial survey flights day that sufficiently reduces a scrap rate, preliminary ground survey works, and eliminates the necessity for ground control points. Only a limited number of GPS-GLONASS base stations are required for laser scanning. Owing to a lidars navigation block, the direct geo-positioning method is used to provide with coordinates of laser ranging. The rate of cartographic works is 5-10 times higher than that of traditional technologies. The accuracy of laser scanning as proved from practice meets the requirements of Guidelines for Mine Surveying Works. In this case a survey team should strictly follow the standards for aerial surveys and calibration procedures outlined in corresponding manuals in detail. The productivity of laser scanning is very high. It is real to survey in a day 500 km for linear object and 1,000 km for areal objects. Of vital difference of laser ranging is a pos-

sibility of night work. A key feature of this technology is its feasibility to survey a forested territory and simultaneously to generate a digital elevation model as well as to survey a territory with a slight relief and absence of marking situation. As an example we may take our project realized in Yakutia. The ore field with the area of 200 sq. km was taken as an object for laser scanning survey. The gold ore deposits have been mined there for a long time. In economic recession the gold was extracted with procedural violations of mining operations. Selective mining was practiced The mine surveying documentation was unconscientiously maintained and partially lost. At the moment of surveying the terrain had a lunar landscape with not clearly defined contours. Traditional surveying was practically unacceptable. The work was started on August 10, and on November 10 of the same year we handed over a final survey report together with accompanying digital topographical plans at scale 1: 2 000, orthophotos, digital terrain models, and 246 mine survey sheets. Our competitor participating in the same tender was ready to carry out the same volume of works for 18 months using classical aerial survey. Having got cartographic materials of good quality, the enterprise has worked out a project and extracted about 3 tones of gold for the same months. We have done a similar work at a gold ore deposit in Balei Zabaikalsky Region. The area of 50 sq. km was covered by aerial survey only for three flying hours. The office processing was finished in three weeks. The economic efficiency of laser scanning is very high. The cost price is considerably lower than that of for aerial survey. Why are the budget expenses drawn up according to traditional price lists? There is a simple explanation: they

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Mining Lidars

sisting of 3 persons (a teacher and 2 students) has finished field works for three working days. Office works have taken 2 weeks during which it was revealed that the team scanned and mapped 700 hectares instead of 500 hectares. In addition to traditional materials, 3D model of coal strip mine was added to DTM, a digital topographic plan and a metal-mounted board.
Figure 1: A survey team on board the aircraft

Once we have faced a problem to estimate load-bearing structures geometry of a new gold beneficiation plants in Bodaibo. The customer apprehensions were based on the fact that at building phases three different organizations were engaged in plant development. Besides, there were processing facilities on all the floors shading the building structure that complicated essentially the execution of work. Finally, the problem was solved. The scanning traverse was laid out round a building and continued through all the floors. It allowed the creation of a unified model where

Figure 2: Orthophoto and map fragments

havent been drawn up for laser ranging yet. A profit is a good impetus to develop and implement the innovative technologies and to purchase the expensive equipment. It should be mentioned that laser scanning has also disadvantages as well. The process is strongly depended on weather conditions. It is influenced by precipitation and high humidity, low cloud and fumulus. There are some restrictions on the flight height. The laser radiation is dangerous for human eyes. However, all disadvantages should be related to the technology merits. Thereby, it should be also remembered that many of them are inhered aerial survey. Land laser scanning has been successfully used on opencast mining sites and collieries. Scanner positions (scan positions) are defined while the surveying is planning. In this case the scanner is set up either on a tripod or a vehicle (mounted on a mobile platform). There is no need in instrument centering of leveling. Its georeferencing is carried out on the targets located at a distance of 20-30 m apart of the scanner. The target positions are defined by a total station or GPS-GLONASS receiver. Laser scanner software is used for stitching of point clouds from different scan positions and creation a unified model. Terrestrial photography is performed simultaneously along with laser scanning, which serves as a sketch and allows photographic interpretation in office. As an example we can demonstrate the scanning of a Buryatiyan opencast colliery occupied an area of 500 hectares. The team conFigure 4: A topographic plan of opencast colliery compiled by scan data Figure 3: Organization of field works

the columns, beams and ties were distinguished on. This model was used as a basis to plot the measurement diagrams with design deviations.

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Mining Lidars

Fortunately, all the drawings were correct enough and within specific tolerances. We faced the same problem on the Beryozovsky hydroelectric power plant where it was necessary to estimate the

Figure 8: An approval drawing

Figure 5: A view of the gold beneficiation plant

Figure 9: A Shop at the Berezovsky hydroelectric power plant

Figure 6: A stitched point cloud for the gold beneficiation plant

Figure 10: 3D model of load-bearing structures Figure 7: The distinguished load-bearing structures

structures geometry state of the highest in Russia industrial building 125 m in height. The customer himself tried to solve this problem using re-

flectionless total stations for surveying purposes, but due to the complicated geometry of structures, their inaccessibility and danger, he has given up this idea. We used RIEGL RIEGL LMS 420i and finished the whole volume of works for 16 days.

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Terex Powerscreen

Mining Lidars

Of great interest are mobile laser scanning systems. A scanner is set up on a moving platform (a car, a ship, a locomotive, etc.). The ready-made decisions are known in the world. They are used by such companies as IGI (Germany) and Optech StreetMapper(Canada). We have developed our own version of the system. It is planned to be tested this year. Laser scanners can be used in underground conditions as well. The main distinguishing feature here is the necessity to scan not only what is in front but next to and above. However, it does not influence on the laser scanning survey technology and there is no need to make particular modifications in the technology. For example, we carried out the surveying of extraction chambers on the Tyretsky salt-mine.

out regular scanning of capital closed work as well as its geometry, railtrack conditions and underground utilities. Due to their long expansion and a large volume of works, the mine surveying service has not enough time for such works. We have developed a mobile scanning complex for automation of these works. We are planning to make its presentation soon. Among other key complicated problems in mine surveying is a scanning of dangerous and inaccessible cavities. Such cavities are a lot of in chamber mining and rise driving. At present, there are scanners able to scan the cavities at a distance. Among them we should mention Optechs Cavity Monitoring System (CMS) provides fast, reliable and efficient scanning of underground cavities. By collecting thousands of measurements per minute, the data can be used to determine stope volumes, stope dilution, backfill volumes and create detailed drawings and data formats for use in any software workflow. With the recent introduction of the wireless feature, scanner operation can be controlled from a safe zone outside the cavity to enhance operator safety.

Figure 11: A point cloud of for an extraction chamber

Figure 12: 3D model and vertical chamber sections

One of the key complicated problems in mine surveying is a regular vertical shaft alignment. In practice, misalignments of shaft guides are determined. A freelyhanging plumb is used as a vertical. Here should be mentioned that the alignment is complicated by the following factors: a vertical shaft depth, which is sometimes more than 1,000 m, airstream turbulence, atmospheric gas pollution, and high job hazard of working at heights in unconditioned situation. The decision can be simplified if apply an automated station for the vertical shaft alignment, but in this case it provides with strictly limited volume of information that is not sufficient for estimation of shaft conditions. From our point of view, application of laser scanning in a shaft would become the best solution of this problem. In-situ testing will be carried out in the nearest future. Welfare and safety regulations in mining demand to carry
An example of the underground chambers horizontal sections on a pit of the JSC Kola Mining & Metallurgical Company

Practical applications of laser ranging and laser scanning in mine surveying given in this paper were carried out with the participation of the author.

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DCS Trading & Services Pvt. Ltd

Tunnel Engineering Lattice Girders

The use of Lattice Girders in the Construction of Tunnels


Komselis C.1, Blayney N.2, Hindle D.3
Bekaert OneSteel Fibres Australasia (Brisbane Australia) ROMTECH Ltd (Witham UK) 3 London Mining and Mineral Consultants Ltd (London UK)
1 2

In recent years considerable advances have been made worldwide in the design and construction of sprayed concrete tunnel linings. Included in these advances has been the move away from traditional support using heavy rolled steel arches in linings, to lighter, more manageable lattice girders, steel mesh and/or steel fibres providing a continuous support. The development of lattice girders has provided engineers and contractors with greater options in design, increased flexibility and a more cost effective method of construction. This paper outlines the development of lattice girders within the tunnelling industry, advantages of the product, other applications and specific project details from the United Kingdom and Australia.

History of Steel Support in Tunnels At the turn of the 20th century steel supports were being used sporadically in tunnelling, usually patterned after the timber sets that were in widespread use at the time. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, steel began to be adopted more widely as its superiority was gradually recognised. By this time metallic linings such as cast iron were in virtually universal usage in soft ground tunnelling. With this major advance in lining an expansion of deep urban metro tunnels had been seen, particularly in London, which contributed generally to the increased use of steel. The most common form of steel support used was rolled steel I or H section beams bent, welded and bolted to form an arch to fit the particular tunnel profile and secured in place by wood packing and wedges that span the remaining gap formed by over break. Horizontal tie bars connect adjacent arches and wood or steel sheeting supports the exposed face behind. The completed arrangement is often referred to as ribs and lagging and is still in use today, particularly in the mining industry. In terms of construction the main disadvantage of this support method is the unwieldy nature of the heavy arch sections that often have to be manhandled in place.

From a design point of view the support system is essentially passive; i.e. ground movement must take place following installation for any load transfer to occur. If the arches are not correctly set or the blocking and lagging becomes loose or is insufficient, failure of the ground can occur locally placing severe loadings on individual supports that then deflect. Increasing emphasis on key elements of tunnel support such as: safety, speed, economy, performance and surface settlement led to major innovations during the late 1960s and 1970s with the development of tunnel boring machines with bolted, gasketted and fully grouted steel reinforced precast concrete segments and the rapid spread of steel reinforced sprayed concrete or shotcrete. These methods offered systems that are quickly installed in full contact with the ground and are, therefore, able to provide early support that can restrict ground movement by structurally interacting with the surrounding ground to provide an active support system. The first recorded application of shotcrete in tunnelling was in the USA during the early 1920s but it was not until the mid to late 1960s that it gained significant recognition following the development of new and innovative forms of tunnelling for the Snowy Mountains hydroelectric power scheme in

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Tunnel Engineering Lattice Girders

Australia and the New Austrian Tunnelling Method in Europe. This followed pioneering work carried out in 1954 by a little known Austrian mining engineer, Anton Brunner, who patented a support system using the method. Development of Shotcrete and Lattice Girders Initially, shotcrete was applied either unreinforced, often in conjunction with rock bolting, or with more conventional steel arches embedded in a shotcrete lining. However, as the method was developed further, the main support was no longer provided by the steel arch sets but by the shotcrete shell in connection with the ground, which as a consequence required a thinner overall structural section than was possible with discrete arches. The steel arch became increasingly used only as a temporary supporting element to protect the face workers from unstable ground until the shotcrete was fully set. More suitable V section rolled steel arches became more popular for the thinner shotcrete lining and are still in sporadic use today, however, as is the case with conventional steel sections they are difficult to fully embed in the shotcrete shell without shadowing. The problem of providing a steel arch that has both a low profile section and offers a minimal barrier to the placement of the shotcrete shell led to the development in the late 1970s of the lattice girder. Their ease of manufacture, transport, storage and handling underground ensured their rapid gain in popularity with tunnelling engineers and crews with additional benefits accruing to the design of the shotcrete lining itself. In tunnelling, the lattice girders retain many of the basic functions of conventional steel arch ribs requiring a degree of strength and rigidity that is efficiently provided by the 3dimensional steel lattice configuration. Two basic types of lattice girder have been developed and relate to the number of main support members present. The most commonly manufactured threechord lattice has an isosceles triangular section with a larger bar diameter (25 40mm) at the apex and two smaller diameter bars (20 32mm) at the base corners. The apex bar is separated from the sidebars by small diameter (10 12mm) sinusoidally bent bars that are welded at each node to the main bars. The entire fabrication is radiused about the apex of the triangle with the apex being located either on the inside or outside of the curve. The basal bars are separated and braced by straight 16mm diameter cross bars welded at the node locations of the sinusoidals. The much less frequently used fourchord lattice has four equally sized bars (20 40mm diameter) located at the corners of a square or rectangular section. Pairs of bars on each side of the rectangle separated and braced by sinusoidal bars and the two pairs are crossbraced by 16mm diameter crossbars

in a similar manner to the 3chord lattice. The sinusoidally braced sides are normally radiused or form the upright member in a straight lattice girder. In both forms of lattice girder the ends are secured by steel plates either butt welded to the main bar ends or fillet welded to form base plates or connections. Function and Design of Lattice Girders Lattice girders provide the following important functions in the tunnelling process: - Emergency temporary support/restraint for unstable ground. - Accurate template guide for profiling the tunnel excavation. - Rigid fixing and support for steel fabric reinforcement to the intrados and extrados of the shotcrete lining shell. - Cantilever fixing for spiling ahead of the advancing tunnel face. - Temporary support to the shotcrete as it is being applied and until it gains sufficient strength to support itself. - Accurate guide to the thickness of the shotcrete application. - Contribution to the overall structural steel reinforcement in the completed lining shell. In structures such as ringbeams the lattice girder may provide the primary stee reinforcement member. - Accurate fixings for tunnel convergence monitoring stations. In determining the relational dimensions of the various bars that make up the lattice the following aspects of lattice design must be considered: - Required rigidity, capacity and moment characteristics. - Avoidance of shotcrete voids (shadowing) for complete encapsulation. - Required shotcrete lining thickness and cover to steel. - Minimum required arch radius. The optimisation of the lattice design is in part calculated but is largely based on experience. Consequently, manufacturers usually offer a comprehensive range of lattice configurations that have known structural properties from which the tunnel designer can select the girder size that best suits the tunnel diameter and lining thickness. The separation distance between girders is usually equal to the advance length of each tunnel round and the girder may extend around the crown arch of the tunnel only or con-

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Tunnel Engineering Lattice Girders

tinue below the springing line to the tunnel invert. Where full invert closure is critical to the tunnel construction the lattice girder may be completed across the tunnel invert. In larger tunnels a sequential excavation sequence is used with the full tunnel profile being excavated in stages to form a top heading, bench and invert, sometimes involving single or multiple side drift excavations that are staggered longitudinally by several metres. The versatility of the lattice girder provides a particularly useful means of setting out and temporarily supporting complex excavation sequences. For this the complete lattice girder arch is fabricated in manageable sections that can be bolted or pinned together at the end plates to form full moment connections when fully encapsulated in shotcrete. There is some debate as to whether to orientate the apex of a threechord lattice girder towards the intrados or extrados of the lining. Structurally there is little difference between the two options and there is some argument against intrados orientation as the single bar may induce a crack to form in the unrestrained, exposed lining surface. On the other hand this orientation provides distinct advantages in terms of providing a more efficient load transfer between the formation and the girder. In addition, by placing the girder apex towards the intrados the insertion of a spile through the lattice located at the advancing tunnel face and cantilevering it against the preceding girders thickest bar is certainly simpler and more efficient. Manufacture of Lattice Girders To ensure that the lattice girders fulfil their design criteria to function in a safe and predictable manner, as a temporary support and profile former, it is vital that the product is manufactured in a quality controlled factory environment. Materials Materials used in the manufacture process must comply with the relevant Engineers specification and the national standards of that country providing full traceability back to a reputable source. The material strength will determine the load carrying capacity of the section and the chemistry the ability to bend the section to the desired dimensions and its ability to be welded. Manufacture Personnel involved in the manufacturing process will have had to undertake an induction p eriod on the construction of lattice girders. A suitably recognised welding qualification with proven competence in welding are also required. The welding of the sections determine the performance and the tolerance of the sections. Purpose built jigs should be used for repetitive construction which will improve toler-

ances and manufacture speed. Individually made girders will require additional measurement checks for tolerance control. Quality Control Stringent documented procedures are enforced to ensure that each component is completed to specification. The documents cover issues of: - traceability for each uniquely numbered girder from material source through to all stages of manufacture - weld quality and strength through non destructive testing - tolerance and dimensional check requirements depending on the complexity and number of sections.

Photo 1 Typical Lattice Girder Sections

Installation of Lattice Girders The lattice girder is usually the first structural member to be installed in the tunnel excavation either as soon as the excavation round is completed or a flash layer of shotcrete is applied to protect a potentially unstable profile. The girder is usually installed, often using a laser setting out guide, as close to the tunnel face as is practicable without interfering with the excavation of the next tunnel round. This is to enable the following shotcrete lining to be completed as far forward as possible to minimise the length of unsupported ground and to provide a profiling guide for the next excavation advance. The girder is usually offered up in place manually, sometimes from mobile cradles, or it can be elevated and manoeuvred into place using special attachments fixed to the excavator. The girder can be temporarily held in place by propping or pinning it to the formation. Alternatively, it can be bolted to a girder that has been already secured. Traditionally welded wire fabric (WWF) is placed behind the girder and tied in place lapping to the WWF from the previous round. An initial layer of shotcrete is then applied to

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Ajax Fiori Engineering (I) Pvt. Ltd.

Tunnel Engineering Lattice Girders

cover the WWF half encapsulating the lattice girder. The second, inner layer of WWF can then be fixed in place and the shotcrete layer completed to the required thickness. This staged installation improves the penetration of the shotcrete though and around the steel without overloading the girder with shotcrete that has not reached sufficient strength to begin to support itself. Also the initial shotcrete layer should not have cured sufficiently to prevent the second layer from bonding to it. In addition, the application of the second shotcrete layer normally falls short of the newly installed girder in order to stagger the construction joint between rounds and reduce water penetration. The process also provides a safe working environment minimising the exposure of unsupported ground. With the development of Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete (FRS) the need for two passes of plain shotcrete to fully encapsulate the lattice girder and mesh has been eliminated. Full thickness single pass FRS can achieve full encapsulation and increase the speed of tunnel advance. The FRS is tapered towards the end of advance to offer protection and create a lapping section for the next section of spray. The use of single pass layers is discussed further in section 9. Where the tunnel heading is constructed in side drifts a temporary lattice girder supports the section of the main arch in the crown and is removed as the second side drift is excavated. An easily dismantled pinning arrangement is normally incorporated in the design of this temporary connection whilst the permanent bolted connection with the adjacent girder in the crown arch must be protected from becoming encapsulated by shotcrete until the arch is completed. Where the lattice girder is extended down the sidewall of a bench, the design must incorporate some form of temporary longitudinal support to the base of the crown arch that is undermined by the bench excavation. Alternatively a horizontal lattice girder is placed below the crown arch girder that bridges the gap between the bench and the last installed sidewall girder. This configuration is termed a wall plate from the similar arrangement in traditional ribs and lagging support and is a particularly appropriate use of a 4chord lattice girder. The base of the lattice girder arch is formed simply from a buttwelded steel plate that can be packed underneath to temporarily support the structure until it is encapsulated in shotcrete. The key to efficient construction of the lattice girder arch is the close consideration needed for the lattice girder geometry and connection detail in relation to the tunnel geometry and excavation sequence. Safety and handling considerations are also important, as it is often the ease of setting out and erecting the girder in a confined space and in a limited time period that dictates the accuracy and functionality of the completed lining.

Special Support Systems and Applications In addition to simple tunnelling applications, the versatility of the lattice girder/shotcrete lining system allows complex underground openings to be created even in soft ground. Multiple junctions into shafts, tunnels and caverns are possible using specially fabricated lattice girders that form the opening eye or ring beam support. In addition, the eye beam can be further supported by the insertion of rock bolts and spiles through the lattice which when encapsulated in shotcrete forms a structural connection and intimate bond with the ground. In addition to bored tunnel construction a lattice girder and reinforced shotcrete shell can be used in cut and cover tunnel construction. Here the lattice girder arches are fully erected in an open cutting and braced by the fixing WWF to the intrados and extrados sides. Rough, temporary shuttering panels are then fixed to the extrados and the sprayed concrete is applied from inside the structure. Once the shotcrete has cured sufficiently to be selfsupporting, the shuttering is removed and further sprayed concrete is applied to the exterior face. The resultant reinforced concrete shell can then be loaded with backfill once it is fully cured. This technique has also been used to construct portal canopies and even surface structures and buildings, further demonstrating the versatility of the method in the forms and geometries of construction that are possible, which would require complex shuttering and casting using conventional construction techniques. Tunnel refurbishment is an increasing field of application for lattice girder and shotcrete support. For example brick or masonry lined tunnels can be strengthened by the incorporation of reinforced concrete arches formed by local removal of the existing lining to form a slot in which a lattice girder can be erected. Infilling with shotcrete provides a good structural bond with the adjacent lining improving its overall load carrying capacity through the formation of reinforced concrete arches. Projects in the Uk Channel Tunnel Rail Link, Contract 410, North Downs Tunnel The tunnel, constructed by a joint venture of Miller Civil Engineering, BetonUndMonierbau and Dumez GTM, is 3.2Km long with a tunnel face area of 165m2 is the largest tunnel ever constructed on the United Kingdom mainland. With cost and time major factors the JV decided to proceed with a sprayed concrete primary lining comprising of lattice girders, 2 layers of steel mesh, spiles and rock bolts. The advance rates varied between 1 metre and 2.2 metres providing a recorded daily advance of up to 14 metres.

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Tunnel Engineering Lattice Girders

This allowed the cast concrete secondary lining to be started early, culminating in the concrete works being completed within budget and ahead of schedule. The lattice girders provided commencement profiles for the portals as indicted in Photo2. Photo 3 shows the tunnel heading being advanced with support from lattice girders and shotcrete.

Greenway Pumping Station, Storm Water Surge Shaft Constructed during 1998 the 21 metre deep x 15 metre diameter surge shaft would traditionally have been constructed using a precast segment lining. An alternative solution was accepted by the client Thames Water, using a sprayed concrete lining, reinforced with lattice girders at 2 metre vertical centres and two layers of steel mesh. The support method selected proved to be successful with construction being significantly faster and cheaper than traditional precast methods. Heathrow Express rail link from London to all four Heathrow Airport terminals With the main running tunnels constructed using a precast segmental lining, it was decided that the more complex areas of the tunnelling works would be constructed using the NATM method of construction in London Clay. These areas included two Terminal 4 platforms, Terminal 4 crossover, Terminal 4 turnout, and a turnout for the future provision of a fifth terminal and various adits and escalator shafts.

Photo 2. North Downs Tunnel London Portal

Lattice girders used in the turnouts and crossover were a complete ring at 1 metre centres with two layers of steel mesh. The method of construction used either a single side drift and enlargement or two side drifts and enlargement. The construction of the first turnout was complex requiring 75% of the lattice girder sections to having varying lengths and radii every metre. The lattice girder dimensions were rationalised on further elements to increase speed of installation. Recent Projects in Australia Buranda Tunnel The Buranda Tunnel forms part of the Water Street to OKeefe Street section of the South East Transit Busway. The driven tunnel was 190 metres in length being advanced in two stages, heading and bench, with a tunnel width varying between 19.2 metres and the southern portal and 12.6 metres an the northern portal. There were challenges in driving the tunnel from the southern portal due to the rail freight line situated approximately 2.5 metres above the tunnel crown and the large tunnel width at this point, shown in photo 4. With the low overburden, canopy tubes were installed for the first 30 metres of the tunnel as temporary support. Lattice girders and steel fibre reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) were then used as the primary support. The lattice girders were installed in 4 sections utilising bolted connections. Adjustable footing supports where used on the lattice to account for the varying profile of the excavation. Tie rods where used to transversely position the girders. The tunnel was advanced in 1metre intervals from the

Photo 3. North Downs Tunnel Country portal

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Tunnel Engineering Lattice Girders

Southern Portal.

Photo x Northern Portal Buranda Tunnel

Photo 4 Buranda Tunnel Southern Portal

Modified lattice girders also proved to be useful as support to the water proofing membrane and to provide additional reinforcing for the final lining in the southern portal section, shown in figure 5.

tice girders and SFRS. The lattice girders were installed in 5 sections with the bolted and sliding joints used to accommodate excavation tolerances. The sliding joint was the central connecting point once the pillar was removed. The sliding connection was suggested by the consultant as a practical method of installing the lattice girders in difficult conditions within complex geometries. The lattice girder was modified further to allow the rock bolts to be installed through the top chord of the girder eliminating large cumbersome bolt plates. Future Potential of Lattice Girders and Shotcrete Support Significant moves towards single pass permanent shotcrete linings have been made in recent years following improvements in the wetmix sprayed concreting process and shotcrete mix designs, where the placed concrete quality can equal or even exceed Castinsitu reinforced concrete in terms of strength, compaction permeability and finish. Although there has been a parallel development of the use of steel fibres in place of the WWF reinforcement particularly for crack control and fire protection purposes the need for lattice girders to provide profiling will still exist. New uses of the method are being developed for a wide range of civil engineering applications but it is perhaps the mining industry, where the method first began, that is likely to provide the main future growth. To date lattice girder and shotcrete support has had limited use in this industry with a tendency to use more traditional methods such as ribs and lagging, but the benefits of safety, economy and speed will, in the long run, prove attractive. References
- Baumann Th. & Betzle M. 1984. Investigation of the Performance of Lattice Girders in Tunnelling. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering 17, pp 6781. Baumeister A.E. & Ertel J. 1985. Lattice Girder Construction and Dimensioning. Tunnel 2/85, May 1985. Betzle M. 1987. Lattice girders giving arches a dig in the ribs. Tunnels & Tunnelling, November 1987.

Photo 5 Membrane Support Lattice Girders

The northern portal lattice girders were installed at 1 metre intervals and increased to 1.5 metres as the ground conditions improved. The lattice girders were first installed and shotcreted in the top heading of the tunnel. Once the bench was excavated lattice girder legs were installed and shotcreted, extending the lattice girder to the invert level. Photo 6 indicates the connection point between heading and bench. Vulture Street Tunnel The Vulture Street Tunnel forms part of the City to Woolloongabba section of the South East Transit Busway. The section comprises of a 410 metre driven tunnel with particular interest to the 34 metre length of Y junction located in the tunnel. The purpose of the Y junction was to allow for future transport and dual use provisions. The Y junction provided complexities in both design and construction due to the width of the section and low overburden to the main road above. The section was advanced in multiple stages, with a central pillar to be removed once the two tunnel sections were developed. The multiple advance, in 1 metre intervals, also allowed installation of rock bolts, cables, lat-

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RSB Transmission (I) Ltd (International Autoworks)

Sustainablity Building Material

Straw Bale

A Sustainable Building Material


Studio Project:
Design a Hospital with 100 beds.
Ar. Nisha. K
School of Architecture, Faculty at Bharath University

Design Requirements:
Emergency Department - Outpatient Department Orthopedic Clinics - ENT - Inpatient block Diagnostic OT complex - Dietary unit Laundry - Central Sterile Supply Other ancillary departments

hen the 4th year studio project was awarded to the students (June 2011 December 2011) of Bharath University, Nandhinee, a 7th semester student adopted a very un-conventional approach. She decided to utilize Straw Bale as a construction material sighting its various advantages for the given project. This article explores the methods, advantages and disadvantages involved with this type of construction and to spread awareness of such sustainable construction practices.
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Chief Design Considerations:


Calm and serene environment Sterile atmosphere Crowd control Ease in maintenance Suitable response to climatic conditions in Chennai - Sustainable use of available indigenous construction techniques and materials - - - - -

Sustainablity Building Material

Site given for the proposed hospital was odd shaped and was challenging. Nandhinee came up with solutions for the site layout and the internal planning with simple forms and horizontal development. Nandhinees initiative into learning Intelligent Approach to Sustainable Architecture from all over the world narrowed on to Straw Bale Construction.

In times gone by, it was regarded as a useful by-product of the harvest, but with the advent of the combine harvester, straw has become almost a nuisance to farmers. Bales may be square, rectangular, or round, depending on the type of baler used. Properly built, straw bale structures are fire-resistant, waterproof and actually pest free, with super-insulated walls. Bales of recycled materials like paper, pasteboard, waxed cardboard, crushed plastics, whole tires and used carpeting have been used and are currently being explored for building. Each year tons of straw remains as a by-product of the agricultural crops of wheat, rice, rye, corn and grass seed. This straw is generally left to compost in the fields or is burned. The burning of agricultural straw is a significant cause of air pollution and contributes to global warming. The table below indicates the quantity of agricultural byproduct available for use with India being the second highest producer of rice straw and wheat straw in the world.
Rank
1 2

Area
China India Indonesia Bangladesh Viet Nam Myanmar Thailand Philippines Brazil USA Japan Cambodia Pakistan Republic of Korea Madagascar Sri Lanka Egypt Nepal Nigeria Peru

Rice Production (Metric Tons)


197212010 120620000 66411500 49355000 39988900 33204500 31597200 15771700 11308900 11027000 10600000 8245320 7235000 5804000 4737970 4300620 4329500 4023820 3218760 2831370

Straw bale construction technology A brief introduction People have used straw, reed or grass for construction throughout history in places which lack common construction materials such as timber stone or brick. With straw often being an agricultural surplus by-product and, its inexpensive, and an easily renewable medium. Straw is an agricultural by-product; the dry stalks of cereal plants, after the grain and chaff have been removed. Straw makes up about half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye and wheat. It has many uses, including fuel, livestock bedding and fodder, thatching and basket-making. It is usually gathered and stored in a straw bale, which is a bundle of straw tightly bound with twine or wire.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Because of the large quantity of straw available, and their tensile qualities, many types of agricultural straw are ideal for a wide array of products including paper, building materials, textiles and other fiber-based products. Where storage of agricultural straw was once a limiting factor in its supply, modern harvest methods support year-round storage thus facilitating a ready and available supply of the fibre.
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Sustainablity Building Material

Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Area
China India USA France Russian Federation Pakistan Canada Australia Turkey Argentina Germany Iran Ukraine United Kingdom Kazakhstan Egypt Brazil Poland Uzbekistan Italy

Wheat Production (Metric Tons)


115180303 80710000 60102600 38207000 41507600 23310800 23166800 22138000 19660000 14914500 24106700 15028800 16851300 14878000 9638400 7177400 6036790 9487800 6730400 6900000

Why Straw as a building material? Straw is appealing as a building material for several reasons. - In areas of grain production, straw is inexpensive. - The quality of lumber is dropping, prices are unpredictable, and some suggest future supplies may be limited. - Straw is a secondary waste material from grain production; its embodied energy should be fairly low. - In many areas straw is still burned in fields, producing significant air pollution. Regulations to ban straw burning are being implemented both to reduce air pollution and to reduce the risk of accidents. In some areas most straw is tilled back into the soil. While straw provides few nutrients to the soil, it does add organic matter and helps aerate the soil, there is a concern that the agricultural soils would suffer if all of the straw was harvested. However with careful management, intermittent harvesting of the straw could be done without harm. There is also evidence that too much straw may not be good for soil. Straw is decomposed primarily by fungi and that too much straw in the soil will throw off the balance between soil bacteria and fungi, reducing soil fertility

Off-field utilization of paddy and wheat straws continues to get attention due to concerns regarding environmental impacts from open field burning of the crop residues for its disposal. The field baler is recent introduction in India for recovery of combine-harvested straw for its utilization either as animal feed or by paper and board making industries. The knowledge of straw availability and losses are of paramount importance for determination of economics of the system. Characteristics The thick walls (typically 21 to 26 inches (530 mm) when plastered), result in deeper window and door reveals, similar to stone and adobe buildings. Since the bales are irregular and may be shaped easily, they are readily adaptable to curved designs, and when plastered, tend toward a relaxed, imperfect texture and shape. If flat, straight walls are desired, this can be achieved, as well, by the application of more plaster. Straw is very low in embodied energy (Embodied energy is the total amount of energy which is consumed in the manufacture and transportation of a product, in this case, building materials.) compared to cement , steel or wood.

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Apollo Infratech Pvt. Ltd.

Sustainablity Building Material

Properties associated with straw bale when used as a building material can be listed as below: - Acoustics- satisfactory sound insulation performance - Insulation- A carefully constructed straw-bale building has excellent thermal performance because of their combination of the bales high insulative value and the thermal mass provided by the interiors thick plaster coating. - Thermal mass- thermal mass on a diurnal cycle (Thermal mass reduces temperature swings due to daytime warming and night time cooling, by absorbing and then gradually releasing heat. This can result in a direct reduction in the need for fuel or electricity to regulate temperature, and indirectly in savings through lifestyle adjustments: occupants of a moderate environment, with only gradual temperature swings, are less likely to use artificial heating and cooling.) Straw bale construction provides a means of thermally insulating buildings at low cost and low embodied energy. The good thermal performance of straw bales is due to the high proportion of entrapped air within the straws and the bale

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Sustainablity Building Material

matrix. Straw bales around 450 mm thick will have a U-value of 0.13 W/mK. - Passive solar- Passive temperature control refers to buildings designed to maximize the heating and cooling effects of the environment around them. They are called passive because there are none (or few) parts of the design that require energy to operate.

- Availability and cost- Straw is an agricultural waste product, a by-product of grain harvesting. Many different kinds of straw are baled and can be used for construction. Cost depends upon time of purchase(harvest months) of the bales, how far they need to be transported, and type of bale - whether its wheat straw, flax straw, or rice straw. Different waste products have different values for farmers and some are less usable than others for agricultural purposes. - Types-Bales are rectangular compressed blocks of straw, bound by strings or wires. Straw bales come in all shapes and sizes. Rectangular bales are the only bales suitable for building. - Resistance to pests- Straw bales are thick and dense enough to keep out many kinds of pests. As well, the outer layer of plaster makes them unattractive or impenetrable to animals and insects. Finally, because straw contains little nutrient value to most animals and insects, it does not attract pests. Plastered surface with no openings prevent the structure from infestation. - Resistance to fire- Although loose straw is quite flammable, once packed into a bale it is too dense to allow enough air for combustion. By analogy, it is easy to light

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Sustainablity Building Material

- Design and construction challenges- Straw-bale buildings must be carefully designed to eliminate the possibility of moisture entering the walls, especially from above. Successful designs often incorporate roof overhangs that are wider than normal and roof shapes and detailing that minimize the risk of water splashing against walls - Structural Capabilities of Bale Walls-The bale assembly can do a number of things, depending upon the structural design of the building: - Holds itself up, be self-supporting and resist tipping. - Keep out the wind; inhibiting air/moisture infiltration. - Resist heat transfer (insulation)

- Reduce water intrusion and migration, store and transfer moisture within the wall. - Keep the assembly from buckling, under a compressive load. - Keep the assembly from deflecting in a strong wind. - Keep the assembly from bursting apart in an earthquake, when pushed and pulled from all directions. - Hold the plaster at least while its curing. - Keep the plaster from cracking after it is cured, from shrinkage or movement. - Transfer and absorb loads to and from the plaster. - Support the plaster skins from buckling. - Support the roof load (compression). - Reduce damage or failure from high winds (ductility). - Reduce damage or failure from earthquakes (ductility). - Stop bullets and/or flying debris. Finishes Straw-bale walls are most typically plastered on the outside with lime, clay, or cement and lime mix. Inside surfaces are typically lime, clay or plaster board (gypsum). Structural analysis has shown that the straw-bale/stucco assembly behaves much like a sandwich panel, with the rigid stucco skins initially bearing most of the load and adding considerable strength to the wall. Disadvantages - Requires technical know-how for electrical and plumb-

a single piece of paper on fire, but difficult and time consuming to burn an entire phone book. In construction it is critical to have, at a minimum, a plaster coat of plaster on all surfaces of the wall. - Structural properties- Load-bearing straw-bale walls are typically used only in single-storey or occasionally double-storey structures. A basement is uncommon.

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United Steel & Structurals Pvt. Ltd

Sustainablity Building Material

ing installations and execution .Short term training workshops can create awareness to common man and labour regarding installation and maintenance of the structure. Job specific and site specific detail suggestions by the designers will increase the popularity of this material. - Typical failure of straw-bale homes involves frame walls set against straw-bale walls without a mortar coat. A spark from an electrical short or an error by a plumber ignites the hair-like fuzz on the exposed bale. The flame spreads upward and sets the wood framing on fire causing the wood framing to burn. The typical fire results in little fire damage to bales, but extensive water damage due to the fire suppression activities. Further innovations and improvements in this field of Sustainable construction practices is thus encouraged from the

future architects so as to make use of this abundantly available resource efficiently in rural and suburban context. Picture Courtesy
www.ko.wikipedia.org

Authors Bio
After graduating from BMSCE- Bangalore in 2003, Nisha has worked as Designer Architect for 2.5 years at KOD ArchitectsBangalore, to gain immense knowledge and work experience in the field of Architecture and Interior designing. Later she travelled in and around Ohio, United States and was exposed to Construction techniques and practices there. Back in India being a Design guide (at School of Architecture, Bharath University) to enthusiastic students who constantly demand attention to develop their innovative ideas to be molded into reality, is a challenge which she had decided to take up. The author can be contacted at nishakrajan@gmail.com

104 The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Esquire CMAC Pvt. Ltd.

Infrastructure Urban Rail Transport

Urban Rail Transport Trends

and Policies in India:


Impacts of Rapid Economic Growth
Chaitanya Raj Goyal

nfrastructure has been the chant that is driving the Indian Metropolitans for the past few decades. The need for basic infrastructure is felt all the more because massive administrative regions like Mumbai and suburbs, National Capital Region, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, etc. are abundant in all the other amenities & resources needed for a good business climate. Being the financial focal of the nation and the hubs of its commercial and trade activities, such major Indian cities

together support around 50 million inhabitants currently. As far as the public transport system in Indian cities is concerned, dedicated city bus services are known to operate in 27 cities while rail transit exists only in 4 out of 35 cities with population in excess of one million. This has put the traffic conditions in many major cities in an alarming state and the present local rail infrastructure (wherever existent) has reached its overloading limits. In this context, the importance of intra-urban rail transpor-

tations capability of meeting the growing needs is paramount. Public transportation: Rapid rail transit is need of the hour While the per-capita income of India is still quite low, it has risen considerably with rapid economic growth in recent decades. Between 1980 and 2005, real per-capita income (adjusted for inflation) more than doubled in India. One result of higher incomes has been skyrocketing ownership and

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Infrastructure Urban Rail Transport

in the intra-urban infrastructure, several aspects of the transport sector are still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure. The demand for transport infrastructure and services has been rising by around 10% a year with the current infrastructure being unable to meet these growing demands. The share of bus transport is high as compared to the rail, but is negligible as compared to personalized vehicles, two-wheelers and cars which account for more than 80%of the vehicle population in most large cities. Extensive population migration from villages and towns along with increase in the commercial and industrial activities has further added to the transportation woes of the public. Most bus and train services (wherever available) are overcrowded, undependable, slow, inconvenient, uncoordinated, and dangerous. Traffic in Indian cities generally moves slowly, with traffic jams and accidents being very common. India has very poor records on road safely around 90,000 people die from road accidents every year. At least 13 people die every hour in road accidents in the country. Also in the year 2007, road accidents claimed more than 130,000 lives, overtaking China. Furthermore, the public ownership and operation of

most public transport services has greatly reduced productivity and inflated costs. Indias cities desperately need improved and expanded public transport service, especially in the form of Metro and Monorails since the existing road infrastructure in many cities is restrained and too narrow to support BRTS functionally. Unfortunately, meager government financial assistance and the complete lack of any supportive policies in the past had put public transport in an almost impossible situation. But, the government is recently starting to realize the importance of what had been ignored in the past, is making commendable efforts to do what should have been done way back. Government of India: Policies and Initiatives To remove the roadblocks in the sustainable development of Indian cities, the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) has a plan underway to tackle the challenges presented by fast urbanization and motorization, by accelerating the supply of infrastructure and services with a prime focus on urban rail transit systems. As part of this overall plan, the Government of India has introduced some vital policies and initiatives. National Urban Transport

use of motor vehicles and since 1990, the total number of motor vehicles has roughly tripled in India. This has led to alarming increase in traffic deaths and injuries, air pollution, noise, traffic congestion, and energy use. Thus, if India continues on the path towards rapid motorization, its increasing contributions to air pollution, greenhouse gases, and energy use will far offset the modest reductions achieved in more affluent, developed countries. Despite the ongoing improvements

Present rail infrastructure in many major cities across the country have reached its overloading limits

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Infrastructure Urban Rail Transport

Policy (NUTP) was launched in 2006 by the Ministry of Urban Development, and was created to motivate the building of people centric urban transport solutions instead of focusing on improving the conditions for private motor vehicles. This is a significant departure from traditional urban transport practices in Indian cities, as the needs of the majority of the population using public transport and non motorized modes are now at the forefront. The prime objective of this policy is to ensure safe, affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to jobs, education, recreation and such other needs within our cities. The objectives of this policy would be achieved through a multipronged approach. Some measures include integrating land use and transport planning, equitable allocation of road space, priority to the use of public transport, quality and pricing of public transport, technologies for public transport, integrated public transport systems, financing, role of Para-transit, priority to non-motorized transport, parking, freight traffic, capacity building, use of cleaner technologies and association of the private sector. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) launched

Government plans to remove roadblocks in development by accelerating the supply of infrastructure

by the Government of India central assistance fund, provided a timely platform for providing significant financial support for investments in urban transport infrastructure. The NUTP policy provides a meaningful policy guiding central financial assistance towards improving urban mobility and consequently quality of life in cities

The demand for transport infrastructure and services has been rising by around 10% a year

across India. After its launch, a remarkable decision was made to mandate that all urban transport projects receiving financial assistance from the JnNURM program are to conform with the rules and regulations stated under the NUPT mission. The NUTP has identified a wide spectrum of public transport technologies ranging from high capacity and high cost technologies like the underground Metro systems to high capacity and low cost bus rapid transit systems. National Action Plan for Climate Change was launched in 2008 and provided additional support and solidified Indias commitment to sustainable transport solution. A sub clause called "A National Mission to Sustainable Habitat" has been launched to make habitat sustainable through a modal shift to public transport, by promoting energy efficiency as an integral component of urban planning and renewal as well as facilitate the growth of medium and small cities in ways that ensure efficient and convenient public transport. The carbon credits obtained by the Delhi Metro Rail till date are a commendable achievement, thereby

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Atul Fasteners Ltd

Infrastructure Urban Rail Transport

like Lucknow, Kanpur, Patna, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Indore, Nagpur, Kochi, Coimbatore, and Kozhikode. The Metro fever is catching up in smaller cities, thanks largely to the success of Delhi Metro. Cities like Chandigarh, Ludhiana and Bhopal are making a case for rail systems, even though they do not qualify on account of the population cut-off. Rapid rail transit systems in India: Current scenario Rapid rail transit systems in India consist of Metro and Monorail systems. The Mumbai Suburban Railway is the first rail system in India which began services in Mumbai in 1867. It transports 6.3 million passengers daily and has the highest passenger density in the world. Time to time modifications were incorporated in this system as the technology progressed making it what it is today the lifeline of Mumbai. But, due to extensive overloading and being unable to meet the rapidly growing demand of the city, the Mumbai Metro began construction in 2006, and is being built in three phases, at a total cost of ` 36,000 crore. The eight lines of the system are projected to have a total length of approximately 146 kilometers and are expected to substantially help in managing the load on the existing local rail network. Being the first modern railway network in India, the Kolkata Metro Railway began operations way back in 1984. The Chennai Mass Rapid Transit System was next to follow, starting its operations in 1997. A new 14.67 km east-west Metro rail corridor is being constructed in Kolkata by the railways to supplement the existing rail transit system as the existing line undergoes major modifications and extension. Chennai is also implementing a 45.05 km project based on the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) model, consisting of two corridors and expected to cost around ` 14,600 crore. The Delhi Metro in the capital city of New Delhi is India's third conventional Metro beginning operations in 2002.

Delhi Metros Sustainable design and systems are foundations for green transport systems in the future

laying the foundation for such energy efficient and green transport systems in the future. Owing to the new governmental policies and initiatives, commuters in cities that have population of more than 2 million can look forward to more comfortable and safe rides, if state

governments are willing to opt for modern Metro or Monorail network for intra-city travel. India will invest approximately ` 2 lakh crores in the Metro and Monorail systems in the next 10 years. The MoUD has decided to consider the proposal and even approved for Metro and Monorail in some tier II cities

Kolkata Metro was India's first modern rail network begining operations as early as 1984

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Hyderabad also completed the initial phase of MMTS its own suburban rail network, which began operation in 2003, but is now constructing a 71 km long (Phase I) Metro rail corridor to supplement it, costing approximately ` 16,000 crore and expecting completion by 2015. The latest is the Namma Metro in Bengaluru, which is India's fourth operational rapid rail transit system and started in 2011. The city has already got the detailed project report (DPR) ready for Phase II, a 72 km stretch that will cost about ` 25,000 crore. Currently, rapid transit systems have been deployed only in these cities and more are under construction or in planning in several other major cities of India. Jaipur is likely to be the first developing city to get the posh mode of transportation as the state government has agreed to bear ` 1,250 crore for the 9.25 km stretch under Stage I. The state government would be directly funding ` 600 crore while the rest would be borne by other wings of state urban development and housing departments. The 25.9 km phase II is expected to cost around ` 7000 crore for which government is considering the PPP mode.

Kochi has also jumped on the bandwagon. The MoUD will soon seek the Cabinet's nod for the project: a 25.3 km stretch, to be built at a cost of ` 5,200 crore. Other major cities like Lucknow, Pune, Ahmedabad, Nagpur and Ludhiana have got DPR for Metro projects prepared from DMRC, while similar reports for Indore, Bhopal and Chandigarh are currently being prepared. Though Patna, Coimbatore, Kanpur, Surat and Kozhikode also classify the grade for tier-II cities, they are lagging behind in availing of the Centre's offer, restrained due to the 2 million plus population requirement policy of the ministry. The ministry has also decided to bear half the cost of preparation of DPR for cities that come under the population cut-off bracket, thus proving their concern on the sustainable public transport development front. Monorails are generally considered as feeder systems for the Metro. The Mumbai Monorail will be the first Monorail in India. The first portion of the first line is scheduled to be operational by May 2012. The Thiruvananthapuram Monorail is under construction and will

start operating in 2016. It will be India's second largest Monorail network. Many other Indian cities like Kanpur, Patna, Aizawl, Kozhikode, Pune, Indore, Delhi, Kolkata, Navi Mumbai, etc. have Monorail projects, in different phases of planning. Future of Metro rail in India Technology and luxury come with a price! In the case of urban Metro rails, this price is extensively heavy. Metro systems have been planned to reduce congestion on the roads and have quickly become very popular among the public owing to their fast, comfortable and cheap travel. Being ecofriendly and energy efficient also makes these systems preferable. However such systems planned in India have repeatedly been accused of cost overrunning and under utilization of capacity, especially by transportation engineering experts. Methodology and arguments used to justify these systems need careful analysis. High capacity system does not necessarily generate high demand. Estimation of passenger demand for transit services should consider complete journey of commuters including access time. With Bus Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) gaining popularity and continued stress from experts on development of cost effective door to door public transportation, the future for capital intensive Metro rails seems promising yet uncertain. But, for now, millions of Indian citizens can breathe a sigh of relief as the much awaited Metro and Monorail is all set to launch in their respective cities. Giants like Mumbai and Kolkata, forever cribbing about the lack of proper infrastructure, will have one less thing to complain about and this engineering marvel, which we will ride tomorrow thanks to the hard work of a crack team, will soon replace the existing modes of urban public transport for good! Photo Courtesy
www.vimanavarta.com, www.meriyatrra.com, www.geodesictechniques.com, www.moreindia.in www.www.ubifrance.com, Blurry Moments, www.tkmce-engineers-diary.blogspot.in

The proposed Mumbai Monorail project, currently underway, will be India's first ever monorail

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Communication Feature

Autocad's New Software Quantifies Designs


What are the major items calculated thru this software? The software helps to build all the quantities including - Foundation: Footing, PCC below footing, excavation, soling, antitermite and many more - RCC: Columns, beams, slabs, RCC pardi lintels, chhajjas lofts - Finishing: Plaster, paint, doors, windows, flooring, skirting, dado - Electrical and Plumbing as well What is the background required for a person? Normally most of the drawings are already on Autocad, only the mode of drafting varies. A civil engineer with a little background in Autocad is perfect. How do you arrange for training? We mostly give training through internet with tools like Teamviewer, Skype or many are available where the users drawing can be accessed by us from our office. So the training on the software is very simple. How long does it take for training? We usually require approximately 2 to 3 sittings of 3 hours each and a person can start working out the BOQ very easily. The training can be easily given online through Skype or ShowMyPc where the distance of the company is not a problem. Once internet is activated, the engineer can be given online training through internet. Are you providing hands on training in user's office? The software is very simple and the physical presence is not at all required at the user's office as everybody has internet these days. The major benefit is that a person can be made available for support within minutes on the internet, so service time is not more than 10 to 15 minutes. Even classroom type training can also be arranged on the internet through Skype and ShowMyPC tools. Otherwise it will be a difficult proposition to depute a person by train and send him to client and so on. The world is changing and so also the concepts about the training. Therefore we can say, training is available at a phone call on internet, the old method of onsite training is now a history. Companies are being trained across US and Middle East round the clock without visiting personally. So, why not in India? How simple is it? As the training is available on internet and software is simple to use,

Sunil Nevagi
Director, Newton Software Pvt. Ltd

hen a builder / developer works on a project the risks involved is in crores of rupees and a correct calculation of bill of materials can save a lakh of rupees per project. Newton Software has developed a quality innovation in calculating the quantities from the Autocad drawings. The Autoscan is the software that works within Autocad and is a very useful tool that converts major elements in an Autocad drawing into the quantities. How does it work? Autoscan software works as an add-on tool within Autocad and helps to arrive at the bill of quantities one by one. The software blends well with Autocad and stays resident within Autocad and helps to filter all the major items into an Excel or Access sheet.

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Newton Software Pvt.Ltd

Communication Feature

the implementation is fast and cheap as well. What is the need? In most of the construction offices, the civil engineers of new generation are aware of Autocad and similar software packages. Hence it is very easy to train them on the software for bill of quantities and save the time and money both.

Be it a builder, contractor or an architect; the cost of the project is a prime consideration in making the most decisions in a project.
One engineer, well trained on Autoscan can draw the quantities of approximately a Lakh sq. ft. in a span of one week including the cross checking. One can also make a combination of one Autocad draftsman to modify the drawing and the estimation engineer to work out the quantities. Do you also supply the estimation services?

AutoScan extracts data from drawing

We have a team of trained staff who is calculating the quantities 24X7. We are servicing the software across India and overseas and have more than 2000 installations. People are calculating the quantities of lakhs of sq. ft. using our software AUTOSCAN. For estimation services, one just needs to send the Autocad drawings and the specifications on the internet and we send the estimates in phases. The payment can also be made in phases. The time that the manual estimation engineer takes is far more. By the time he finishes one floor, the entire estimate can be delivered by us. Our endeavour is to save lakhs of rupees for our builder/clients across India and the globe.

For further details:


Newton Software Pvt. Ltd.
A-2, A-7, A-8, Meenal Apartment, Nalstop, Erandwana, Karve Road, Pune-411004 Tel: +91-20-25464128, Fax: +91-20-66024670 Email: sales@newtonindia.com Web: www.newtonindia.com

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Sika India Pvt.Ltd

Sustainability CDM

Implementing Clean Hydro Electric Power Projects for Sustainable Development


C.A. Murugesan1*, Dr. V.E. Nethaji Mariappan2, Dr. D. Joshua Amarnath3
1 2 3

M.E. Student (Environmental Engineering) Scientist-D, Centre for Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics Professor & HOD, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Sathyabama University

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) such as carbon di oxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc., are a major source of global warming for the depletion of the ozone layer environmental pollution and its protection is a matter of great concern for everyone. GHG concentration in the atmosphere has to be reduced; the Kyoto protocol came into force with itself a vast pool of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). With an emphasis on India, the authors take a look at the current project profiles, the future areas of development, the challenges faced by the project owners, and the manner in which these problems can be addressed. In this back ground this paper argues for reduction in global warming by development of hydropower project BHAVANI BARRAGE (2*5MW) through CDM in meeting the future energy needs.

he worlds climate has always varied naturally, the vast majority of scientists now believe that rising concentrations of Green House Gases (GHGs) in the earths atmosphere, resulting from economic and demographic growth over the past two centuries since the industrial revolution, are overriding this natural variability and leading to potentially irreversible climate change. Green House Gases (GHGs) especially Carbon Dioxide, the most abundant from human sources act like a blanket over the Earths surface, keeping it warmer. Global Warming & Green House Effect If heat sources are not controlled, it could alter temperatures, rainfall and sea levels of the earth. The buildup atmosphere of carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, Chloro flouro carbons, nitrous oxide, ozone and others will continue to heat up the atmosphere, resulting into what is termed Global Warming. Carbon dioxide [1] plays a critical role in controlling Earths Climate because as an aerosol it absorbs and reflects or scatters incoming radiation on the one hand, while absorbs and re-radiates outgoing infrared radiation on the other. This latter phenomenon results in what is popularly known as Green House Effect an analogy to what happens in a green house.

Such gases and their heating effects, have in fact survived life on earth as otherwise, temperature on earth could well have been below freezing, like that on mars. Excessive quantities of these gases may cause excessive heat, again to make life impossible like that on venus. Effects of Global Warming Following are some of the green house effect in the atmosphere, due to global warming

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Sustainability CDM

- - - - - -

Rising of sea levels Alteration of crop yields Flood rising & increase in rainfall Swamping cities and wet lands Pests would proliferate Diseases would spread

following gases in the indicated proportion: - Carbon dioxide (50%) Caused due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. Emissions from incinerators, waste treatment plants, electric power plants, factories, house hold furnaces, car, buses etc. - Methane (20%) Emitted into the atmosphere due to leaking of gas from natural gas walls, growing rice etc, Further, decomposition of organic matter especially in land fills also cause the gas emission. - Chlorofluro Carbons (15%) This is used in refrigerators, car air conditioners, home insulation and a number of other products. These gases are man made incorporating modern technology.

On an average of last 100 years, the earths temperature has gone up by 0.5C and water level of oceans has gone up by 10cm. It is estimated that if the present rate of heating continues then by the year 2030 the earths temperature may go up by 1C and water level of oceans by 20cms, and by the year 2100 the earths may go up by 4C and water level of oceans by 65cms.

- Nitrous Oxide (10%) This gas is released when coal and other fossil fuel are burned and is a product gasoline use and Nitrogen-based fertilizer emissions. - Ozone (5%) This is a ground level gas-powered engine emission - Cutting of forest trees: The indiscriminate cutting of rain forests contributes to global warming. In the process of photosynthesis, plants remove enormous quantity of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere every year (about 14 per cent of the total). As the rain forests are cut down, more and more carbon dioxide is left in the air. If adequate plans are not made to reforest before the rain forests are cut down the result will be an ever grater build up of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Clean Development Mechanism The CDM allows Parties to implement projects that reduce emissions in the territories of non-Parties. The certified emission reductions CERs generated by such projects can be used by Parties to help meet their emissions targets, while the projects also help non-Parties to achieve sustainable development and contribute to the ultimate objective of the Convention. The rulebook for the CDM set forth in the Marrakesh Accords focuses on projects that reduce emissions. Rules are being developed, however, for adoption at COP-9, for including afforestation and reforestation activities in the CDM for the first commitment period. Parties would be limited in how much they may use CERs from such sink projects towards their targets, up to 1% of the Partys emissions in its base year, for each of the five years of the commitment period. A CDM project might then involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels, or the reforestation of degraded land. As with joint implementation projects, Parties are to refrain from using CERs generated through nuclear energy to meet their emissions targets.

Causes of Global Warming Some of the causes of global warming are - Population growth: The word population which is just over 5 billion is expected to double in the next 60 years. This increase will automatically result in more energy usage, driving more miles and producing more garbage. - Emission of gases: Emission of gases in the due course of day to day human activities is another cause of global warming. Gases like carbon dioxide (due to burning of fossil fuels), chloro fluoro carbons (due to the refrigerator), methane (due to population growth) all are responsible for greenhouse effect in the atmosphere. The greenhouse shield of atmosphere is caused by the

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Sustainability CDM

The CDM is expected to generate investment in developing countries, especially from the private sector, and promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies in that direction. However, the finance and technology transfer commitments of Parties under the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol are separate and remain valid. Furthermore, public funding for CDM projects must not result in the diversion of official development assistance. CDM projects must have the approval of all Parties involved, and this may be gained from Designated National Authorities (to be set up by each Party. Projects must lead to real, measurable and long-term benefits related to the mitigation of climate change, in the form of emission reductions or greenhouse gas removals that are additional to any that would have occurred without the project. The Protocol envisages a prompt start to the CDM, allowing CERs to accrue from projects from the year 2000 onwards. The election of the CDM executive board at COP-7, and the beginning of its work, has already put this prompt start into effect. The 10-member Executive Board supervises the CDM, operating under the authority of the COP/MOP (a role being performed by the COP until the COP/MOP meets). Key initial tasks of the executive board are to develop simplified procedures to encourage small-scale projects, notably for renewable energy and energy efficiency activities, and to accredit independent organizations, known as Operational Entities, pending their formal designation by the COP or COP/MOP . These operational entities play an important role in the CDM project cycle, which is described below. CDM projects must be based on a project-specific, transparent and conservative Baseline (the starting point for measuring emission reductions or removals), and must have in place a rigorous Monitoring Plan to collect accurate emissions data. The baseline and monitoring plan must be devised according to an approved methodology. If the project participants wish to use a new methodology, it must be authorized and registered by the executive board. In order to implement a CDM project [3], the project participants must prepare a project design document, including a description of the baseline and monitoring plan to be used, an analysis of environmental impacts, comments received from local stakeholders and a description of the additional environmental benefits that the project will generate. An operational entity will then review the project design document and, after providing an opportunity for public comment, decide whether or not to validate it. If a project is duly validated, the operational entity will forward it to the executive board for formal registration. Unless a project participant or at least three executive board members request a review of the project, its registration

will be deemed final after eight weeks. Once a project is up and running, participants would monitor the project. They would prepare a monitoring report including an estimate of CERs generated by the project and would submit it for verification by an operational entity. (To avoid conflict of interest, this will usually be a different operational entity to that which validated the project design document.) Following a detailed review of the project, which may include an on-site inspection, the operational entity will produce a verification report and, if all is well, it would then certify the CERs as legitimate. Unless a project participant or three executive board members request a review within 15 days, the executive board will issue the CERs and distribute them to project participants as requested. These six steps validation, registration, monitoring, verification, certification and issuance make up the CDM project cycle. Finally, the CERs generated by projects would be subject to a levy, termed the share of the proceeds. Two percent of the CERs of each project will be paid into a newly-created Adaptation Fund to help particularly vulnerable developing countries adapt to the adverse effects of climate change (projects in least developed countries are exempt from this part of the levy in order to promote the equitable distribution of projects). Another percentage, yet to be determined, is to cover the CDMs administrative costs. Objective of CDM The CDM has the following three stated objectives: - To assist Parties not included in Developing Countries in achieving Sustainable Development; - To contribute to the ultimate objective of the Convention Gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system); and to assist Parties Developed Countries in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol [5&6]. Project Monitoring Monitoring describes the systematic surveillance of a projects performance by measuring and recording performance-related indicators relevant to the project. The monitoring and verification protocol (MVP) should be described in the Project Design Document. The DOE would use the information and data collected through the MVP to verify a projects emission reductions. The monitoring system should be capable of producing records on reported GHG emission reductions, social and environmental impacts and on project management, including monitoring, data collection and management systems.

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Sustainability CDM

amount units (AAUs) from other Parties that find it easier, relatively speaking, to meet their emissions targets. This enables Parties to utilize lower cost opportunities to curb emissions or increase removals, irrespective of where those opportunities exist, in order to reduce the overall cost of mitigating climate change. Similarly, parties may also acquire CERs (from CDM projects), ERUs (from joint implementation projects), or RMUs (from sink activities) from other Parties. In order to address the concern that some Parties could over-sell and then be unable to meet their own targets, each Party is required to hold a minimum level of AAUs, CERs, ERUs and/or RMUs. This is known as the commitment period reserve and cannot be traded. Verification, Certification and Issuance of CERs Emission reductions must be verified and certified by a DOE before the executive board can issue CERs. The verification process involves periodic auditing of monitoring results, the assessment of achieved certified emission reductions and checking the Projects continued compliance with all relevant criteria. The monitoring and verification process is therefore the basis for the production and delivery of CERs to the Project Operator (or other buyers) and for any related revenue stream that the operator expects to receive.

The audit process during verification is expected to be interactive, iterative and participatory. The DOEs may use spot checks of data measurement and collection systems and interviews with the key project participants to determine the credibility and accuracy of the reported performance. It is very important to understand the Carbon Crediting Project Cycle i.e. the process through which the project promoter has to undergo. Emissions Trading (ET) Through emissions trading, Parties may acquire assigned

It is calculated as 90% of the Partys assigned amount, or as the amount of emissions reported in the Partys most recent emission inventory (multiplied by five, for the five years of the commitment period), whichever is the lower figure. If an Party goes below its commitment period reserve, it is given 30 days to restore the reserve to its required level. (ERUs verified through the Article 6 supervisory committee, however, can be freely transferred, irrespective of the level of the commitment period reserve.) Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries

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The Protocol echoes the Convention in paying special attention to the concerns of developing countries, especially those particularly vulnerable either to the adverse impacts of climate change or to the implementation of response measures, along with the specific needs of least developed countries. The Protocol therefore commits Parties to strive to implement their emissions targets through policies that will minimize adverse impacts on developing countries. The Marrakesh Accords require Parties to report on an annual basis on the actions they are taking to meet this commitment. The information reported may be considered by the facilitative branch of the Compliance Committee. Non-Parties, in turn, are invited to provide information on their specific needs and concerns. The Marrakesh Accords also call attention to certain actions that should be prioritized in order to minimize adverse impacts on developing countries. These include: - Removal of subsidies for environmentally-unfriendly technologies; - Development of non-energy uses of fossil fuels, advanced fossil-fuel technologies and carbon capture/ storage technologies; - Capacity building to improve efficiency; andAssisting developing countries that are highly dependent on fossil fuels to diversify their economies In addition, as noted above in the discussion on the CDM, the Marrakesh Accords established an Adaptation Fund. The fund, which will be managed by the GEF is to be funded not only by the adaptation levy on CDM projects, but also by additional contributions from Parties. The adaptation fund will finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries, along with such activities as supporting capacity building. Parties that intend to ratify the Kyoto Protocol are required to report on their contributions to the fund on an annual basis, and these reports will be reviewed by the COP/MOP . Hydro Electric Power Project by Tangedco/Tneb The 10 MW (25 MW) Bhavani Barrage -1 Small Hydro power project is a run-of-the-river project proposed by Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB) in between Pillur dam and lower Bhavani dam. The purpose of the project activity is to generate hydro power by utilizing the potential energy available in the flows of the river Bhavani, which would generate energy of 16720000 kWh per annum on an average. The proposed project activity utilises the tail waters let out from the existing Pillur Powerhouse (250 MW) for power generation. The maximum power discharge let out from Pillur power house is 173 cumecs. The Pillur reservoir receives

flows from Bhavani river, Kundah river and Niralapalam stream. The hydro potential due to the bed fall of 9m and discharge of 173 cumecs has not been exploited so far by any agency. Hence to harness the hydro potential TNEB has proposed the 10 MW hydro project. Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB) owned by government of Tamil Nadu is responsible for power generation, transmission and distribution is exploring to tap power potential available in various forms of energy to improve access to the power in the rural areas. TNEB has proposed this project activity to improve availability of power and water in this remote region as well as to support environment by exploiting clean sources of energy [4]. The Bhavani reservoir improves ground water levels in the surrounding areas and thus ground water can be tapped by farmers for irrigation under bore wells by utilising electricity since it is not possible to arrange for conventional irrigation canal system under the foot hills of Western Ghats. This project will ensure easy access to power and water to the surrounding rural people. The project operation would contribute to sustainable development, substitute fossil fuel generated power, reducing emissions of GHGs, contribute to economic development of area and reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. Thus, the power generation would be carried out in sustainable manner without causing any negative impact to the environment. Hydro Power project activitys contribution to sustainable development (EIA) Project would contribute to the below indicators for sustainable development in the following manner:- Social well-being - Economic well-being - Environmental well-being - Technological well-being Social well-being Presently some of the areas in the project region do not have access to the water for irrigation and drinking. Bhavani Barrage can ensure storage of water in the river which can be used by nearby farmers for irrigation and drinking purposes. Bhavani barrage also envisages improvement of ground water in the region. Power cuts are imposed in the rural areas due to power shortage. The power generated through proposed stations would reduce power cuts in the rural areas such as proposed project region. Further, it would contribute to the creation of employment opportunities to the local people during the construction (100 members) which is expected to last for about two years and operation phase (10 members) regular employment. Creation of these opportunities would partly prevent migration of rural population to urban areas [2].

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STP Ltd

Sustainability CDM

With availability of more stable power, there would be increase in the economic activities. The infrastructure in and around the project area would also improve due to project activity being set up in a rural area, which otherwise would not have taken place. With improved infrastructure, standard of living would also improve in the local area. Economic well-being The economy of the area is dependent on agricultural activities, in particular commercial crops and due to storage of water by building of pondage. Pondage is a small water storage facility to cater to the hourly demand for power generation. The ground water around the pondage is recharged so that the farmers could exploit the same to grow commercial crops in the lands surrounding the project. The project would greatly help the local farmers to supplement their water requirements for irrigation by installation of tube wells which could be operated by power generated from the project activity. Project proponents would mobilise investment in the region to an extent of about ` 643.00 millions which would not have occurred in the absence of the project activity. This is a significant investment in the region. The available power can also be utilized for growth of small industries which will boost the general economy of the area. As per CEA, Power Scenario at a Glance for Tamilnadu, September, 2008 (page 47), there is power deficit of 11.5% in the State of Tamil Nadu during the period 2005-06. This causes power instability in the grid leading to power cuts in the rural areas. The power generation from the project area would stabilize the grid as well as quality of power in the local area. With rising hydro power generation and improving efficiencies in distribution of electricity, the project activity would be offering energy at stable prices for economic development in the remote rural areas. The present project activity will be operated as peak load station. The storage envisaged for the project is on daily basis. The storage is utilized to run the project to the rated capacity during peak load hours in the morning and evening. Thus the project activity would result in stabilization of the local area during peak time. The project would attract investments for developing agro based industries in the region. Environmental well-being The proposed project activity is small hydro project which utilise the discharges available from Pillur power house. The project is environment friendly with least disturbance to natural eco-system and the submergence of fertile lands will be avoided by construction of afflux bunds (these are flood banks at higher elevation to prevent

submergence of near by agricultural lands during larger inflows at the location). For the purpose of encouraging the agricultural production in the region optimal submergence is maintained. During construction phase pollution levels such as particulate matter, SO2, NOx and CO would likely to increase to a negligible extent and would not have any effect on the environment. The energy generated from the project activity would be clean energy as it is a small hydro based project, which would not involve any GHG emissions and in the process support the global climate change programme. Thus, the project activity would not cause any negative impact on the environment. Technological well-being The project activity is the first small hydro project in Coimbatore district of Tamilnadu. The project would utilise environmentally safe and sound technology in small-scale hydro-electric power sector. Further the project would demonstrate the feasibility of harnessing water discharges in the river under low head and encourage setting of similar projects in future. The above benefits due to the project activity would ensure the project contributes to the sustainable development of the region. Study area The project Bhavani Barrage-1 is located on the barrage developed across river Bhavani, a tributary of river Cauvery. The project is situated at Samayapuram village, Mettupalayam Taluk and Coimbatore Dist. The location is a distance of 6Km from Metttupalaym and 42km from Coimbatore. The nearest railhead is Mettupalayam (6km). The nearest airport is Coimbatore. The project is located between Latitude 111737 N and Longitude 765338E. Physical location of the project is marked in the maps below.

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Sustainability CDM

Application technology

of

environmentally

sound

and

safe

Description of the project boundary The project boundary of the project activity will consist of diversion structure, penstock, powerhouse, DG Set, tail race channel and the transmission system till switch yard. The figure depicting the project boundary is furnished below: Emission reductions Explanation of methodological choices The project activity is generation of electricity using hydro potential and exporting the same to the grid system, which is also fed by other fuel sources such as fossil and nonfossil types. Emission reductions due to the project activity are considered to be equivalent to the emissions avoided in the baseline scenario by displacing the grid electricity. Emission reductions are related to the electricity exported by the project and the actual generation mix in the grid system.

The technology of power generation process using hydro resources is by conversion of the energy available in the water flow into mechanical energy using hydro turbines and then to electrical energy using alternators. The generated power will be transformed to match the voltage of nearest grid substation for proper interconnection and smooth evacuation of power. In this process there would be no greenhouse gas emissions or burning of any fossil fuels. Thus, electricity would be generated through sustainable means without causing any negative impact on the environment. Therefore, the technology is environmentally safe and sound.

Technical Details Hydrology Particulars Design Discharge : 85m3/s (per machine) Gross Head : 9 m Design Head : 7 m Energy Production Expected annual generation : 16720000 kWh (units) Auxiliary consumption : 167200 kWh (units) Expected annual export : 16552800 kWh (units) Plant Equipment Details Hydro Turbine : Bulb Type No. of generating units : 2 Generator type : Synchronous Capacity of each generating unit: 5MW Generation voltage : 6.6 kV, 3 phase Grid transmission voltage : 22 kV Frequency : 50 Hz Diesel Generator Set : 2 x 63.5 kVA
The key plan indicating location and distances on the Pillur dam and lower Bhavani dam

CONSTRUCTION PHOTOS OF BHAVANI BHARRAGE (Near Mettupalayam at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

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Sustainability CDM

Baseline The baseline emissions are calculated based on the net energy supplied to the grid (in kWh/year), and an emission factor for the displaced grid electricity (in kg CO2 e/kWh). BEy = EGy * EFy where EGy = the net electricity exported to the grid system during the year y EFy = the emission factor of the grid to which the project exports electricity The emission factor of the grid for the ex-ante approach is calculated in the following way In accordance with the Tool to calculate the emission factor for an electricity system, the grid emission factor is calculated using Combined Margin (CM), comprised of an Operating Margin (OM) emission factor and a Build Margin (BM) emission factor. The following procedure was adopted for estimating the grid electricity emission factor: Step 1. Identify the relevant electric power system. Step 2. Select on operating margin (OM) method. Step 3. Calculate the operating margin emission factor according to the selected method. Step 4. Identify the cohort of power units to be included in the build margin (BM). Step 5. Calculate the build margin emission factor. Step 6 Calculate the combined margin (CM) emission factor. Step 1 Identify the relevant electric power system The CEA of the host country has published a delineation of the project electricity system and connected electricity systems. According to data published by the CEA of India the project activity falls under southern regional grid. Step 2 Select an operating margin (OM) method The approved methodological tool recommends the use of one of the following for the calculation of the operating margin emission factor (EF grid,OM,y): a) Simple OM, or b) Simple adjusted OM; or c) Dispatch data analysis OM; or d) Average OM. The methodological tool recommends the use of dispatch

data analysis as the first methodological choice. However, in India availability of accurate data on grid system dispatch order for each power plant in the system and the amount of power dispatched from all plants in the system during each hour is practically not possible. Also, still the merit order dispatch system has not become applicable and is unlikely to be so during the crediting period. Step 3 Calculate the operating margin emission factor according to the selected method. a) Simple OM In the Simple OM method, the emission factor is calculated as generation weighted average CO2 emissions per unit net electricity generation (tCO2/MWh) of all generating sources serving the system, not including low-operating cost and must-run power plants. Simple OM can be calculated using any of the three available methods. Option A has been selected where the data on fuel consumption and net electricity generation of each power plant/ unit is available. The CEA baseline is derived using the following formulae to calculate simple OM

Where:

(1)

EFgrid,OM,Simple,y is simple operating margin CO2 emission factor in year y (tCO2/MWh) FCi,m,y is amount of fossil fuel type i consumed by power plant / unit m in year y (mass or Volume unit) NCVi,y is net calorific value (energy content) of fossil fuel type i in year y (GJ / mass or volume unit) EFco2,l,y is CO2 emission factor of fossil fuel type i in year y (tCO2/GJ) EGm,y is net electricity generated and delivered to the grid by power plant / uit m in year y (MWh) m is all power plants / unit serving the grid in year y except low-cost / must-run power plants / units i is all fossil fuel types combusted in power plant / unit m in year y y is either the three most recent years for which data is available at the time of submission of the CDM-PDD to the DOE for validation (ex-ante) Step 4 Identify the cohort of power units to be included in the build margin

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Sana Industries

Sustainability CDM

The tool to calculate the emission factor for an electricity system offers two options for determination of build margin emission factor: ex ante and ex post determination of the Build Margin (BM). Option 1 is selected wherein the build margin emission factor is calculated ex- ante based on most recent information available on plants already built for sample group m in southern region. This simplifies the monitoring procedures, but also offers a conservative approach of BM calculation. The sample group m shall be the one having higher power generation between (a) five power plants that have been built most recently and(b) the capacity additions in the electricity system that comprises 20% of the system generation built most recently. It is found that the option (b) has higher generation compared to option (a). Hence option (b) is selected. Step 5 Calculate the build margin emission factor The build margin emissions factor is the generation of weighted average emission factor (tCO2/MWh) of all power units m during the most recent year y for which power generation data is available, calculated as follows:

y (tCO2/MWh) Wom - Weighting of operating margin emissions factor (%) WBM - Weighting of build margin emissions factor (%) As the proposed project activity is Hydro, the weighting of operating margin emission factor and weighting of build margin emission factor is considered as 0.5 and 0.5 respectively and calculated combined margin as under.
Combined Margin (CM) Simple average of OM and BM 0.854239642 kg CO2 e / kWh

Project emissions As part of the project activity a backup diesel generator (2 x 63.5 kVA) to meet the emergency requirements of power house will be installed. Emissions resulting from usage of diesel backup generator will be accounted as project emissions based on the following equation as provided in the approved consolidated methodology. PE diesel,y = Fd,y * Density * NCV * EFCO2 * OXID / 10^6 Where Fd,y is the quantity of diesel used during the year (Ltrs)

Where: EFgrid,BM,y - Build margin CO2 emission factor in year y (tCO2/MWh) EGm,y - Net quantity of electricity generated and delivered to the grid by power unit m in year y (MWh) EFEL,m,y - CO2 emission factor of power unit m in year y (tCO2/MWh) m - Power units include in the build margin y - Most recent historical year for which power generation data is available Step 6 Calculation of the baseline emission factor (Combined Margin) The baseline emission factor in year y is calculated as the simple average of the OM and BM emission factors, i.e. OM and BM are each weighted with 50% for the first crediting period. As noted above, the resulting Combined Margin is fixed ex ante for the duration of the crediting period: EFgrid,CM,y = Wom EFgrid,OM,y + WBM EFgrid,BM,y Where: EFgrid,BM,y - Build margin CO2 emission factor in year y (tCO2/MWh) EFgrid,OM,y - Operating margin CO2 emission factor in year

Density of diesel (0.845 kg/Ltr. as per Society of Indian Automobile Mfgs. http://www.siamindia.com/scripts/Diesel.aspx) NCV is the calorific value of diesel (43 TJ/Gg as per IPCC 2006 default value) EFCO2 is the CO2 emission factor of Diesel (74.1 t CO2/TJ as per IPCC 2006) OXID is the oxidation factor (1 as per IPCC 2006 default value) Barriers in executing the Hydro Project Hydrology risks: The monsoon characteristics of the Kerala play a dominant role in determining water availability for the project, as the catchment area lies in the Kerala. The Bhavani Barrage1 small Hydel Scheme is a run-ofriver project. As such, it is dependent upon the availability of water in the river which is controlled by the Pillur power house located in Kerala, upstream for generating electricity. The existing Pillur Power House (2x50MW) is a peak load station. As such, the hydrological studies of water availability for this project is determined exclusively by the discharges into the river from the Pillur power house. Gauged data for the flow at the tailrace of the existing Pillur powerhouse (2 x 50 MW) is available for the years 1999-2000, which is considered for estimating the power potential at the

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Sustainability CDM

proposed project site. The proposed project is also a peak load station. The net flows after meeting the irrigation requirements, at the proposed project site are available for power generation. As the project activity is depending on the flows from the catchments area located in the State of Kerala, any change in the governmental policies or any other barrage upstream will weaken the project and result in a significant risk of seasonal disruptions in power generation from the plant. Policy related barrier The power generated by this project will be fed to the grid, which meets the power requirement of various classes of consumers in Tamil Nadu. All the consumers do not pay the same tariff for the power consumed. As per the policy of Govt. of Tamil Nadu, the power is being supplied to different consumers at different tariff. TNEB, being a State Utility has certain social obligations to fulfil. For example, it has to supply power to agriculture at a highly subsidised rate and charge low tariff to domestic consumers. Likewise, it has also certain restrictions. For instance, it cannot sell power outside the State and earn a higher tariff. As of 2004-05, TNEB was supplying power to agricultural sector at ` 0.22 per kWh; domestic consumers at ` 2.16 per kWh; public utilities at ` 3.42/kWh and commercial organizations at ` 5.79/kWh. In the ultimate analysis, what accrues to TNEB is the weighted average of all these prices, which worked out to ` 3.37 per kWh2. The tariff to agriculture and domestic consumers, being a political issue and TNEB being a State Government utility, it has little choice but to follow the policy set by the Government in power.
Years
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Total estimated reductions (tones of CO2e) Total number of crediting years Annual average of the estimated reductions over the crediting period (t CO2e)

The weighted average tariff accruing to TNEB, therefore, remains lower. It is well high impossible to predict what type of concessions in tariff the Government would offer, as it depends upon political expediency. This is a major barrier for the project. However, this gap (between weighted average tariff accruing to TNEB and cost of generation) has to be narrowed down to improve the loan serviceability of the project, as this project is fully funded by debt. It is here that CDM revenues would of great help. CDM benefits would enable the project to bridge the gap between accruing tariff and expended cost in generation. This, in turn will set in motion a demonstration effect, in that it would encourage undertaking such new projects, which would go a long way in not only augmenting the power supply, but also contributing to the development of hinterlands, improving the overall living standards of the people and bringing the hitherto neglected rural areas into the main stream of economic activity. This will also prevent the rural exodus, as the availability of power at subsidised rate (facilitated by CDM revenue) will render agriculture a profitability activity, besides contributing to rural health and education. Probability of cost escalation The project proponent has to invest around Rs 643 millions for the establishment of the 10 MW Bhavani Barrage-1 small hydroelectric projects. Since the project estimates were made in 2004 and since then the price of cement and steel have gone up, the possibility of an escalation in the investment is likely to be high. Estimated amount of emission reductions over the chosen crediting period The crediting period chosen for the proposed project activity is 10 years and the crediting period commences from the date of registration of the project activity. Year wise estimation of emission reductions as well as total emission reductions during the crediting period is shown in the following tabular form. In the above table, the year 2009 corresponds to the period starting from 1/07/2009 to 30/06/2010 or from the date of registration to the successive 365 days which ever occurs later. Similar interpretation shall apply for the remaining years. Conclusion Green House Gases (GHGs) in the earths atmosphere, resulting from atmosphere of carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, Chloro flouro carbons, nitrous oxide, ozone and others will continue to heat up the atmosphere, resulting into what is termed Global

Estimation of annual emission reductions in tonnes of CO2e


14140 14140 14140 14140 14140 14140 14140 14140 14140 14140 141400 10 14140

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Warming. Effects of Global warming results in possible: Rising of sea levels, Alteration of crop yields, Flood rising & increase in rainfall, Swamping cities and wet lands, Pests would proliferate, Diseases would spread and etc., Clean Development Mechanism aims at projects that reduce emissions. Rules are being developed for including afforestation and reforestation activities in the CDM for the first commitment period. Parties would be limited in how much they may use CERs from such sink projects towards their targets, up to 1% of the Partys emissions in its base year, for each of the five years of the commitment period. Hydro Electric Power Project by TANGEDCO/TNEB of 10 MW (25 MW) Bhavani Barrage -1 Small Hydro power project is a run-of-the-river project proposed by Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB) in between Pillur dam and lower Bhavani dam is one of the novel way . The purpose of the project activity is to generate hydro power by utilizing the potential energy available in the flows of the river Bhavani, which would generate green and clean energy of 16.72 MU per annum on an average for sustainable development.

References
1. Carbon dioxide Information Analysis Centre (CDIAC) (2004), World CO Emissions, Washington DC. 2. Fenhann Jorgen (2006), UNEP Collaborating Center on Energy and Environment, Roskildle (www.cd4cdm.org/publications/ cdmpipeline.xls) 3 Institute for Global Environmetal Strategies (IGES) (2005), CDM Country Guide for India, Tokya (www.iges.or.jp/en/cdm/ pdf/countryguide/india.pdf). 4 Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) (2004), Indias Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC, NewDelhi (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/indnc1.pdf). 5. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)(1997), The Kyoto Protocol, Geneva (http:// unfccc,int/resource/docs/convkp/kpng.pdf) 6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)(2006), A summary of the Kyoto Protocol, Geneva (http://unfccc,int/essential_background/feeling_the_heat/ items/2879.php)

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Action Construction Equipment Ltd

Composite Technology Aerogel

Aerogel: A Revolutionary Advancement in Thermal Technology


Sonjoy Deb
B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology

erogel is a solid with the lowest known density. It stands up to 2000 times greater load than its own weight. It has extremely low thermal conductivity; the material is very suitable to limit the heat losses of buildings. Its melting temperature is 1200C. Well dampens vibration and sound. Aero gel is the only compound with significant thermal insulation capabilities, which is currently well clear. For these reasons, it is possible to consider aerogel as a material of the future not only in construction, and therefore it is necessary to deal with this interesting material now.

The future use of aerogels as filler in thermal insulating glazing will cause a significant reduction of heat transfer coefficient in lightweight claddings, this follows from the results of our calculations. The bluish color of aerogels is not always a bad thing.It is known also as frozen smoke or air-glass (See Figure1). Microscopically consists of nano-meter sized particles 1-10 nm diameter, whichstick together and form chains. These particles have so many points of contact that a stable three dimensional network is established in which the distance between the chains

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Composite Technology Aerogel

(the diameter of porechannels) is typically 10-100 nm i.e. 1/10,000th the diameter of human hair (See Figure 2). Many people assume that aerogels are recent products of modern technology. In reality, the first aerogels were prepared in 1931 by Steven. S. Kistler. If the wet gel is simply allowed to dry on its own, the gel would shrink, often to a fraction of its original size, since the liquid-vapor interface of the evaporating liquid exerted strong surface tension forces that collapsed the pore structure. If a liquid is held under pressure always greater than the vapor pressure, and the temperature is raised, it will be transformed at a critical temperature into a gas without two phases having been present at any time.They had been largely forgotten when, in the late 1970s, the French government was seeking a method for storing oxygen and rocket fuels in porous materials. This directly led to the major advances in aerogel science, namely the application of sol-gel chemistry to silica aerogel preparation. The reaction of a metal alkoxide with water a metal hydroxide is formed and then a condensation reaction occurs between each two metal hydroxides. The molecular weight of the produced oxide species continuously increases and as they grow they begin to link together and making an alcogel. The drying alcogel under supercritical alcohol conditions produces aerogel.

diameters. Silica particles of such a small size have an extraordinarily large surface-to-volume ration as 2*109 m1 and a corresponding high specificsurface area of 900 m2/gr. It is not surprising, therefore, that the chemistry of the interior surface of anaerogel plays a dominant role in its chemical and physical behavior. It is this property that makes aerogels attractive materials for use as a catalyst substrate, and adsorbent. Most of the properties listed here are significantly affected by the conditions used to prepare the aerogel and any subsequent post-processing.

Figure 2: Pore of Aerogel

Thermal property A single one-inch thick window pane of silica aerogel is equivalent to the insulation provided by 20 window panes of glass. Window heat loss accounts for up to 30 % of energy lost from home, but a well designed aerogel window could lower the needed heating and cooling cost by comparable figure. At higher temperature mostly above 200oC, radiative transport becomes the dominant mode of thermal conduction, and must be dealt with. If silica aerogels are to be used at temperature above 200oC, this mode of energy transport must be suppressed. This is accomplished by adding an additional component to the aerogel, either before or after supercritical drying. One of the most promising additives is elemental carbon, which is an effective absorber of infrared radiation and actually can also increase the mechanical strength of the aerogel. Generally these additives are with dimensions on the order of nanometers so the product can also legitimately be classified as nano-composite. Transparency property Most of the pores in aerogel are too small to scatter visible light, but once in a while a few of the poreare larger. The lager pores scatter light as it passes through aerogel and this creates the hazy appearance. Aerogel produced on earth is cloudy, but scientist hope to produce a transparent

Figure 1: Aerogel as frozen smoke

Different products of aerogel could be: powders, monolithic, flexible blankets and clamshell preformedinsulation. The disposal of silica aerogels is perfectly natural. In the environment, they quickly crush into a fine powder that is essentially identical to one of the most common substances on earth, namely, sand. Additionally silica aerogels are completely non-toxic and non-flammable. Properties Microstructure: Silica aerogels contain primary particles of 1-10 nm

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Composite Technology Aerogel

variety inspace that could lead to advances such as super insulating windows and extraordinary high speed computers. Applications - - - - - - - Aerogel has found applications in following areas Space technology Kinetic energy absorber Microelectronics Transparent metals Drug Delivery System Thermal Insulation

Difficulties with using Aerogels What prevents it from being used on an industrial scale is the fact that contact with water turnsit back into a gel. It should also be said that at present Aerogel is not perfectly clear, but occurs with a blue tinge, which currently limits the use of it in transparent plastics. However, it has found application in construction work, where the bluish color is not an inhibiting factor; it may even bedesirable, for example, in indoor swimming pools (See Figure 3).Despite theoretical expectations, Aerogel with precisely defined properties has never been successfully produced in a space with gravity. As a result, it seemed almost impossible to set up the mass production of aerogel for engineering use. One special difficulty was maintaining the size of the pores in the material, as well as the dimensions and proportions of the solid parts. Research has found that this problem can be solved by manufacturing it in a state of weightlessness. The aim of the research is not to produce a unique material

in a state of weightlessness because in the current stateof astronautics, production would not be cost effective. Space travel, however, should provide knowledge about which factors and means will affect the particle size of Aerogel, its internal structure and visual properties. Once it succeeds, the world will have a completely new product thatopens up unheard of possibilities. That is why the attempt is being made here to find other options through research in space and bring knowledge to industry that would enable an economical meansfor producing it here on Earth. The first experiments in zero gravity were conducted in 1996, using starfire rockets on short, suborbital flights. It showed that the material has a four to five-time better parameters than when producing it on the ground. Prospects for use in Civil Engineering Since Aerogel has excellent thermal insulating properties (minimal heat loss), no critical surface temperature is reached, nor does any condensation of water vapor occur, at standard borderline conditions. For these reasons, no misting or fogging of window components occurs.Unlike gas-filled or vacuum-sealed windows, windows filled with Aerogel do not lose their thermal resistance over time. For gas-filled windows, there is a gradual reduction in thermal resistance due to the long-term leakage of inert gas. The performance of double glazing with inert gas has reached the limit of its ability today, while Aerogel has the potential to achieve even better properties in the future. With the gradual development of manufacturing processes, the price of Aerogel is becoming acceptable. We can recall a time when silicone sealants started off asan extremely expensive and rare material.So far, the most promising use of Aerogel appears to be as thermal insulation. The material has significantly better insulating properties than glass, yet weighs only a thousandth of the mass.This opens up possibilities of using it for extra light shells, which will significantly reduce the static load on the loadbearing

Figure 3: Indoor swimming pool Cow Mountain

Figure 4: Solar Decathlon House

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Nina Concrete Systems Pvt.Ltd

Composite Technology Aerogel

system of the building.Aerogel is the only material that, in addition to significant thermal insulation capability,ranges from translucent to clear. The use of Aerogel is mainly for the transparent shells of buildings and, with improvement in the transparency of the material, in future glazing. Transparent siliconAerogel would be very good as thermal insulation for windows, where it would significantly limitheat loss from buildings. The Swedish company Airglass is developing new material for glazing windows, made out of a layer of Aerogel vacuum-sealed between two glass panes. Production is stillin the pilot plant phase, with a monthly production of 3 6 m2, which is now used only for testing.Commercially, Aerogel was used in granular form toimprove the insulation properties of roof windows. The first test use of Aerogel as an insulator is inthe Georgia Institute of Technologys Solar Decathlon House (See Figure 4), where it is used asa semi-transparent roof. Unique is the ability of the translucent layers of Aerogel to capture daylight in poor lightconditions and disperse it in the space where it does not directly impact. It is an ideal solution for illuminating museums, galleries, libraries and sports halls. This knowledge is already being used byseveral manufacturers of flat or celled lighting panels made of polycarbonate filled with Aerogel. Inaddition, the glass absorbs heat radiation. It absorbs up to 27% of thermal radiation for a 13 mm thicklayer of Aerogel. One more use of aerogel is in insulation of Cryogenic Piping (See Figure 5).

like Aerogels. But their time is probably only just now coming and will depend on how quickly and with what means the technology for their manufacture will be developed. One NASA scientist even predicted that Aerogel will soon be an ordinary material in our surroundings and will be used like plastics are today. Aerogel will certainly become a part of our homes just as Goretex is a part of our clothing or vapor permeable and diffusion-open foil is. The price of some components of Aerogels is now approaching affordable levels mainly due to the price / performance ratio. So it seems that the main advantage of Aerogels istheir thermal insulating properties. Spreading the use of Aerogels as thermal insulation will reduceenergy consumption, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the pollution of the earth.Thanks to its excellent properties and environmental harmlessness, Aerogels will likely find a place in the market in the foreseeable future.In conclusion, it can be said that Aerogels have certainly surprised us in many aspects and it has gradually begun to fulfill a number of expectations, certainly for a material that is destined to become one of the most important materials of the 21st century. Reference
- CSN EN 1279-3 Glass in construction Insulating glass Part 3: Long-term test methods and requirements for gas leakage rates and for gas concentration tolerances (2003) CSN EN ISO 13947 Thermal performance of lightweight shells Calculation of the heat transfer coefficient (2007) CSN 73 0540-2 Thermal protection of buildings Part 2: Requirements (2007) http://www.enviweb.cz/clanek/staveni/84815/Aerogelizolacni-material-budoucnosti http://www.aldebaran.cz/bulletin/2003_40_aer.html http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel http://www.mmspektrum.com/clanek/Aerogel-se-vratil-zkosmu-a-miri-do-izolaci http://stavba.tzb-info.cz/okna-dvere/6425-koncentraceinertniho-plynu-ve-vztahu-k-ug http://brno.tucnacek.cz/2005050601 http://solar.gatech.edu/home.php Nano/Meso Porous Silica Aerogel, The state of the art and possible new applications, T. Faez, M.S. Yaghmaee, S. Sarkar, Research Center for Science & Technology in Medicine,Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Source: stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/photo/aerogelbrick.jpg http://www.aerogel.com/Aspen_Aerogels_Spaceloft.pdf AEROGEL MATERIAL OF THE FUTURE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING, No. 2, 2011, Vol. XI, Civil Engineering Series, paper #26, Technical University of Ostrava

- - - - - -

Figure 5: Use of Aerogel in Cryogenic Piping

- - - -

Advantage achieved through use of aerogel for insulating Cryogenic Piping are as below - Installation speed and flexibility of the industrial model - Space savings reduces infrastructure (pipe racks, pads) - Logistics and inventory management savings - Fire protection enhances facility reliability, lowers costs - Its physical and thermal durability lower maintenance costs and improve reliability Conclusion There are not too many similar multi-application materials

- - -

134 The Masterbuilder - April 2012 www.masterbuilder.co.in

Roljack Industries

Realty Policies

TDS on Property Sales:


MB Bureau Report

Can it Trigger the Revival of the Realty Sector?

he growth of the Indian real estate sector has been often overshadowed by the hype that surrounds the country's thrust towards infrastructure development. While news about the various mega highway projects or flyovers, dams, bridges and metros were hogging headlines, the real estate sector silently forged ahead charting its own growth story, till economic uncertainties threw a spanner in the process. The sector felt the pinch most during FY 2011-12. It won't be a misnomer to say that it is now or never for the government to come out with a series of policy initiatives to arrest the free fall of the realty sector. Recent figures related to the realty sector in the country tell the dismal story. The contribution of real estate sector to India's overall GDP has been only 5% in 2011-12, down from the figure of 10.6 % in FY 2010-11. A series of factors have contributed to this dramatic

slide in fortunes of the real estate sector. Ever increasing interest rates has been perhaps the biggest contributory factor to this downfall. Lack of cheap credit has been keeping potential buyers at bay. Developers, across cities have been unable to push existing inventories, leave alone think about new projects. Adding to the pressure was the decline in foreign direct investment in the realty sector. It also didn't help that a series of scams and scandals, either directly related to the real estate sector or which had an indirect impact on the sector have been surfacing with alarming regularity in recent times. It was under this scenario that the entire real estate sector was looking towards the Union Budget 2012-13 to put things back on track at the earliest, through strong policy initiatives. The proposals announced as part of the Union Budget presented by the Union Finance Minister, Mr. Pranab Mukherjee

The proposal was among the few key initiatives announced for the realty sector in the Union Budget 2012-13

turned out to be a mixed bag for those in the realty sector. All those hoping for interventions such as award of infrastructure status to the realty sector were left disappointed. However, it was not all gloom and doom. One silver lining was in the form of the extension of 1 % interest rate subvention loans up to ` 15 lac for housing projects up to ` 25 lac by 1 more year. Similarly, External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs) for

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affordable housing is another welcome move, just as the setting up a Credit Guarantee Trust fund for ensuring institutional credit for housing loans. Perhaps the most important proposal in the budget relates to the introduction of a tax deduction at source (TDS), applicable on purchase of property. The taxation rate is one percent in case the sale consideration exceeds the threshold limit, which is over ` 50 lakhs

in an urban area and ` 20 lakhs elsewhere. The new provision would be applicable to immovable properties, other than agricultural land. There are basically two aims that the government wants to achieve with the move. The first one is to make sure that tax is collected at the earliest point. Secondly, the move is expected to lead to root out the black money from realty transactions, while streamlining the reporting

mechanism. The move is part of the Union Finance Minister's series of measures to deter the generation and use of unaccounted money. The proposal according to realty sector watchers is expected to have an immediate impact with cash flow predicted to improve once it comes to force on October 1, 2012. Although widely hailed as a positive move by the government, there have been certain

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Soaring High- rising lending rates have proved to be a dampner for the realty sector in recent times

sections which feel that the move could further push up prices and in turn lead to continued sluggish growth of the real estate sector. Onus on Buyer Lack of regulatory mechanisms to ensure transparency is one aspect that

has always come under criticism, with respect to the Indian real estate sector. This latest proposal is being considered a step towards bringing at least a semblance of transparency since all the details involved in the transaction have to be filled in correctly during the registration process. The guidelines in

this particular case are such that the onus is now on the transferee or the buyer to ensure that the tax is deducted by them and then paid to the concerned authorities. Those advocating the implementation of the proposal feel that the process would ensure that the buyer gets to know all the details pertaining to the real estate in question with the transferor or the seller. The guidelines would mean that the days of buyers being left in the lurch after being taken for a ride by dubious developers could soon come to an end in the country. Another key aspect that the buyer needs to be aware is about the threshold limit, which is over ` 50 lakhs in the case of an urban agglomerate and ` 20 lakh elsewhere. The parameters for defining an urban agglomerate are expected to be notified by the time the proposal is enforced, i.e., October 1st, 2012. Registration The proposal bought in by the government aims to tighten the screws on black money in the realty sector and this point is clearly evident from the changes in the registration process. Once the new measure comes into force buyers will need to furnish proof of deduction and payment of TDS in order to register a property. In cases where the stamp duty value is higher than the value of transaction, the former will be taken into consideration for the purpose of valuation of the entire transaction. What this would mean is that even though the actual value is lower, the deduction of TDS would still be applicable. Simple Procedure There are indications that the authorities concerned would like to make the entire process of deduction of TDS as simple a process as possible. A one page challan is being readied for the purpose of payment of the TDS to the government. Moreover, there will also be no need for the buyer to furnish a tax deduction and collection account number (TAN) for the payment, as this

The measure is expected to turn things around for the realty sector

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MM Castings (P) Ltd

Realty Policies

would be mostly a one-time transaction. On the basis of information provided by the transferee in the challan the transferor would get credit for the TDS. The rules and guidelines for the payment of the tax at source are expected to be as simple as possible in order to reduce the compliance burden. Criticism While the proposal to withhold 1% of the sale consideration as TDS is being brought in to stop the flow of black money in the real estate sector and to bring about more transparency, it is not without its share of critics. One of the first to criticize the proposal has been the Confederation of Real Estate Developers Association of India (CREDAI), which has termed the proposal as being impractical. Credai's President, Mr.Lalit Kumar Jain has been heard stating that The proposal is going to make life miserable for a customer. According to him a common individual, unlike the case of a businessman will not have sufficient knowledge about the process

of deduction of TDS and filing returns. Critics argue that this lack of adequate knowledge about the administrative procedures could in turn mean that potential buyers could be putting their purchase decisions on hold. In fact, many other bigwigs in the realty sector have opined that the step could lead to further escalation in property prices, especially in metro cities. This school of thought believes that the step could push the already struggling real estate sector into further troubles. However, there is no denying the fact that the implementation of such measures that improve the reporting mechanism for property transactions is something that the real estate sector had been waiting for a long time. With the proposal for setting up of a Real Estate Regulatory Authority picking up steam, this latest step announced during the Union Budget is being considered as the first salvo being fired by the government towards keeping land sharks and fly-by-night dubious developers at bay. There has been near

unanimous opinion that the measure would help in creating a proper reporting structure for property transactions. Moreover, advocates of the measure argue that with a one page challan, there is no question of administrative hassles putting off potential buyers. The fact that the proposal aims to improve transparency in real estate transactions could in fact help the real estate sector getting much needed boost is the argument put forward by those in favor of the initiative. The measure could go a long way in boosting investor confidence in the real estate market. Buyers who were till now sitting on the fence and adopting a 'wait and watch' approach would no longer be apprehensive, spelling good times once again for the real estate sector. Come October it would be interesting to see the impact of this key budgetary proposal on the struggling real estate sector. Photo Courtesy
Indiatvnews.com, Skyscrapercity.com, Makanaka.wordpress.com

All is not well with Gurgaon


urgaon, touted to be the Millenium City could end up being a yet another example of a mis-managed Indian city, according to a recent report. The report of the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) Excreta Matters, has pointed out to the collapse of the citys water and sewage system by 2021. The report points out towards possible scenarios which indicate depleting ground water reserves, a large water supply and demand mismatch and obscene amount of sewage generation in the city by 2021, which could lead to catastrophic results. According to the report the city will be able to generate on only 573 million litres per day (MLD) of drinking water when it would need 666 MLD by 2012 to cater to its projected 3.7 million populations. Similarly, while its capacity to treat sewage will fall short by 255 MLD, when by the year it would be generating 533 MLD.
(Source: Hindustan Times Pic Courtesy: indiatravelpal.com)

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JBA Concrete Solutions Pvt. Ltd

Composite Material Carbon Fibers

Smart Materials:
Carbon Fibers and their Application in Civil Engineering
Chaitanya Raj Goyal

ver the ages, as we have evolved, so has our engineering and researching skill sets. Civil engineering being the very origin of engineering, has also witnessed many transformations and breakthroughs in the construction technology thereby leading us to the successful current times. Even today, we are constantly innovating, researching and developing technology in pursuit of a sustainable future. Throughout this evolution, researchers and engineers have found themselves in constant search for new and better materials to optimally manage the performance-cost tradeoff in the construction sector. Many new raw materials have been discovered and many ground-breaking composites have been developed, of which not all but some have proved to be a phenomenal success. Carbon fiber is one of these materials, which is usually used in combination with other materials to form a composite. The properties of carbon fibers, such as high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion, makes them one of the most popular materials in civil engineering. Possessing strength up to five times that of steel and being one-third its weight, we might as well call it the superhero of the material world.

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Composite Material Carbon Fibers

Carbon Fibers: Composites and properties Each carbon filament thread is a bundle of many thousand carbon filaments. A single such filament is a thin tube with a diameter of 58 micrometers and consists almost exclusively of carbon. Made of pure carbon in form of graphite, they have low density and a negative coefficient of longitudinal thermal expansion. Carbon fibers are produced by the PAN (polyacrylnitrile) or the pitch method. The PAN method separates a chain of carbon atoms from PAN through heating and oxidation while the pitch method pulls out graphite threads through a nozzle from hot fluid pitch. Construction composites that are most commonly reinforced with carbon fibers are the class of materials known as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), also known as carbon fiber reinforced plastic. To make a carbon fiber sheet, carbon fiber fabric is saturated or infused with epoxy resins and heated at high temperatures. Shaped pieces are made by layering several pieces of fabric over a mold, saturating them with resin and heating it until the resin has infused through all layers. The polymer used in CFRP is most often epoxy, but other polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are also sometimes used. Non-polymer materials can also be used as the matrix for carbon fibers. Properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer. Their properties differ so much from that of their matrix material, that a relationship is barely discernible any more. CFRP materials

CFRP being applied for reinforcing purposes

Pan fiber going through oxidation oven

are distinguished by their extremely high strength and rigidity. Exceptional durability, high resistance to corrosion, low density, excellent damping properties and a high resistance to impacts combined with exactly modifiable thermal expansion to complement the complex characteristics profile. To be specific, it has a very high modulus of elasticity exceeding that of steel; high tensile strength, which may reach 1000 ksi (7 GPa); low density: 114 lb/ft (1800 kg/m) and high chemical inertness. The main disadvantage of carbon fibers is their catastrophic mode of failure

since the carbon fibers are brittle in nature. Also their relative cost is a big drawback since carbon fiber is a high quality material that comes with a price to match. Applications in Civil engineering Civil and structural engineering applications differ from many of the other applications in several ways. The loads are generally higher, with the forces to be resisted of the order of tens, if not hundreds, of tones. The loads are often of long duration (years not hours) and long term stiffness (including both

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CFRP applied to existing structures as a pre-stressing material

elastic stiffness and creeps), this often being the governing criteria. To be effective, the fiber yarn needs to aggregate into a sufficiently large unit to apply a significant force. The application fields of CFRP include bridges, buildings, tunnels, chimneys and others like electric poles, box culverts, among others. Out of these, applications in bridges and buildings occupy the majority of the whole market. Recently, more applications could be found in repairing tunnel lining. Studied in an academic context as to its potential benefits in construction, it has also proved itself as cost-effective in a number of field applications like strengthening concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures. Its use in industry can be either for retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or prestressing material) instead of steel from the outset of a project. The bridge piers, girder, plates and building beams, columns and plates are the most common to be strengthened.

Bridge and Chimney retrofitting applications have witnessed great success owing to the use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite technology. Approximately, a little less than a quarter of the worlds bridges are being classified as either functionally obsolete or structurally deficient. That does not mean that the deficient bridges are unsafe; they are classified administratively to indicate they require some form of maintenance or major rehabilitation to restore them to their original condition or to their original load carrying capacity. Retrofitting is popular in many instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed its strengthening using CFRP . Typically, a concrete bridge deck has a 25 to 40 years life span. Old concrete bridge decks that were reinforced with unprotected steel reinforcement are deteriorating rapidly. The CFRP composite deck systems have the potential to fill the need of bridge deck replacement and extend the service life of existing structures. The advantages of a CFRP induced

deck are - lightweight, high strength and high performance, chemical and corrosion resistant, easy construction and handling, rapid project delivery, and in most cases, high quality shop fabrication. Wrapping around bridge sections can also enhance the ductility of the section, greatly increasing the resistance to collapse under earthquake loading. Such 'seismic retrofit' is the major application in earthquake-prone areas, since it is much more economic than alternative methods. The fiber wrap systems are also being used to repair deteriorated concrete piers, pier caps, concrete arch, and damaged beams. Bonded concrete repair using CFRP laminates, rods and wet lay-up fabrics is also a very popular repair technique. The surface mounted composites have been used in numerous concrete bridge strengthening and repair applications. This technique is cost effective, easily to design, install and inspect. Composites here are applied to the soffit of existing concrete decks. Carbon fibers chimney repair applications are also very important. The aged chimneys require some repair and strengthening to continue their safe operation today. CFRP chimney liners been in service up to 20 years have proven CFRP survival at high temperature, resistance to chemicals, structural reliability, low life-cycle cost, and low maintenance. Beam, Column and Slab strengthening is another very important application of Carbon Fiber composites. In flexural reinforced concrete members, the addition of carbon fibers improves the modulus of rupture (bending strength). Also, there is evidence that carbon fibers can be effective replacements for shear steel stirrups commonly used in RCC beams and other structural elements such as shear keys and corbels. Two techniques can be adopted to strengthen the beams. First one is to paste CFRP plates to the bottom (generally the tension face) of a beam. This increases the strength of beam, deflection capacity of beam and

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Aquarius Technologies Pvt. Ltd

Composite Material Carbon Fibers

stiffness (load required to make unit deflection). Alternatively, CFRP strips can be pasted in 'U' shape around the sides and bottom of a beam, resulting in higher shear resistance. Columns in building can be wrapped with CFRP for achieving higher strength. The technique works by restraining the lateral expansion of the column. Slabs may be strengthened by pasting CFRP strips at their bottom (tension face). This will result in better performance, since the tensile resistance of slabs is supplemented by the tensile strength of CFRP . In the case of beams and slabs, the effectiveness of CFRP strengthening depends on the performance of the resin chosen for bonding. Pre-stressing carbon fiber reinforced polymers By means of pre-stressing capacity, the stiffness of strengthened structures can be improved greatly for the sake of delaying the onset of cracking, reducing the deflection, relieving the strain in internal reinforcement, etc. In the early stage of CFRP pre-stressing technique, CFRP plate was often chosen as pre-

stressing material to strengthen the structures owing to its fixed shape, but this fixed shape often affects the bonding quality greatly because of the unevenness of the concrete surface. Not just CFRP plate, even the CFRP sheet is similar in nature, because it must be impregnated by resin before its regidification and only then it can be tensioned and bonded to the structural surfaces. Also, external pre-stressed cables have proved to be a good alternative for steel cables with good durability and first rate behavior in creep and relaxation. These pre-stressing techniques also have a few disadvantages and are thus undergoing research for betterment. Challenges and future for carbon fibers in construction industry One big restriction on making extensive use of carbon fibers in the infrastructure technology is their considerably high cost. While prices have dropped significantly in the past five years, demand has not increased enough to increase the supply substantially. As a result, prices will likely

remain the same for the near future. One way to manage this drawback is by making use of FRP hybrid systems. Since FRP composite materials have a higher initial cost, hybrid FRP systems that combine the high stiffness and/or high compression strength of conventional materials have proven to be effective. For example, to reduce the cost, aramid FRP may be used in a component where the tensile stresses are high and carbon FRP may be used in the section undergoing compressive stresses, as both are excellent in respective properties. Similarly, combination of glass FRP and other such types, depending on the structure requirement, might prove cost effective. Using carbon fiber reinforcement bars may also become a reality in near future, as it undergoes intense research worldwide. Most countries including India still havent properly developed the design and construction specifications for carbon fiber integration in the current technology. There is enormous scope of use of carbon fibers in India, because of seismically deficient buildings, long coast line and long monsoon season pressing the use of non-corrosive CFRP . Traditional materials, such as wood, are in short supply. There are very few examples of CFRP application for retrofitting before Gujarat earthquake (2001) and it was only after this earthquake that the technique started gaining attention in India. However, the same is not to the extent warranted by the existing potential of the carbon fibers. As the material is still considered relatively new in this part of the world, most of the works have been carried out in accordance with the limited available guidelines and published literature. At this juncture, there is a need of Government-Industry-Institute partnership to exploit full potential of CFRP so that the technology can be popularly used to breathe new life into failing structures through expeditious, cost effective design and construction. Photo Courtesy
www.lotus-inc.com

CFRP strips applied for higher shear resistance

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Asons Enterprise

Geopolymer Concrete

Literature Survey on Geopolymer Concretes and a Research Plan in Indian Context


Rajamane N. P.1, Nataraja M. C.2, Lakshmanan N 3, and Ambily P S4
1 3

Head, CACR, SRM University, 2Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, SJCE, Former Director, CSIR-SERC, 4Scientist, CSIR-SERC

A comprehensive literature survey on various aspects of Geopolymer Concretes (GPCs) has been provided in this paper to understand the nature of GPCs from engineering applications point of view so that a rational technical plan for development of GPCs with given aluminosilicate sources (such as fly ash, blast furnace slag powder etc) can be formulated. The literature survey indicates that geopolymer (GP) is only one of the many names used for describing the binder formed with alumino-silicate gel structure. Comparatively, more papers are published on science of geopolymerisation where often paste is utilised. Concretes and mortars based on GPs are also reported, but, lesser in numbers. The science of GP has not yet reached the stage where GPC mix can be made by user by just adding water as it has happened in case of Portland cement technology. This requires the actual engineer on site to be aware of chemical nature of the GP binding action involved. However, enough qualitative information is available on the mechanical strength so that GPC mixes can be developed to achieve the desired level of strength for use in structures. The second part of this paper would concentrate on the typical research plan to develop engineering properties of GPCs based on the information available in the literature.

Portland Cement Based Concretes Cement concrete is often considered as an artificial stone which is made by mixing Portland cement (P-C), water, sand, and crushed stone aggregate to produce a mouldable mixture. This concrete, during the last century, has developed into the most important building material in the world; the beginning was made by August Perret, in 1902, by designing and building an apartment building in Paris employing a system for reinforced concrete (columns, beams, and slabs, but with no load-bearing walls) [URLa]. Concrete is, now, an essential product used in a variety of constructions including infrastructure and industrial sectors. This is partly due to the fact that concrete is produced from natural materials available in all parts of the globe, and partly due to the fact that concrete is a versatile material, giving architectural freedom. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world [Bjorn Lomborg, 2001]. More than a ton of concrete is produced every year for each human on the earth planet, making the concrete as the second most widely consumed substance on the earth after water [Sara Hart, 2008]. But,

the environmental aspects of concrete are now being discussed with a view to develop an eco-friendly material of construction. In this regard, it would be interesting to note that the embodied carbon dioxide (ECO2) of a tonne of concrete was reported to be in the range of 75176 kg CO2/tonne, depending upon the type and method of mix design [URLb]. The embodied energy (EE) content of concrete is also very high which could vary from 400 to 600 kWH/m3 of concrete. Therefore, there is an urgent need for making the concretes more eco-friendly so that both ECO2 and EE of concrete are reduced. It has been well established that any developmental activities aimed towards improvement of quality of life of human beings involves always a large amount of construction activities which in turn require production of varieties of concretes. Therefore, development of concretes with more eco-friendly characteristics has become tasks of many scientists all over the world. Need for Alternate Concretes Continuous technological upgrading and assimilation of

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latest technology has been going on in the cement industry. Presently, 93% of the total capacity in the industry in India is based on modern and environment-friendly dry process technology and only 7% of the capacity is based on old wet and semi-dry process technology. There is a scope for waste heat recovery in cement plants and thereby reduction in emission level. The cement production is highly energy intensive next only to steel and aluminium (also consumes significant amount of non-renewable natural resources such as lime stone deposits, coal, etc.). The EE of P-C being about 1.3 kWh / kg, is a very high quantity. A tonne of P-C production involves emission of about a tonne of CO2, which is a greenhouse gas causing global warming. More than 7% of world CO2 production is attributed towards production of P-C. Moreover, among the greenhouse gases, CO2 contributes about 65% of global warming [McCaffery, 2002]. Therefore, the Portland cement industry does not fit the contemporary desirable picture of a sustainable industry. There is an urgent need to find an alternate to PC in order to make the construction industry eco-friendly. However, the new binder material should also possess satisfactory strength and durability characteristics which are comparable, preferably superior to those conventional concretes (CCs) based on P-C. Geopolymer as Alternate to Portland Cement A new binder material, known as geopolymer was first introduced by Davidovits in 1978 to describe a family of mineral binders with chemical composition similar to zeolites but with an amorphous microstructure [Davidovits, 1994]. He utilised silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) available in the specially processed clay (metakaolin) to get inorganic polymeric system of alumino-silicates. Unlike ordinary Portlandcement (P-C), geopolymers do not need calcium-silicate-hydrate(C-S-H) gel for matrix formation and strength, but utilise the polycondensation of silica and alumina precursors to achieve required strength level. Two main constituents of geopolymers are: geopolymer source materials (GSMs) and alkaline activator liquids. The GSMs should be alumino-silicate based and rich in both silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al) and thus, by-product materials such as fly ash, silica fume, slag, rice-husk ash, red mud, etc. can form GSMs. Recently, Rangan and Hardijto, [2005] exploited silica and alumina of fly ash to produce three-dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure consisting of Si-O-. Geopolymers are unique in comparison to other aluminosilicate materials (e.g. aluminosilicate gels, glasses, and zeolites). The concentration of solids during geopolymerisation reactions is higher than that in aluminosilicate gel or zeolite synthesis

[Rangan, 2005; Rajamane, 2011a and 2011b, Sindhunata, 2006]. Al-O bonds of geopolymeric binder are useful to prepare structural grade concretes. From above, it is clear that any of the minerals containing reactive oxides of silicon and aluminium can be activated by suitably formulated highly alkaline liquid to obtain inorganic polymeric binding material [Sindhunata, 2006]. Preliminary studies in this regard, were carried out at SERC in early 2000s; both fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), (either individually or combined in certain proportions) from indigenous sources were found to be suitable to produce geopolymeric systems to achieve sufficient strength levels in geopolymer concretes (GPCs) [Rajamane and Sabitha, 2005]. It was observed that the activation of FA and GGBS involved use of hydroxides and silicates of alkali (such as sodium, potassium) which are commonly available in India; the processing conditions for GPCs were almost similar to Conventional Concretes (CCs) except that during mixing operations of GPCs, instead of water, a premixed alkaline solution, known as Alkaline Activator Solution (AAS), was added. Following materials were used to produce GPCs [Rajamane, 2009a]: - Fly ash, - Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag(GGBS), - Fine aggregates (in the form of river sand), - Coarse aggregates (in the form of crushed granite stone), - Alkaline Activator Solution (AAS): (It is a combination of solutions of alkali silicates and hydroxides, besides distilled water. The role of AAS is to activate the GSMs, containing Si and Al, such as FA and GGBS). Besides above mentioned materials, synthetically produced alumina and silica, metakaolin, rice husk ash, silica fume, etc. can also be used appropriately keeping considering that both aluminium and silicon elements are required beside small amount of alkali elements (such as Sodium, Potassium, etc.) to form alumino-silicate geopolymers. GPCs, being a new class of materials (with complete absence of Portland cement), conventional concrete mix design approaches are not generally directly applicable. The formulation of GPC mixtures requires systematic numerous investigations on the materials available [Rajamane, 2005]. However, basic concepts related to particle packing, rheology of fresh mixes, etc, can be judiciously utilised in developing GPC mixes which require AAS consisting of hydroxides and silicates of sodium whose concentration plays a major role in determining the geo polymerization ratio of alumina and silica of geo polymeric source material

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(GSM) such as fly ash, metakaolin, GGBS etc., of GPC. Desirable Properties of GPCs It was recognised that any new binder material to be developed for use in concretes should be eco-friendly and it would be acceptable if it has following characteristics: - It should be preferably produced from widely available waste by-products from industries - Internal Energy Content (Embodied Energy) should be less - Chemical activators for generating binding system should be commonly available - The new binder based concretes should be similar or superior to that of P-C based concretes in respect of : - processing conditions for production of fresh mixes - time required for demoulding or formwork removal - curing regimes and periods - rate of strength developments with age - mechanical properties such as - compressive strength - tensile strength - flexural strength - modulus of elasticity - durability related properties such as - protection to embedded steel reinforcement - diffusion of - chloride ions - moisture/water, etc - resistance against attack by - sulphates - acidic solutions, etc - cost per unit volume - long term chemical stability of the binding system formed - capable of accepting common filler aggregate systems such as sand, crushed natural stones, etc Literature Review Origin of Term Geopolymer The term geopolymers was first introduced to the world by Davidovits of France resulting in a new field of research and technology. Davidovits explained that geosynthesis is the science of manufacturing artificial rock at a temperature below 100C in order to obtain natural characteristics (hardness, longevity and heat stability) of

rock. Geopolymers can be thus viewed as mineral polymers resulting from geochemistry or geosynthesis. However for the purpose of this literature survey, geopolymer (GP) means any aluminosilicate based binder. History of Geopolymers Davidovits coined the term geopolymer in 1978 to represent a broad range of materials characterised by chains or networks of inorganic molecules [Davidovits, 1979, 1993, 2008], and explained in many of his publications about the possibility of GPs being used by Egyptians construction of pyramids, based on microscopy, IR and NMR spectroscopy of sparse specimens from ancient Egyptian constructions [Davidovits and Morris, 1988; Davidovits, 1999]. Demortier observed the noticeable differences in porosities in the top and bottom sections of pyramid blocks which were also subjected to X-ray and NMR analyses to conclude that pyramids could be made from concreting operations [Demortier, 2004]. Use of slurry to form bearing courses of horizontal joints and vertical joints between the blocks including presence of hair in the joints of pyramids did indicate the possibility of concrete like technology for pyramid constructions [kvra et al, 2008]. But, the actual modern alumino-silicate based work could be traced to 1930s when alkali oxides were used for reaction with slags to test their suitability for use in Portland cement. A rapid hardening binder by slag activation was reported in 1940 by Belgian scientist [Purdon, 1940]. US Army used, in 1950s, NaCl and NaOH to activate slag to produce binder for use in Military applications [Malone et al, 1986]. Glukhovsky in 1965 observed that alumino-silicate hydrates as solid binder products are formed during alkali activation of slag and these are also noticed during alkali treatment of rock and clay minerals, prompting him to call the binder as soil cements and concrete as soil silicate concretes [Glukhovsky, 1965]. In 1974, Davidovits and Legrand filed a patent on Siliface process which involved use of NaOH, Quartz, kaolinite, and water. It is interesting to note here that alkali activated slag (AAS) would basically consist of silicon element in mainly one dimensional chains whereas, GPs would have a 3-dimensional alkali-aluminosilicate framework [Duxon et al, 2007]. However, after Davidovits (1991) described his new breed of aluminosilicate binders (synthesised by activating calcined kaolinitic clay with sodium silicate solution at low temperature) as geopolymer for the first time, the real impetus to the field of GP technology started. The Geopolymer was an aluminosilicate gel, where the silicon and aluminium are tetrahedrally-bonded through sharing oxygen atoms forming the basic monomer unit is a sialate (O-Si-O--Al-O) carrying excess negative charge which occurs when the Al3+(of the source material such as clay)

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is substituted by Si4+.The polysialate structure is chargebalanced by alkali metal cations (K+ or Na+). The field of geopolymers saw major contributions from authors such as Alonso (2001), Bakharev (2005), Sanjayan (1999), Bankowski (2004), Cheng (2003), Duxson (2005), Fernandez-Jimenez (2006a), Iler (1979), Katz (1998), Khalil (1994), Kriven (2003), Krivenko (2002), Lee and Van Deventer (2002a), Li (2006), Palomo (2004), Phair (2001), Provis (2005b), Shi (1996), Sindhunata (2006), Xu (2004), Talling (1989), Van Jaarsveld (2000), Wang (1995), Xu (2000b), Yip (2003), Hardjito, Wallah, Sumajouw, Rangan (2001). Meantime, a few books having comprehensive information on geopolymer based on the vast literature were also published [Davidovits, 2011; Shi, 2006; Provis, 2009]. Though the term, geopolymer has become now more common to represent the synthetic alkali aluminosilicate material (produced by reaction of a solid aluminosilicate with a highly concentrated aqueous alkali hydroxide or silicate solution), it is worthwhile to note that the following nomenclatures are also reported to describe similar materials: - Inorganic polymer [Van Wazer, 1970] - Low-temperature aluminosilicate glass[Rahier, 1996] - Alkali-activated cement [Roy, 1999; Palomo, 2003; ] - Alkali-activated binders [Torgal, Gomes, and Jalali, 2008] - Geocement [Krivenko, 1994] - Alkali-bonded ceramic [Mallicoat, 2005] - Inorganic polymer concrete [Sofi, 2006] - Hydroceramic [Bao, 2005] - Mineral Polymers[Davidovits, 1980] - Inorganic polymer glasses[Rahier, 2003] - Alkali ash material[Rostami, 2003] - Soil cements [Glukhovsky, 1965] - Alkali Activated Binder [Provis and Deventer, 2009], It is seen that GP is a versatile binder being studied by scientists of various backgrounds and expertise, but, having good potential to become eco-friendly alternate to P-C for use in civil engineering applications. But, to understand various aspects of this new material from, it is necessary to consider the above nomenclatures also so that the information available in various forums is readily utilised. In the present paper, more widely used term, geopolymer is adopted for presentation of data and discussions. Basics of Typical Geopolymer Concretes Major ingredients of geopolymer concretes (GPCs) having

geopolymer (GP) as the binder, are: - Geopolymeric source materials (GSMs) such as fly ash, GGBS, etc - Aggregate system consisting of fine and coarse aggregates - Alkaline Activator Solution (AAS) It is seen that GPCs are almost similar to conventional concretes (CCs) (which are P-C based), consisting of binder made from fine powdery materials, bulk volume filling granular particles made of aggregates, and liquid component of the mix made of alkaline chemicals. Thus, the powdery P-C of CCs is replaced by mineral materials (usually referred as mineral or pozzolanic admixtures in CC technology), and liquid component of water of CCs is replaced by viscous, alkaline activator solution made of hydroxides and silicates of alkali metals such as sodium and potassium. The aggregate filler component of CCs is retained in GPCs. Besides above mentioned materials, synthetically produced alumina and silica, metakaolin, rice husk ash, silica fume, etc. can also be used appropriately keeping in view that both aluminium (Al) and silicon (Si) elements are both required beside small amount of alkali elements such as Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), etc to form alumino-silicate geopolymers. GPCs being a new class of materials (with complete absence of Portland cement), traditional CC mix design approaches cannot generally be directly applied. The formulation of the GPC mixtures requires systematic numerous investigations on the materials available [Rajamane, 2005]. However, basic concepts related to particle packing, rheology of fresh mixes, etc can be judiciously utilised in developing GPC mixes. To prepare a typical AAS consisting of hydroxide and silicate of sodium, Sodium Hydroxide flakes (SHf), a highly hygroscopic granular material are first dissolved carefully in Distilled Water (DW), to get sodium hydroxide solution (SHS). After allowing the SHS to cool to room temperature, Sodium Silicate Solution (SSS) is added to it, the resulting liquid is termed as AAS which is used to prepare the GPC mix. Mixing of GSMs, aggregates, and AAS is done using the conventional tools (such as mixer machine) adopted for producing of CCs, however, with due considerations for viscosity and chemical nature of the AAS. The rates of hardening and chemical reactions in GPCs are quite different from the concretes based on Portland cement. Handling of some ingredients, especially, the constituents of AAS would require specific precautions. It is to be noted here the exactly required liquid component of GPCs is

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not readily available in the market, unlike water in case of conventional concrete (CC), and it has to be prepared carefully much before the actual mixing of GPCs is started. It may be worth noting here that specifically formulated chemical additives to function reliably as setting time changing admixtures such as retarders, accelerators, etc are not yet readily available for geopolymers. Hence, field adjustments for changed ambient temperature conditions and changes in properties of ingredients would not be easy, even though conventional methods of mixing, compaction, moulding, and demoulding can be still adopted for GPCs also. However, for some mixes, ambient conditions may not be adequate for demoulding within 24 hours of casting and some higher temperature exposure may have to be created for effecting the setting of the GPC mixes. Many of the geopolymeric systems reported in the literature are involving use of high temperature curing in the form of storing the moulds containing GPC mixes in hot air oven or steam chambers [Rangan, 2005]. However, the works at CSIR-SERC has shown that it is now possible to formulate the GPC mixes for self-curing so that ambient conditions would be sufficient for setting as well as for gaining mechanical strengths [Rajamane, 2009b].Curing of GPCs may involve application of steam and hot air, in contrast to water curing of CCs. With special formulations, GPCs can get cured at ambient conditions after demoulding, thereby they can be considered as self-curing. For visual inspection, GPCs and CCs would look similar, but, chemical natures of microstructures are quite different. Literature on Geopolymer Science Ingredients of GP and Geopolymeric Source Materials Geopolymer concretes (GPCs) have geopolymer (GP) as the binder to bind the aggregate system consisting of fine and coarse aggregates. Two main ingredients required for creation of geopolymer binders are: - Geopolymeric source materials (GSMs) rich in silica and alumina, which could be natural minerals (such as kaolinite, clays, etc) or industrial by-products (such as fly ash, silica fume, slag, rice-husk ash etc). - Alkaline Activator Solution (AAS) based on alkali metals (commonly Sodium or Potassium) based. The most common AAS is a combination of alkali hydroxide (NaOH, KOH) and alkali silicate (Sodium or potassium silicate). Geopolymers made from calcined source materials, such as metakaolin (calcined kaolin), fly ash, slag etc., yield higher compressive strength when compared to those synthesised from non-calcined materials, such as kaolin clay. The source material used for geopolymerisation can

be a single material or a combination of several types of materials (Xu & van Deventer 2002). Geopolymerisation Reactions The mechanism of geopolymerisation may be considered to occur in three stages (Xu & van Deventer 2000) : - dissolution, - transportation or orientation, and - polycondensation The reactions of geopolymerisation take place through a series of exothermic processes (Palomo, Grutzeck & Blanco 1999; Davidovits 1999). Cheng and Chiu (2003) had observed that unlike conventional organic polymers, glass, ceramic, or cement, the geopolymers are formed at low temperatures and they are non-combustible, heat-resistant, and fire/acid resistant. It was recognised that three sources essentially are needed for synthesis of geopolymer: (i) raw materials (such as fly ash, GGBS, MK, etc), (ii) inactive filler (such as sand and crushed granite aggregate), and (iii) geopolymer liquor (Alkali Activator Solution (AAS). Raw materials (or geopolymer source materials) can be industrial wastes, such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, red mud, waste glasses, or some natural minerals and rocks. The active powdery fine material, containing mainly geo-synthesis supporting Al+3 ions, can be kaolinite or metakaolinite. Geopolymer liquor (AAS) consists of sodium silicate solution acting as binder, and alkali hydroxide solution for the dissolution of raw materials. The authors noted that the chemical process to form geopolymers involves two steps: (i) dissolution of raw materials in alkaline solution to form Si and Al gel on the materials surface, (ii) polycondensation to form networked polymeric oxide structures. However, the exact mechanism of geopolymer setting and how hardening occurs was felt to be still not fully understood Xu and Van Deventer (2000) investigated the geopolymerisation of 15 natural Al Si minerals. It was found that the minerals with a higher extent of dissolution demonstrated better compressive strength after polymerisation. The percentage of calcium oxide (CaO), potassium oxide (K2O), the molar ratio of Si-Al in the source material, the type of alkali and the molar ratio of Si/Al in the solution during dissolution had significant effect on the compressive strength. In the synthesis of geopolymers, there are essentially two types of raw materials, the aluminosilicate-containing solids and alkali-silicate solutions. The aluminosilicate solids function as sols in the alkali-silicate liquid medium. The sol-liquid combination will turn into a sol-gel matrix, as is usually done in the sol-gel methodology. The aluminosilicate

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sources include the commonly used kaolinite, especially, calcined kaolinite, or metakaolinite (Barbosa et al., 2000; Davidovits, 1991; 1999; Davidovits and Davidovics, 1998; Palomo and Glasser, 1992; Rahier et al., 1996a; b; 1997) and other natural aluminosilicate minerals (Xu and Van Deventer, 2000b; 2002a) and industrial waste-based materials, such as GGBS (Cheng and Chiu, 2003; Yip and Van Deventer, 2003) and FA(Lee and Van Deventer, 2002a; b; Palomo et al., 1999b; Phair and Van Deventer, 2001). Van Jaarsveld, Van Deventer and Lukey (2002) studied the interrelationship of parameters that affected the properties of FA-based geopolymer and reported that the properties of geopolymer were influenced by the incomplete dissolution of the materials involved in geopolymerisation. The water content, curing time and curing temperature affected the properties of geopolymer; specifically the curing condition and calcining temperature influenced the compressive strength. When the samples were cured at 700C for 24 hours a substantial increase in the compressive strength was observed. Curing for a longer period of time reduced the compressive strength. Wang Bao-min and Wang Li-jiu (2005) studied the applications of geopolymeric activation techniques of FA in conventional cement concretes. The research showed that when weight of FA reaches 20%-80% of 32.5 grade cement, M40 concrete with satisfactory properties can be prepared through using activating techniques such as adding some high-efficiency FA activating admixture. [3] Fresh Geopolymer concrete mixes Hardjito et al, (2002) observed that fresh geopolymer concrete is highly viscous, and cohesive with low workability when the calcined kaolin was the source material. Structural Usages Davidovits and Sawyer (1985) used ground blast furnace slag to produce geopolymer binders. This type of binders patented in the USA under the title Early High-Strength Mineral Polymer, was used as a supplementary cementing material in the production of precast concrete products. Activating Medium A combination of sodium or potassium silicate and sodium or potassium hydroxide has been widely used as the alkaline activator (Palomo et al, 1999; van Jaarsveld, van Deventer & Lukey 2002; Xu & van Deventer, 2000; Swanepoel & Strydom, 2002), with the activator liquid-to-source material ratio by mass in the range of 0.25-0.30 (Palomo, Grutzeck & Blanco 1999; Swanepoel & Strydom 2002). Anurag Mishra (2008, 2009) conducted experiments on

FA based GPC by varying the concentration of NaOH and curing time. Total nine mixes were prepared with NaOH concentration as 8M, 12M, 16M and curing time as 24hrs, 48hrs, and 72hrs. The investigation indicated: an increase in compressive strength with increase in NaOH concentration and curing time, increase in compressive strength after 48hrs curing time not significant. Compressive strength up to 46 MPa was obtained with curing at 60C. Water absorption decreased with increase in NaOH concentration and curing time. Swanepoel and Strydom (2002) conducted a study on geopolymers produced by mixing FA, kaolinite, sodium silica solution, NaOH and water. Both the curing time and the curing temperature affected the compressive strength, and the optimum strength occurred when specimens were cured at 600C for a period of 48 hours Palomo, Grutzeck, and Blanco (1999) studied the influence of curing temperature, curing time and alkaline solution-to-FA ratio on the compressive strength. It was reported that both the curing temperature and the curing time influenced the compressive strength. The utilization of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) combined with sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) solution produced the highest strength. Compressive strength up to 60 MPa was obtained when cured at 85C for 5 hours. The type of alkaline liquid plays an important role in the polymerisation process. Reactions occur at a high rate when the alkaline liquid contains soluble silicate, either sodium or potassium silicate, compared to the use of only alkaline hydroxides confirmed that the addition of sodium silicate solution to the sodium hydroxide solution as the alkaline liquid enhanced the reaction between the source material and the solution. Furthermore, after a study of the geopolymerisation of sixteen natural Al-Si minerals, they found that generally the NaOH solution caused a higher extent of dissolution of minerals than the KOH solution. Curing Because heat is a reaction accelerator, curing of fresh geopolymer is carried out mostly at an elevated temperature (Palomo et al,1999). When curing at elevated temperatures, care must be taken to minimize the loss of water. Swanepoel and Strydom,(2002), described the effects of curing at 40, 50, 60 and 70C for different durations (6, 24, 48 and 72 h) and the optimum condition was noted to be 60C for a period of 48 hours. Curing at room temperature has successfully been carried out by using calcined source material of pure geological origin, such as metakaolin (Davidovits 1999; Barbosa, MacKenzie & Thaumaturgo 2000). Cheng and Chiu (2003) found that the setting

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Geopolymer Concrete

time of geopolymer paste made with GGBS as the source material along with metakaolinite, was affected by the curing temperature, type of alkaline activator, and the actual composition of the source material. The setting time of geopolymer paste was observed to range from 15 to 45 minutes at 60o C. Van Jaarsveld et al. (2002) observed that curing at elevated temperature for long periods of time may weaken the structure of hardened material. The test data showed that curing temperature and its duration significantly influences the compressive strength. Longer curing time and higher curing temperature increased the compressive strength, although the increase in strength may not be significant for curing at more than 60oC and curing for periods longer than 48 hours. The compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete cured at 60oC for 24 hours did not vary with the age and remained constant at approximately 60 MPa. Chindaprasirt (2006) conducted the compression strength test on GPC specimens prepared by using the NaOH of 10M concentration. He concluded that the GPC specimens prepared by using above concentration can achieve high strength (70MPa) when cured in oven at a temperature of 75C for two days. GPC Mix Design Djwantoro Hardjito, et al (2004), showed that the geopolymer paste binds the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and other un-reacted materials together to form the GPC, and usual concrete technology methods to produce GPC mixes can be often employed. As in the Portland cement concrete, the aggregates occupy the largest volume, (about 75-80 % by mass) in GPCs. The silicon and the aluminium in the fly ash are activated by a combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. Rangan and Hardjito (2005) have noted that unlike conventional cement concretes GPCs are a new class of construction materials and therefore no standard mix design approaches are yet available for GPCs. While GPC involves more constituents in its binder (viz., FA, GGBS, sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide and water), whose interactions and final structure and chemical composition are under intense research whereas the chemistry of Portland cement and its structure and chemical composition (before and after hydration) are well established due to extensive research carried out over more than century. While the strength of cement concrete is known to be well related to its water-cement ratio, such a simplistic formulation may not hold good for GPCs. Therefore, the formulation of the GPC has to be done by trial and error basis.

Rajmane (2006) studied the effect of geopolymeric binders such as GGBS and FA by activating silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide present in the binders, to form inorganic polymer binder system. This binder system can be used to produce concretes containing river sand as fine aggregate and coarse aggregate in the form of either sintered FA aggregates (SFFA) or crushed granite aggregates (CGA). It was concluded that the lightweight aggregate based geopolymer concrete have one day compressive strength of about 35 MPa and a 28 days strength of more than 50 MPa. CGA based geopolymer concretes produced marginally higher compressive strength of about 45 MPa at one day and 65 MPa at 28 days Frantiek kvra et al (2005) showed that the structure of the geopolymers prepared on the basis of fly ashes (cured at 60-80C 6-12 hours ) is predominantly of the AlQ4(4Si) type and SiQ4 (4Al), SiQ4 (2-3Al). The strength range was 15 to 70 MPa and is affected substantially by macro-pores (103 nm and more) formed in result of the air entrained into the geopolymers. There are fly ash particles that underwent only partial reaction. The presence of Ca-containing additives (slag, gypsum) reduces considerably the porosity. There was no transition phase of different composition between the geopolymers and the aggregate. Geopolymers and Zeolites Geopolymers are unique in comparison to any other aluminosilicate materials (e.g. aluminosilicate gels, glasses, and zeolites). The concentration of solids in geopolymerisation is higher than in aluminosilicate gel or zeolite synthesis. Geopolymers are believed to be an amorphous metastable phase of zeolites (i.e., zeolitic precursors) that can be converted to a more welldefined crystalline phase (zeolites) provided that the right conditions and reactant concentrations are used (Xu and Van Deventer, 2002b). A recent review by Provis et al. (2005c) suggested that that geopolymer is constituted from agglomerates of zeolitic nanocrystals bound by an amorphous gel phase. The degree of Crystallinity is affected by reaction conditions and starting reactant concentration, particularly silicate and alkali concentrations. Geopolymerisation Modelling Sindhunata (2006) studied the conceptual model of geopolymerisation. He conducted studies under controlled conditions typically used for geopolymerisation, thus leading to findings, which improved the understanding of reaction steps. Various influencing parameters investigated, were the concentration of reactants (silicate concentration, alkalinity, and water content) and the curing conditions (temperature,

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time, humidity). A conceptual model of geopolymerisation was developed by incorporating the above mentioned factors. Three key aspects of GPC studied were: firstly, an investigation on the development of pore structure in geopolymers; secondly, an investigation on the competition between dissolution, polymerization, and crystallization of aluminosilicate gels during geopolymerisation and finally, an investigation on the ageing of geopolymers in alkali and carbonate solutions. The occurrence of different reaction mechanisms is influenced by the alkali-silicate concentration and the type of alkali metal cation used. The investigation of ageing provides insight into the reaction mechanisms of late geopolymerisation (i.e. post- set processes). Reinforced GPCs Past studies on reinforced fly ash-based geopolymer concrete members are extremely limited. Palomo et.al (2004) investigated the mechanical characteristics of fly ash based geopolymer concrete. It was found that the characteristics of the material were mostly determined by curing methods especially the curing time and curing temperature. Their study also reported some limited number of tests carried out on reinforced geopolymer concrete sleeper specimens. Another study related to the application of geopolymer concrete to structural members was conducted by Brookeet al. al (2005). It was reported that the behaviour of geopolymer concrete beam column joints was similar to that of members made of Portland cement concrete. Shuguang Hu and Hongxi Wang (2008) investigated the mechanical properties of geopolymeric materials (steel slag based) and other conventional materials. The compressive strength, bond strength and abrasion resistances were experimentally studied. It was found that the bond strength of geopolymeric material with steel slag was 2.6% higher than those of other materials. It was also concluded that the steel slag was almost fully absorbed to take part in the alkali activated reaction and incorporated into the amorphous aluminosilicate geopolymer matrix. Palomo et.al (2004) investigated the mechanical characteristics of FA based GPC concrete. It was found that the characteristics of the material were mostly determined by curing methods especially the curing time and curing temperature. Their study also reported some limited number of tests carried out on possible use of GPC concrete for the production of prestressed sleeper specimens. Brooke et al. al (2005) studied the application of GPC concrete to structural members. It was reported that the behaviour of GPC concrete beam column joints was similar to that of members made of Portland cement concrete. Sumajouw and Rangan (2006) conducted extensive studies

on low-calcium FA based reinforced GPC concrete beams and columns. The behavior and failure modes of reinforced GPC concrete columns and beams were similar to those observed in the case of reinforced Portland cement concrete columns. The results demonstrated that the methods of calculations used in the case of reinforced Portland cement concrete beams and columns are applicable for reinforced GPC concrete beams and columns. The results demonstrated that reinforced low-calcium (ASTM Class F) FA based GPC concrete structural members can be designed using the design provisions currently used in the case of reinforced Portland cement concrete members. Excellent correlation between experimental and analytical results is found. Prabir Kumar Sarker (2008) reports study on analysis on GPC columns. It is found that the equation of Popovics (proposed for OPC concrete) can be used for geopolymer concrete with minor modification to the expression for the curve fitting factor, to better fit with the post peak parts of the experimental stressstrain curves. A good correlation is achieved between the predicted and measured ultimate loads, loaddeflection curves and deflected shapes for 12 slender test columns Durability (i) Corrosion of Embedded Steel Miranda et al (2005) gave details of corrosion potential and polarisation resistances for steel electrodes embedded in Portland cement mortar and two fly ash mortars (respectively activated with NaOH and waterglass+NaOH solutions). Chloride-free activated fly ash mortars were found to passivate steel reinforcement as speedily and effectively as Portland cement mortars. The polarization curves and the response to short-term anodic current pulses (galvanostatic pulse technique) corroborated the full and stable passivation of the steel. They concluded that the icorr value for both OPC and GPC mortar are similar (0.1 A/cm2). Yodmuneeand Yodsudjai (2006) studied the corrosion of steel bar located inside in fly ash-based geopolymer concrete in an accelerated corrosion test. All the GPC mixes had higher compressive strength than conventional concrete (10 to 16 MPa). The test results included the halfcell potential and cross sectional loss of steel bar and in both the respects GPCs performed better. He conclude that at 72 hrs, the GPC specimens gives the Half cell potential value of -175mV which is mostly equal to the OPC value (-200 mV). Holloway and Sykes (2005) studied the Corrosion of mild steel reinforcement in an alkali-activated slag (AAS) cement

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mortar containing NaCl admixtures using an improved galvanostatic pulse technique. He concluded that, at initial stage highest corrosion rates are seen with the lowest chloride levels(0% and 2%), but over time(107days) the corrosion rate decrease to 1 Acm-2 even when the NaCl level increase to 8%. Shi 2003a reported that the Alkali activated slag showed much less corroded depth (<4mm) then OPC specimens (>14mm) which are immersed in nitric acid even after 90days continuous exposure. Davidovits (1994) noted that unlike conventional Portland cement, geopolymeric cements do not rely on lime and are not dissolved by acidic solutions. Geopolymeric cements, Potassium-Poly (sialatesiloxo) type, remain stable with a loss in the 5-8 % range. (ii) Acid Resistance Bakharev et al (2003) investigated the durability of alkaliactivated slag (AAS) concrete exposed to acetic acid solution of pH = 4. It was found that AAS concrete of Grade 40 had a high resistance in acid environment, superior to the durability of OPC concrete of similar grade. Songa (2005) investigated the durability property of geopolymer concrete exposed to sulphuric acid corrosion. It was concluded that GPC is highly resistant to sulphuric acid; in terms of a very low mass loss, less than 3%. Moreover, Geopolymer cubes were structurally intact and still had substantial load capacity even though the entire section had been neutralized by sulphuric acid. (iii) Fire Resistance Van Jaarsveld, Van Deventer, and Schwartzman (1999) carried out experiments on geopolymers using FA and found them to be fire resistant with compressive strengths of 5 to 51 MPa. The factors affecting the compressive strength were the mixing process and the chemical composition of the FA. A higher CaO content decreased the microstructure porosity and, in turn, increased the compressive strength. Besides, the water-to-FA ratio also influenced the strength. It was found that as the water-to-FA ratio decreased, the compressive strength of the binder increased. Lyon et al (1996) discussed the fire response of a potassium aluminosilicate (Geopolymer) matrix carbon fiber composite. At irradiance levels of 50 kW/m2(typical of the heat flux in a well developed fire), glass- or carbon-reinforced polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, bismaleimde, cyanate ester, polyimide, phenolic, and engineering thermoplastic laminates ignited readily and released appreciable heat and smoke, while carbon-fiber reinforced Geopolymer composites did not ignite, burn, or release any smoke even after extended
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heat flux exposure. The Geopolymer matrix carbon fiber composite retained 67% of its original flexural strength after a simulated large fire exposure (iv) Sulphate Attack Hardjito and Rangan (2005) studied the development and properties of low-calcium FA based geopolymer concrete. The research report described the development, the mixture proportions, and the short-term properties of lowcalcium FA based GPC concrete. It was concluded that low-calcium FA-based geopolymer concrete had excellent compressive strength, suffer very little drying shrinkage and low creep, had excellent resistance to sulfate attack, and good acid resistance. Test results showed that heat-cured low-calcium fly ashbased geopolymer concrete has an excellent resistance to sulphate attack. Research data shows that geopolymeric materials performed significantly better in acid resistance compared to Portland cement (Davidovits, 1994; Gourley and Johnson, 2005). Bakharev (2003) investigated the durability of alkaliactivated slag (AAS) concrete exposed to sulphate attack. AAS concrete was immersed in 5% sodium, 5%magnesium and5% sodium + magnesium sulphate solution. The main parameters studied were the compressive strength, products of degradation, and micro structural changes. It was found that in AAS concrete the material prepared using sodium hydroxide had the best performance due to its stable cross-linked aluminosilicate polymer structure. Douglas (1992) reported that the changes in dynamic modulus of elasticity, pulse velocity, weight and length of sodium silicate-activated slag cement concrete after 120 days of immersion in 5% sodium sulphate solutions. They noticed that the changes are even smaller than those in the controlled specimens immersed in lime-saturated water. (v) Salt Environment Nguyen Van Chanh et al [2008] found that compressive strength of heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete does not depend on age. Longer curing time (24 to 72 hours) produces higher strength, but, increase in strength beyond 48 hours is not significant. Geopolymer concrete has excellent properties within both acid and salt environments. Comparing to Portland cement, the geopolymers have a relative higher strength, excellent volume stability, better durability. Gailius and Kazberuk (1998) monitored the long-term behaviour of concretes in a chloride exposure regime under influence of cyclic wetting and drying as well as freezing and thawing with chlorides. They concluded that the

Geopolymer Concrete

resistivity of concrete was closely connected with cement type and mineral addition content, cement mass as well as the time of storage. The resistance to chloride penetration was found to increase with time but the value of diffusion coefficient from migration test depended on cement type. Yang and Cho (2001) Huang stated that the accelerated chloride migration test indicated a good correlation between the charge passed and the steady-state chloride flux. 2.4.3 Applications (a) Hazardous Waste Encapsulation Davidovits [2002] informs about zeolitic materials abilities to adsorb toxic chemical wastes. Geopolymers behave similarly to zeolites and feldspathoids. They immobilise hazardous elemental wastes within the geopolymeric matrix, as well as act as a binder to convert semi-solid waste into an adhesive solid. Hazardous elements of waste materials mixed with geopolymer get locked into the three dimensional framework of the geopolymeric/zeolitic matrix. Davidovits (1999) suggested that the atomic ratio of Si-toAl of should be about 2 for making geopolymeric binder based pastes, mortars and concretes. Geopolymer can also be used for waste encapsulation to immobilise toxic metals (van Jaarsveld, van Deventer & Lorenzen 1997). Palomo and Palacios (2003), described the stabilisation/ solidification capacity of a matrix made using alkali activation of fly ash, in the presence of toxic elements chromium and lead. Leaching tests proved that the matrix is able to stabilise and solidify lead efficiently (analysed lead concentrations from leaching were in parts per billion). However, geopolymer was not efficient for chromium fixation since this element strongly disturbed the alkaliactivation mechanism of the ash (b) Precast Products Gourley and Johnson (2005) have reported commercial production of geopolymer precast concrete products. Reinforced GPC sewer pipes outperformed comparable Portland cement concrete pipes. Good performance of reinforced GPC railway sleepers on mainline tracks and excellent fire resistance of GP mortar wall panels were also reported. Siddiqui (2007) demonstrated the successful commercial scale manufacture of reinforced geopolymer concrete culverts. Davidovits and Sawyer (1985) used ground blast furnace slag to produce geopolymer binders. This type of binders was patented in the USA under the title Early High-Strength Mineral Polymer was used as a supplementary cementing

material in the production of precast concrete products. (c) Structural Concretes Zongjin Li et al (2004) terming the geopolymers as sustainable composites and found that they are a type of amorphous alumino-silicate product and can be synthesized by polycondensation reaction of geopolymeric precursor and alkali polysilicates. Geopolymers are energy efficient and environment friendly sustainable cementitious materials with superior properties compared to the Portland cement, such as high early strength, excellent volume stability, better durability, good fire resistance, and easy manufacturing process. .Djwantoro Hardjito et al (2004) investigated geopolymer as the binder (in place of Portland cement) where binding action is achieved in fly ash by hydroxide-silicate based chemicals (as an initiators or catalysts for polymeric reaction) to produce concrete using the usual concrete technology methods. Davidovits and Sawyer (1985) had used ground blast furnace slag to produce geopolymer binders. This type of binders patented in the USA under the title Early HighStrength Mineral Polymer for used as a supplementary cementing material in the production of precast concrete products. In addition, a ready-made mortar package that required only the addition of mixing water to produce a durable and very rapid strength gaining material was produced and utilised in restoration of concrete airport runways, aprons and taxiways, highway and bridge decks, and for several new constructions when high early strength was needed. Concluding Remarks The literature survey indicates that geopolymer word is one of the many names used for describing the binder formed with alumino-silicate gel structure which according to some researchers need not be in polymeric form. However, Davidovits has data to show that polymer is indeed formed. Commonly, Metakaolin (MK) is often used by some authors to produce so called pure geopolymers since MK, mostly consist of alumina and silica. However, much literature exists on activation of MK in combination with FA, GGBS, etc. works on only FA based GPs were also reported, and notable among them is Prof. Rangan, of Curtin University. Davidovits advocates use of slag in combination with other GSMs such as MK and fly ash and he emphasizes on development with lower activation temperatures and lower alkali levels in AAS. Comparatively, more papers are available in science of geopolymer where often paste is prepared for making test specimens. Concretes and mortars formulation are also

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reported, but, lesser in numbers. GP science has not yet came up with a unique way of describing the matrix of GP and the AAS has to be developed for each set GSMs used in any particular experiment. About the mechanical strengths, only qualitative information is available which can be used to decide about any particular combination of GP mixes to achieve the desired level of strength. Works on reinforced GPC are not many and however, the existing test results shows that structural behaviour of GPCs and CCs are essential and similar in nature, except that sometime at the same strength level, GPCs may tend to have lower modulus of elasticity. Contrastingly, GP composites have performed better than P-C composites in durability related tests such as Sulphate, acid and corrosion resistance. This is mainly due to polymeric nature of GP matrix without presence of free lime. Numerous studies on GPs indicated that though exact nature of GP microstructure is still to be decided, it is still possible to formulate the GP composites to achieve consistently the desired level of strengths for structural usages by suitable selection of GSMs, AAS, besides curing regimes. Abbreviations/Notations AAS = Alkaline Activator Solution Alumina = Al2O3 CCs = Conventional concretes CGA = Crushed granite aggregates C-S-H = Calcium-silicate-hydrate DW = Distilled Water ECO2 = Embodied carbon dioxide EE = Embodied energy FA = Fly ash FAA = Fly Ash Aggregates GGBS = Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag GP = Geopolymer GPC = Geopolymer concrete HVFA = High volume fly ash IR = Infrared MK = Metakaolin MR = Molar ratios NMR = Nuclear Magnetic Resonance OPC = Ordinary Portland Cement P-C = Portland Cement SHf = Sodium Hydroxide flakes SHS = Sodium hydroxide solution

SiO2 = Silica SSD = Saturated surface dry SSS = Sodium Silicate Solution W/C= Water-cement ratio References
Abrams, Duff A. [1913] Tests of Bond Between Concrete and Steel, University of Illinois in Urbana, Bulletin no. 71, Engineering experiment station, ISBN-13: 9781112226021 ISBN-10: 1112226028 2009, pages 238 - Alonso, S. and Palomo, A., Alkaline activation of metakaolin and calcium hydroxide mixtures: Influence of temperature, activator concentration and solids ratio, Materials Letters, 47, 55-62, (2001a). - Alonso, S. and Palomo, A., Calorimetric study of alkaline activation of calcium hydroxide-metakaolin solid mixtures, Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 1, 25-30, (2001b). - Anurag Mishra, Deepika Choudhary, Namrata Jain, Manish Kumar, Nidhi Sharda and Durga Dutt, (2008), Effect of Concentration of Alkaline Liquid And Curing Time on Strength And Water Absorption of Geopolymer Concrete ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences Vol. 3, No. 1, February - Bakharev T., J.G. Sanjayan and Y.-B. Chen, (2003), Resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete to acid attack. Cem. Concr. Res. 33 pp. 16071611 - Bakharev, T., (2005), Geopolymeric materials prepared using class F fly ash and elevated curing temperature, Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 6, 1224-1232 - Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, J. G. and Cheng, Y. B., 2003, Resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete to acid attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 33(1), 16071612 - Balaguru PS Balaguru P , Kurtz S, Rudolph J (1997). Geopolymer for Repair and Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Beams. St Quentin, France, Geopolymer Institute: 5. - Bao Y, Grutzeck MW, Jantzen CM (2005) J Am Ceram Soc 88:3287 - Barbosa, V. F. F., Mackenzie, K. J. D. and Thaumaturgo, C., (2000), Synthesis and characterisation of materials based on inorganic polymers of alumina and silica: sodium polysialate polymers, International Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2, 309- 317 - Barbosa, V. F. F., Mackenzie, K. J. D. and Thaumaturgo, C., (2000), Synthesis and characterisation of materials based on inorganic polymers of alumina and silica: sodium polysialate polymers, International Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2, 309- 317. - Bjorn Lomborg, [2001], Measuring the Real State of the World, The Skeptical Environmentalist, Cambridge University Press, p 138 - Brooke N. J., L. M. Keyte, W. South, J. M. Ingham, L. M. Megget, (2006a), Seismic performance of inorganic polymer concrete joints, Source: Proceedings of the ICE - Construction Materials, Volume 159, Issue 4, pages171 179 , ISSN:1747-650X, E-ISSN:1747-6518 - Brooke, N. J., L. M. Keyte, et al. (2005). Seismic Performance of Green Concrete Interior Beam-Column Joints. Australian Structural Engineering Conference, Newcastle, Australia - Brooke, N., Megget, L., Ingham, J. (2006b), Assessing the Seismic Performance of Green Concrete Interior Beam-column Joints, Fdration Internationale du Bton Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress June 5-8, 2006 Naples, Italy ID 13-4 Session 13 Concrete, p 12 - Chang, E. H., Sarker, P ., Lloyd, N., & Rangan, B. V. (2007). Shear behaviour of reinforced fly ash-based geopolymer concrete beams. Paper presented at the The 23rd Biennial Conference of the Concrete Institute of Australia, Adelaide, Australia. - Cheng, T. W. and J. P . Chiu, Fire-Resistant Geopolymer Produced by Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag, Miner. Eng., 15, 205-210 (2003) - Chih-Hsing Wang, Cho-Liang Tsai, and Ching-Chang Lin, (2011), Penetration lag of chloride diffusion through concrete plate based on advancing model Journal of Marine Science and Technology, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 141-147 For a complete list of the references please visit: www.masterbuilder.co.in Publishers Note: Part - 2 to be features in May 2012 edition. -

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RCI Machineries Pvt.Ltd

Communication Feature

Adding Value to Service: Mahindra's Multipurpose Genio


hroughout history, big change has always been sparked by big ideas. Ideas that change the way we see the world, change the way we behave and change the face of business. And this is exactly what the Mahindra Genio is all about. It's a world-class modern Pick-up built from the ground up on brilliant ideas. Genio brings to the world of transport a modern design, efficient CRDe technology and category leading features like car comfort and superior ride and handling. That's why we say that Genio is the most advanced and premium commercial pick up in India. With so many pluses, it's sure to revolutionize cargo transportation in India, and change the way the world looks at your transportation in your business. In addition to the world class styling of the vehicle, the appeal and interiors of the Genio are a benchmark in the

industry. It offers a power packed performance with its mDI CRDe engine which is equipped with 75 HP power and 220 Nm torque, allowing it to handle any kind of load and terrain with ease. Genio comes in single cabin and double cabin versions totally comprising 3 variants Genio SC, Genio DC, Genio DC VX TARGET CUSTOMER SEGMENT Genio is a result of extensive consumer insight which captured the latent and expressed needs of the customers. This next generation commercial vehicle, 1.25 tonne pickup, has been developed to cater to the small and medium business's transportation needs. The Genio is an ideal vehicle for all SME's (small and medium class businessmen) and Traders. SME's and traders are looking at giving

enhanced and better service experience to their customers and Genio helps the SME's and traders to surpass that expectation, giving an edge to the SME's in their business. STRATEGY ABOUT GENIO Business growth is an area that every businessman dreams of and constantly searches for tools and ideas which will help him achieve the same. In the process they look to improve efficiencies in business and at the same time cut down cost. Genio does just that for businessmen. Highly efficient and powerful mDI CRDe engine gives higher power, speed and excellent mileage to improve efficiency in transportation. At the same time World class design, luxurious interiors add pride of ownership and improve driver efficiency. Genio thus helps businessmen take their business to newer and greater heights and justifies its tagline-

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RCI Machineries Pvt.Ltd

Communication Feature

TAKE YOUR BUSINESS PLACES. Genio Double Cabin is positioned as most premium double cabin Pick Up in India which is suitable for businessmen who needs load carrying along with passenger carrying. It is designed to take care of the emerging needs of businessmen because BUSINESSMEN DESERVES BUSINESS CLASS ASSOCIATION OF GENIO WITH TARGET SEGMENT Genio is a next generation Pick Up and it makes businessmen feel that Genio will help them to take their business to next level. It changes the perception of commercial load vehicle for the businessmen's client and helps enhance the image of the businessmen in front of his own customers. World class design of GENIO makes a statement for the businessmen and brings pride of ownership. In today's digital age it's very important to keep up with new technology in anything that you do, ownership of Genio helps

projects modern and futuristic image about the owner. Genio Double Cabin is most suitable vehicle for builders, contractors, corporate, distributors, Hotels & resorts etc. It allows the customers to enjoy business class travel experience while they are on their way for business. KEY HIGHLIGHTS Genio Single Cab Design and Style Aggressive Bumper, Unique Grille, Metallic Paint. Performance 75 HP Power, 220 NM torque, 120 Kmph top speed and Payload of 1250 KG & Flat Bed cargo. Technology & Safety LSPV Brakes, mDI CRDe Engine, 20000 km oil change interval, Radial Tubeless Tyres and ELR seat belts. Class Leading Comfort - 80.5 cu feet cabin, semi bucket seats, IFS, Carlike gear shift. Convenience Features - Mobile

charger, Bottle holder, 6.15 meter turning radius, trip meter. Genio Double Cab (Genio DC and Genio DC VX) Class Leading Comfort - Air conditioning, 2 Din music system, Power Windows, Semi bucket front seats, IFS, Carlike gear shift. Convenience Features - Key less Entry, Mobile charger, Bottle holder, 6.15 meter turning radius, trip meter. Design and Style Aggressive Bumper, Unique Grille, Metallic Paint, Flat Bed Cargo. Performance 75 HP Power, 220 NM torque, 120 Kmph top speed, 1100 Kg Payload. Technology & Safety LSPV Brakes, mDI CRDe Engine, 20000 km oil change interval, Radial Tubeless Tyres and ELR seat belts.

For further details:


Mahindra Genio
Web: www.mahindragenio.com

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Cosmos Construction Machinery and Equipment Ltd

Interview

In Conversation with Stefan Lemke


Sika Service AG, Corp.
laid waterproofing membrane for drained and undrained tunnels under the brand name Sikaplan (PVC-P or FPO). But also in our product range are watertight concrete systems including concrete that has been specially modified with Sika admixtures (e.g. SikaViscoCrete for pre-cast-concrete elements), waterstops for construction and movement joints, injection hoses (e.g. SikaFuko), swelling profiles and sealants (e.g. SikaSwell), joint and crack sealing systems (e.g. SikadurCombiflex), all kinds of sealing mortals and injection resins and a wide range of coatings. Additionally, we offer sprayable membrane systems for cut & cover structures (e.g. Sikalastic) or fully bonded waterproofing membrane systems (e.g. SikaProof). What should be the criteria for choosing a waterproofing system in tunnel construction? Tunnels are built with a design life expectancy of over 100 years, which means that standards for tunnel construction must be high, in particular those involving sealing and waterproofing systems. A waterproofing system has the task of protecting the tunnel construction against damage resulting of moisture or the unintentional entry of water as well as the danger posed by aggressive water or soils and the effects of chemicals.Thus reliable functioning of a seal is of particular significance in the case of traffic tunnels, which are not easily accessible for all subsequent repairs after the construction in seepage water and especially when located in a pressure water zone. With respect to the overall demands made on sealing tunnels, it is essential to remember that a sealing system has to be selected and planned in order to represent the optimal solution with regard to the given requirements pertaining to its intended use on the one hand, and the technically and economically acceptable possibilities on the other. The key criteria are: the hydrology concept (e.g. environmental sensitive area, permanent water table), the degree (definition) of water tightness, drained/ undrained concept (e.g. consideration of hydroloads on statical issues), the height of water pressure (e.g. consequence in case of failure, repair possibility), the impacts (e.g. traffic, reinforcement work) and conditions (e.g. humidity, substrate evenness, water, dust) during the construction, fire and workmanship safety standards during the construction, the kind of chemicals in the groundwater, their concentration rates over time and their influence on the chosen materials. Additional - a significant aspectis the material behavior on ageing/ durability under the surrounding conditions, especially in view to the total cost over the total service life time including all maintenance work. What solutions does SIKA provide for refurbishment / rehabilitation of existing tunnels? Sika has a wide range of chemical

Stefan Lemke
Sika Services AG, Corp. Key Account- / Key Project Manager, BU-Concrete

What are the different kinds of tunnel waterproofing systems provided by Sika for the Indian market? The waterproofing system in a tunnel is composed of a combination of many factors. Depending on these factors Sika can provide a wide range of different products, technologies and systems to achieve a watertight tunnel. The standard waterproofing system for the Indian tunnel market is our loose-

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Interview

Sika Drill Blast Tunnel

products, especially for refurbishment/ rehabilitation of existing tunnels. We can provide all kinds of mortals for waterproofing, for structural strengthening, for repair and protection including fire protection. Also we can offer different kind of coating systems for waterproofing and protection, waterproofing membranes (sprayed, loose laid), injection resins (chemical, cementeous), thin shell concrete (e.g. SikaCem) and shotcrete technology. With Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) increasingly being used for construction, how does Sika mechanize the application of its waterproofing systems? If there is a need of a waterproofing membrane system including a cast-insitu-placed inner concrete shell, Sika can provide a hot-melt (glue) fixing technology or a hook & loop fixation. Both technologies allow the installation of the plastic sheet membrane by fully automatically operating equipment. A new method of joining the

connecting tunnels (cross-passages, constructed as NATM, sealed with a loose-laid plastic sheet membrane) to the main tunnel segments (pre-castconcrete elements, constructed by TBM, sealed by joint profiles) was used on the Finnetunnel in Germany with a water pressure of 65 m. It is based on the bonding of a plastic strip (Sika tape system) to the concrete elements by glue (Sikadur 31 CF) followed by welding this strip to plastic sheet membrane of the connecting tunnel.Due to the bonded systems comparatively low demands and limitations for the geometry of the substrate to which the connection is made and its workmanship, this solution represents a time and cost saving alternative to other traditional waterproofing connections for a range of different applications. How is SIKA's waterproofing system better than other admixtures, membranes and linings?

The advantage of such a loose laid waterproofing system is the perpetuation of the multi-axial behavior, the chemical resistance against concrete aggressive groundwater in combination with the established ageing behavior (> 120 years, NEAT approval, > 60 years job-site experience) of Sikaplan and a simple application process with full-system-quality control possibility. Also there is the chance in case of subsequent damages- of an easy/cost efficient full surface repair by injection technology after the lining process, respectively after level-up of the water table.

For further details:


Sika India Pvt. Ltd.
601, A Wing, Infinity Tower Mindspace, Off Link Road, Malda(West), Mumbai-400064. Ph: +91-22-40384038, Fax: +91-22-40384039, E-mail: info.india@in.sika.com Web: www.ind.sika.com

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167

Communication Feature

Delivering High Output Production & Efficiency


hembond Chemicals Limited is a known name in India, manufacturing a diverse range of specialty chemicals like watertreatment, metal treatment, construction chemicals, high performance coatings and industrial biotech products. The company has excellent infrastructure facilities like a well equipped R & D laboratory, multiple regional offices and production plants, well trained personnel and references across several business segments from the best known companies in the field. Since its inception and modest beginnings in the year 1973, Chembond and its group companies are today market leaders in the metallic surface treatment and industrial water treatment chemicals field in India. Drawing on these experiences, in 1994, Chembond introduced a range of products of which some were directed towards the building and construction industry. Our Construction Chemicals Business The Construction Chemicals Division of Chembond offers a wide range of products for applications in concrete modification, waterproofing and repair and rehabilitation of structures. It also offers a host of other product solutions like Sealants, Concrete Admixtures,

Tile fixing adhesives, Tile Joint fillers and Engineering Grouts aimed at the construction and civil engineering industries. The K-Fix brand of construction chemicals cater to the distribution channel and applicator segment with small pack sizes, while the infrastructure projects are catered by the Kem series of products in bulk pack sizes. About K-Fix K-Fix is a Construction Chemicals brand. Various products are available under the K-Fix brand which have application at different stages of construction and repair. K-Fix products are used across segments housing, commercial and industrial and are engineered to perform in Indian conditions. It is available for distribution channel and for professional applicators. K-Fix provides solution for Waterproofing, Repair, Sealant, Grout & Tiling. It has high quality standardised products with latest technology formulations which enables high quality construction, ease of application without affecting any other properties. K-Fix has following advantages & benefits: Advantages

Joint Sealant

Factory manufactured, high quality products ISO certified Easy to use and economical Easily available across the country Technical Support from our experts Available in convenient pack sizes

Benefits Training provided to applicators Makes high quality construction possible Easy to use, can be used with minimal training Fast and Durable Can eliminate the need to re-do jobs Leads to higher customer satisfaction

Certification ISO 9001:2008 certified. EN ISO 14001:2004 certified.

We hope that you would find our firm with adequate professional background and technical capability to offer you a range of specialty products to suit your requirements.

For further details:


Chembond Distribution Limited
Chembond Centre, EL-71, Mahape MIDC, Navi Mumbai - 400 705. E-mail: feedback@buildsys.co.in Web: www.chembondconschem.com
Surface Treatment Concrete Repair

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Cosmos Sales Corporation

Site Report

Reaping the Benefits of High Output & Efficiency


CPL's first Marini asphalt plant in Gujarat, proves Marini to be the right choice for every future focused entrant in the asphalt mixing business. Digvijay Construction, a Gujarat based road construction firm is seeing the benefit of the investment in its asphalt production facility at Vataman, close to Ahmedabad. The plant since it's commissioning is poised to set new benchmarks in production and efficiency in Gujarat. The MARINI MAC's compact features are highly evident in the innovative layout of the asphalt plant. The self standing asphalt mixing plant, is one of the most energy efficient and environment friendly plants to be installed recently in Gujarat. The RAP enabled features on the plant will allow DCPL to mix recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) along with fresh material to deliver a wide range of output grades. Once installed, this is will be one of the first plants in Gujarat capable of using RAP , this strategic development will further help the company to pursue its policy of boosting recycling and lowering its carbon footprint. DCPL, although has been involved in road construction, is however installing a high production batch plant for the first time. According to the DCPL's P&M Head, Samir Mansuri, our decision to go with a MARINI MAC, was a very well thought and strategic investment. Having travelled pan india and visited numerous mixing plants of various suppliers we found out that the MARINI MAC had absolutely no comparison. It's a feature rich and future ready asphalt plant, very critical for a mid size company like ours entering in to the fray and wanting to be on the long haul. Unlike many large sized contractors in the field, who have been owning Marini plants. An Investment of such a size for us meant each rupee had to be justified and so Mr. Digvijay himself was involved in the investment decision. He

along with Mr. Digvijay in order to have first hand reports on the equipment, looked at various suppliers but opted for the MARINI system because the up-todate equipment, future ready features and a very low operating costs with a reliable support package very well met the company's anticipated needs. Being a new entrant in to the large mix production market, for DCPL any sophistication didn't matter unless it delivered low production costs. We were assured about this by MARINI, however on site, the results we must admit are fantastic, they meet more than our expectations and Marini's commitment, says Mr. Digvijay Padheria. There were other important purchase points and Digvijay said, It has one of the most comprehensive energy saving features. He explained that anyone looking to lead today, must not ignore the energy requirements in asphalt production. The Marini plant is has superb energy saving features and waste heat recovery systems. This allows substantial heat recovery allowing major savings in fuel. This is a major issue given the fast climbing fuel costs.

The smartly engineered design vastly lowers fuel consumption through the efficient, multi fuel -fired burner when producing asphalt. Production rates are very crucial for operations and for meeting bottom lines. Since the time we commissioned the plant, the 200 Tph plant easily delivers above 200 Tph and has delivered production rates between 220-240 tph at times, when we needed it. We are gladly surprised by the MAC's production ability, says a very happy Mohit Padheria, who heads the project operations at DCPL's site. The plant has absolutely no bottlenecks, it performs fantastically even with the high filler content, that is very common in Gujarat. The Marini's 91 % efficient bitumen heating system further ensures savings for DCPL. Annually just a 5 % higher efficiency translates to a savings of around 1.2 Million rupees and tons of carbon. However Marini's bitumen heating and storage systems delivers atleast 15 % higher efficiency compared to traditional systems used on hot mix asphalt plants. The plant's precision vario-screen

Marini Green

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Site Report

Blesson Varghese
MD Marini India

technology delivers top notch control during mix production. The dedicated system for finer aggregates screening and handling ensures top notch quality and absolutely no bottlenecks during production. We've realized that it doesn't need a lot of people to operate and the Marini trained technicians perfectly run the operations with ease and are always eager to push the production to the limits. The design of the plant with sufficiently large bins sizes and hot screened aggregates stock, helps cope with all the usual fluctuations at the site. DCPL didn't opt for a smaller 20/25 T hot mix storage buffer silo since the plant had a large 77 tonne hot aggregates storage bin already. This feature on the plant is very crucial to meet production demands and productivity. It is very commonly observed that a smaller hot aggregates bin always creates bottlenecks during production, delivers fluctuations in mix gradation and spoils the mix quality and consistency. A professional production oriented plant must have sufficient aggregates stock to ensure high out put and uncompromised mix, says Mr. Soundaraj Marini's project leader, who installed the plant at DCPL. Looking in to the growth area's, DCPL has already planned to install a 120Cbm hot mix storage silo in order to meet the anticipated demands from new projects in the area. The best part of the

Marini's future readiness is reflected here, the plant is already ready with systems to incorporate this add on, snap-on. Contractors in the Industry are happy if they produce an average 1800-2000 tons a day. But the reason we choose Marini, is because with it we easily produce 1800 tons in just 8 hours of operations and that's the Marini difference, adds a smiling Digvijay. The productivity of the plant reduces numerous operating hours of the entire fleet of road building equipment from the captive power generating set to the paver finishers, rollers and dump trucks. Getting it done quick and professionally makes the staff happier too, since they get enough time for maintenance and up keep. With the Marini's future readiness, DCPL will be able to handle numerous sites from their single asphalt plant facility. The company is confident to produce up to 3000 tons a day with ease and is gearing up for some big action this season. This well thought investment makes DCPL ready for RAP processing, Low carbon mixes and futuristic mixes, which not only are environment friendly but can make a substantial boost to the bottom line. The new Marini MAC, will help DCPL face market challenges with confidence and pave a smooth highway to the future.

With profitability being a target for any business, a highly efficient plant, with low production cost and high output makes clear & sound financial sense. With proven results and figures to substantiate we are confident that other construction firms will soon adopt to Marini technology & services.

Digvijay Padheria
Director - DCPL

Being a new entrant in to the large mix production market, for DCPL any sophistication didn't matter unless it delivered low production costs. We were assured about this by MARINI, however on site, the results we must admit are fantastic, they meet more than our expectations and Marini's commitment.
For further details:
Marini India
E-mail: support@marini.co.in Web:www.marini.co.in

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Communication Feature

Cutting Edge
ingh Construction Equipments is a leading manufacturer and exporter of a comprehensive range of quality construction equipment. The company has taken rapid strides in recent years and has carved a niche of its own, through its wide array of construction machinery that are known for their reliability, durability and superior performance. Stringent commitment to quality standards has been one of the company's mantra for success right from its time of inception in 1981. It is not surprising that the company is today a preferred choice for a wide range of construction equipment such as concrete mixer machines, hydraulic mixer machines, weigh batcher, mini mobile batching plants, fully automatic batching plants and transit mixers, etc. Product innovation and an eye for detail has been the hall mark of products from the company, a trait that has been behind the remarkable success in the face of tough competition. The top management of the company is a firm believer in investing in the latest technology and constant up gradation of the same at regular intervals of time, for ensuring flawless products. The company's manufacturing unit in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, boasts of modern infrastructure, where cutting edge machinery is used for producing world-class construction equipment.

Construction Equipments

Manning each of the facilities in the manufacturing unit are qualified professionals, engineers and other trained technicians working round-theclock to provide their best services. Another key reason behind the impressive growth story of Singh Construction Equipments in a relatively short span of time is their sharp R & D focus. The company has an exclusive R & D wing which does extensive research on products. A close watch is

RM 1050

RD 800

kept on the global construction equipment market trends by its team. The team also constantly collects feedback from customers which enable it to constantly improve product design. The in-house quality assurance team puts every product through a series of rigorous quality checks, ensuring maintenance of the high standards of quality that the company has set for

itself. This ensures that the company comes out with outstanding product innovations keeping in tune with the latest products available across global markets. Just as in the case of research and development, another key focus area of the company is after-sales technical support services. Its sales and service network spans across the country. Spare parts and components for the company's products are available across this network. The company has also got a comprehensive online source, where all the information about its products is available. We are in constant touch with our existing clients and get their valuable feedback about the performance of our machinery. We also welcome their suggestions and incorporate them in the process of research and development which helps us in upgrading our machinery and company's growth.

For further details:


Singh Construction Equipments & Machinery Pvt. Ltd.
Part of Plot 85, Infront of Parle-G, Industrial Area, Ricchi, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh - 482002, India Tel: 091-761-4078600, 4044807, 808, 809 Fax: +91-761-2681859 E-mail: info@sceindia.in Web:www.sceindia.in

M 25

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Reliance Industries Ltd

Focus Precast Concrete

Curing Methods for Precast Concrete Applications and Their Impact


Sonjoy Deb
B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology

s building development throughout the world continues, the desire to construct cheaper structures on sites that are more difficult to build on, in shorter periods of time, all while providing improved performance will always be desirable in order to maximize both product economy and quality. As such, the construction industry is constantly searching for ways to improve their product. One means to this end is, rather than relying on improving construction implementation mechanisms such as scheduling, installation techniques, and quality control, is focusing on the industrys improved knowledge and development of materials and

their behaviour. One result of such motivation by the construction and engineering industry was the advent of prestressed concrete. This product was developed in order to take advantage of the desirable properties of concrete and steel, chiefly compressive and tensile strength, respectively, in order to achieve structural solutions that were not previously possible. For many projects, the best way to achieve this is through the use of precast concrete elements. Precasting prestressed concrete members eliminates many of the environmental and logistical problems associated with cast-in-place prestressed concrete, while taking advantage of the efficiency of factory-like operations and maintaining

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Focus Precast Concrete

very strict quality control in order to produce a superior finished product. One of the most important characteristics of concrete that enables the use of precast members to be economically feasible is its ability, when under the right conditions, to gain strength extremely rapidly. Need for Precast Concrete Precast concrete is advantageous for several reasons: shrinkage and creep can be reduced, dead-load deflections can be controlled, quality control is improved, material availability can be improved and erection methods are similar to that for steel and thus total construction time is significantly reduced. One of the key properties of concrete that makes precasting economically feasible is its ability, under the proper conditions, to gain compressive strength extremely rapidly. The focus of this paper is a description of the various methods currently available for accelerating the curing of concrete, particularly for precast concrete applications.

Typical physical processes used to accelerate the curing process are generally combinations of the following: increase in curing temperature, introduction of moisture to curing environment. Numerous methods exist, including conductive/convective heating, electrical resistance heating, and steam curing (low and high pressure). The use of admixtures in order to accelerate the curing process can be further subdivided into the use of mineral and chemical admixtures. Calcium Chloride has proven to be an extremely effective accelerator; however, due to corrosion concerns, its use in concrete with embedded metal is not recommended. The most common mineral admixture used as an accelerator is microsilica, or silica fume. While fly ash is frequently used in order to improve other properties of concrete, it has a retarding effect on the initial set and early strength gain of concrete, and should not be used for accelerated curing purposes. Some chemical admixtures, such as high-range water reducers (HRWR), or superplasticizers, have been used as indirect accelerators, primarily due to their ability to reduce the water demand for a given mix. Focus of This Paper The focus of this paper is the analysis of the various methods employed in the precast industry for the purpose of accelerating the curing process of concrete, and their effects on the short and long term compressive strength of concrete. These various methods of accelerated curing can be divided into three main categories: physical processes, mineral admixtures, and chemical admixtures. First, research and development of various accelerated curing methods will be presented, followed by a brief discussion of current methods predominantly employed by commercial precast manufacturers. Reported Research Works in This Area The relationship between the rate of compressive strength gain in concrete and curing temperature has been long established. To an extent, an increased curing temperature will result in an increased rate of strength gain. Beyond a certain point, increases in temperature not only prove to be less efficient, but can actually be detrimental to the properties of the concrete. A typical maximum curing temperature used in commercial precast plants is 160oF (Corcoran, 2004). Various methods of increasing the curing temperature of concrete have been employed in order to achieve high early strength. These methods include simple convection through the circulation of hot water or oil through formwork, or even through pipes inside the concrete members in the case of hollow elements, electric resistance heating, and both low and high pressure steam curing. One of the drawbacks to an increased curing temperature is the increased rate of humidity loss

Processes and Methods of Accelerated Curing Two distinct methods for accelerating the curing process exist: - the use of physical processes, and - the use of admixtures to act as catalysts for the hydration process, resulting in the achievement of high compressive strengths in relatively short periods of time.

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to the surrounding environment, which can result in severe shrinkage and cracking. Another problem is the rapid change of temperature within concrete members, resulting in potentially large thermal stresses. In order to alleviate these problems, any method of increasing the curing temperature must also involve the provision of adequate humidity in order to prevent excessive moisture loss, as well as careful cyclic implementation of temperature increase and decrease, in order to prevent the development of thermal stresses (Heritage, 2000). Three main factors are to be considered when using elevated temperatures in order to increase the curing rate of concrete: rate of temperature rise, maximum curing temperature, and heating time. Traditionally, it has been thought that early strength gains are offset by lower 28-day strength. As such, specifications often restrict maximum curing temperatures to between 140 and 160oF. However, a study by Pfeifer and Landgren (1982) showed that the use of a maximum curing temperature of 180oF resulted in no significant decrease in 28-day strength when compared to concrete cured at maximum temperatures of 110 or 145oF. While this does not dispute the general relation of increased early strength gain to decreased longterm strength, it may indicate that current restrictions on maximum curing temperatures are too low. A more recent study has reinforced the relation between increased early strength and decreased long-term strength. This report showed that increased curing temperatures resulting from direct electrical curing techniques, increase the 1day compressive strength, but reduce 28-day strength, (Heritage, 2000). Regardless of the actual technique used to elevate concrete curing temperatures, and thus increase the rate of strength gain, two precautionary steps to prevent negative impacts of the process should be taken. First, before any induced temperature increase is started, the time to the commencement of the initial set is required to allow the hardening phase to sufficiently resist thermally induced stresses, (Heritage et. Al, 2000). This delayed increase in temperature allows a minimum development of strength necessary to prevent cracking resulting from the formation of thermal stresses. In addition, the supplementation of heat prior to the initial set has been shown to be relatively ineffective in increasing the rate of strength gain (Pfeifer and Landgren, 1982). At this point, the rate of hydration is extremely slow, and is affected little by increased temperature. An increased curing temperature also results in an increased rate of humidity loss to the environment. As such, all efforts must be made to stop the evaporation of water from the surface of the sample by the use of a suitable covering, (Heritage et. Al, 2000). If the effect of humidity lost to the environment is not controlled during the accelerated curing process, the impact on longterm compressive strength can be detrimental (Mehta and Monteiro, 2001).

Conduction/Convection Used for Accelerated Curing One of the most fundamental methods for rapidly increasing the curing temperature of concrete is through the employment of simple conduction/convection techniques. The temperature of the forms may be increased either electrically or by pumping hot oil or hot water through them (Gerwick, 1993). The direct contact between the concrete and the forms with an elevated temperature results in conductive heat transfer. By utilizing convection as well, in the form of flowing hot oil or water, the rate of thermal energy transfer is increased, thereby increasing the rate of curing temperature increase. As with all accelerated curing methods involving elevated temperatures, precautions should be taken to provide sufficient humidity to prevent drying of the concrete, and proper insulation of the formwork will result in a more energy efficient increase in curing temperature. Types of Accelerated Curing Used for Precast Concrete Members A. Electrical Resistance Curing Two primary types of accelerated curing processes involving elevated temperatures resulting from the dissipation of heat through electrical resistance have been attempted. One type of process involves the use of additional elements, such as special coils of wire, or even the reinforcement itself, as a means to generate heat through electric resistance (Heritage, 2000). By imposing an electrical current through reinforcing steel, or through additional wires, heat is generated inside the concrete as a result of the provided electrical resistance, resulting in an increased curing temperature. When steel forms are used, this method may also be used by applying electrical currents directly to the formwork, or by attaching electrical resistance elements to the forms. More recently, an additional method of electrical resistance curing has been employed. Direct electrical curing, is based on the fact that fresh concrete has an electrical resistivity of approximately 100 ohms-meter and, as such, can be heated ohmically when an alternating electric current is passed through it, (Heritage, 2000). With direct electrical curing, the electrical resistance of concrete itself is taken advantage of and additional wires for the purpose of electric resistance curing are unnecessary. In addition, a more even distribution of heat generation occurs when compared to the use of either reinforcement or additional wires as resistors. B. Low-Pressure Steam Curing Steam curing is a process in which elevated curing

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temperatures and the addition of moisture during the curing process are both used in order to accelerate the rate of strength gain. These methods can be applied simultaneously, with an increase in temperature as a direct result of steam injection, or individually, in which case an initial temperature elevation is achieved through some alternate means and is followed by an increase in humidity through steam injection. Low-pressure steam curing is frequently used in very dry climates and in applications when the controlling the loss of moisture is imperative (Gerwick, 1993). The basic method of steam curing at atmospheric pressure, for the most part, follows the same stages present in any accelerated curing process involving elevated curing temperatures. First, an initial delay period, usually of three to four hours, is necessary for the concrete to attain its initial set. Next, a heating period, with a temperature rise of 40 to 60oF per hour, is employed in order to reach a maximum curing temperature, generally between 140 and 160oF. This is followed by a steaming period, typically lasting six hours while maintaining the maximum curing temperature. Next, a cooling period is employed, during which time it is sometimes necessary release the boundary constraints of the forms, prestressing tendons, etc., in order to prevent damage from the development of thermal stresses. In general, the concrete elements are still covered with the steam hoods, or with tarps, during this process. Finally, a stage unique to steam curing, an exposure period, is necessary. At this time, the steam hoods or tarps are removed, and the concrete surface is exposed to the natural environmental conditions (Gerwick, 1993). The combined use of high curing temperatures and moist curing conditions results in the attainment of very high early strength.

curing, also known as autoclaving, has been successfully employed in the production of prestressed precast concrete elements in Japan and Germany (Gerwick, 1993). During this process, the increase of curing temperature and humidity are combined with an increase in pressure; as such, elements in this manner must be cured in some type of enclosed vessel. This restriction limits the use of the technique to relatively small elements for typical applications. One of the benefits of this technique is that extremely low water-cement ratios can be utilized in the initial mix design. In the case of concrete blocks, the elements are produced through extrusion machines, without the use of formwork, using no-slump concrete. By utilizing high-pressure steam curing, sufficient moisture necessary to complete the hydration process is introduced to the concrete elements (Polisner and Snell, 1985).

Figure 1 (French et al., 1998)

Mineral Admixtures for Accelerating Curing A. Microsilica Microsilica, or silica fume, is an extremely reactive, pozzolanic material. In one study it was used as a cement replacement for the primary purpose of increasing overall concrete compressive strength (French et. Al, 1998). Not only did the results show an increase in long term strength, but they indicated an increase in concrete strength at all ages. Figure 1 demonstrates the relationship between compressive strength and time for the concrete with the addiction of microsilica compared to concrete without microsilica. B. Fly Ash Like microsilica, fly ash can be used as a cement replacement material. Fly ash is one of the byproducts formed by modern power plants; it is a coal-combustion byproduct, and is collected by electrostatic precipitators used to filter combustion gases. Unlike mircrosilica, however, fly ash does not result in improved early strength of concrete. In fact, the results of the same study mentioned previously in which microsilica was shown to increase concrete strength show that the replacement of cement by fly ash resulted in decreased early strengths (French et al., 1998).

Pressure vessels used for High-pressure steam curing

C. High-Pressure Steam Curing (Autoclaving) Although generally reserved for the production of concrete masonry units in the United States, high-pressure steam

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1978). When compared with standard concrete mixes, the inclusion of HRWR admixtures has showed a marked increase in early strength gain when exposed to a variety of curing temperatures. Conclusion The implementation of elevated curing temperatures is a relatively straight forward process, and can be achieved without the need for a great deal of research and development. As a result, this is the primary method currently employed by commercial precast manufacturers. With recent advances in material technology, a number of admixtures (mineral and chemical) can be used, both directly and indirectly, as accelerating agents. However, compared with increased curing temperatures, the use of admixtures as accelerators can introduce numerous potential problems and difficulties. Until some significant incentive or motivation is provided, such as significant increases in energy costs and decreases in admixture costs, currently employed curing methods involving elevated curing temperatures will likely continue to prevail. Reference
- Corcoran, James, (2004). Concrete Technology Corporation, 1123 Port of Tacoma Road, Tacoma, WA 98421. Telephone interview on 3/15/04. French, Catherine, Alireza Mokhtarzadeh, Tess Ahlborn, Roberto Leon, (1998). High-Strength Concrete Applications to Prestressed Bridge Girders, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 12, Elsevier Science Ltd., Great Britain, pp. 105-113. Gerwick, Ben C. Jr., (1993). Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, pp. 19-23, 91-94. Heritage, Ian, Fouad M. Khalaf, and John G. Wilson, (2000). Thermal Acceleration of Portland Cement Concretes Using Direct Electronic Curing, ACI Materials Journal, JanuaryFebruary, 2000, pp. 37-40. Hester, Weston T., (1978). High-Range Water-Reducing Admixtures in Precast Concrete Operations, PCI Journal, July-August, 1978, pp. 68-85. Levitt, M., (1982). Precast Concrete, Materials, Manufacture, Properties and Usage, Applied Science Publishers, INC., Englewood, NJ, pp. 33-38, 53-73. Mehta, P . Kumar and Paulo J.M. Monteiro, (2001). Concrete, Microstructure, Properties and Materials. Pfeifer, Donald W., (1982). Development of the Concrete Technology for a Precast Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridge, PCI Journal, September-October 1982, pp. 78-99. Pfeifer, Donald W., and Robert Landren, (1982). EnergyEfficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete for Plant-Produced Prestressed Concrete, PCI Journal, March-April, 1982, pp. 94-107.

Fly ash particles (which look like bubbles) bind with other components in concrete to create a stronger, more durable concrete

Chemical Admixtures for Accelerating Curing A. Calcium Chloride The use of 1% of calcium chloride relative to the weight of cement in a mix has resulted in an increase of strength after 24 hours of 300% (Levitt, 1982). But inclusion of calcium chloride in reinforced and prestressed concrete can be extremely detrimental, as the chloride can contribute greatly to corrosion of the reinforcing steel.

- -

Void system produced by early types of high range water reducers

B. High-Range Water Reducers (Super Plasticizers) Although not technically characterized as accelerators, high-range water reducing (HRWR) admixtures contribute to, large increases in early concrete strengths under both normal and accelerated curing conditions, (Hester,

www.fhwa.dot.gov, www.4.uwm.edu, www.reflect.ifl.ac.uk

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Shri Parijatha Machinery Works Pvt. Ltd

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Precast Concrete for Building Systems


Sonjoy Deb
B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology

he concept of precast (also known as prefabricated) construction includes those buildings where the majority of structural components are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from the building, and then transported to the site for assembly. These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on mass production in order to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost. The main features of this construction process are as follows: - The division and specialization of the human workforce - The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually automated, in the production of standard, interchangeable parts and products

This type of construction requires a restructuring of the entire conventional construction process to enable interaction between the design phase and production planning in order to improve and speed up the construction. One of the key premises for achieving that objective is to design buildings with a regular configuration in plan and elevation. Urban residential buildings of this type are usually five to ten stories high (see Figure 1). Many countries used various precast building systems during the second half of the 20th century to provide low-income housing for the growing urban population. They were very popular after the Second World War, especially in Eastern European countries and former Soviet Union republics. In the former Soviet Union,

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different precast buildings systems are denoted as Seria, whereas in Romania they are called Sectiunea. In general, precast building systems are more economical when compared to conventional multifamily residential construction (apartment buildings) in many countries. The reader is referred to the UNIDO report for detailed coverage on precast systems and their earthquake resistance.

Depending on the wall layout, there are three basic configurations of large-panel buildings - Cross-wall system. The main walls that resist gravity and lateral loads are placed in the short direction of the building. - Longitudinal-wall system. The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are placed in the longitudinal direction; usually, there is only one longitudinal wall, except for the system with two longitudinal walls developed in Kazakhstan (WHE Report 32). - Two-way system. The walls are placed in both directions (Romania, WHE Report 83). Thickness of wall panels ranges from 120 mm for interior walls (Kyrgyzstan, WHE report 38) to 300 mm for exterior walls (Kazakhstan, WHE Report 32). Floor panel thickness is 60 mm (Kyrgyzstan). Wall panel length is equal to the room length, typically on the order of 2.7 m to 3.6 m. In some cases, there are no exterior wall panels and the faade walls are made of lightweight concrete (Romania, WHE Report 83). A typical interior wall panel is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 1: A typical precast slab-column building (WHE Report 68, Serbia and Montenegro)

Categories of Precast Building Systems Precast buildings constitute a significant fraction of the building stock in the republics of the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. These systems have been described in the following eight WHE reports: 32 (Kazakhstan); 33, 38, and 39 (Kyrgyzstan); 55 (Russian Federation); 66 (Uzbekistan); 68 (Serbia and Montenegro); and 83 (Romania). Depending on the load-bearing structure, precast systems described in the WHE can be divided into the following categories: - - - - Large-panel systems Frame systems Slab-column systems with walls Mixed systems

Large-Panel Systems The designation large-panel system refers to multistory structures composed of large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the vertical and horizontal directions so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooms within a building. These panels form a box-like structure (see Figure 2a, 2b). Both vertical and horizontal panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are usually one story high. Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as one-way or two-way slabs. When properly joined together, these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that transfer the lateral loads to the walls.

Figure 2a: A large-panel concrete building under construction (WHE Report 55, Russian Federation)

Lateral stability of a large-panel building system typical for Romania is provided by the columns tied to the wall panels (WHE Report 83). Boundary elements (called bulbs in Romania) are used instead of the columns as stiffening elements at the exterior. The unity of wall panels is

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joints accomplished in this way are hinged. However, rigid beam-column connections are used in some cases, when the continuity of longitudinal reinforcement through the beam-column joint needs to be ensured. The components of a precast reinforced concrete frame are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 2b: Cross Wall construction

Figure 4: Plan of a large-panel building showing vertical connection details (WHE Report 32, Kazakhstan)

Figure 3: Precast interior wall panel with steel dowels and grooves (WHE Report 38, Kyrgyzstan)

achieved by means of splice bars welded to the transverse reinforcement of adjacent panels in the vertical joints. Longitudinal dowel bars placed in vertical and horizontal joints provide an increase in bearing area for the transfer of tension across the connections. Wall-to-floor connection is similar to that shown in Figure 4. Frame Systems Precast frames can be constructed using either linear elements or spatial beam-column subassemblages. Precast beam-column subassemblages have the advantage that the connecting faces between the subassemblages can be placed away from the critical frame regions; however, linear elements are generally preferred because of the difficulties associated with forming, handling, and erecting spatial elements. The use of linear elements generally means placing the connecting faces at the beam-column junctions. The beams can be seated on corbels at the columns, for ease of construction and to aid the shear transfer from the beam to the column. The beam-column

Figure 5: Components of a precast reinforced concrete frame system of Seria IIS-04 (WHE Report 66, Uzbekistan)

Slab-Column Systems with Shear Walls These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load effects, whereas the slab-column structure resists mainly gravity loads. There are two main systems in this category:

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- Lift-slab system with walls - Prestressed slab-column system Lift-slab systems were introduced in the last decade of the Soviet Union (period 1980-1989) in some of the Soviet Republics, including Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, and theCaucasian region of Russia, etc. This type of precast construction is known as Seria KUB. The load-bearing structure consists of precast reinforced concrete columns and slabs, as shown in Figure 6. Precast columns are usually two stories high. All precast structural elements are assembled by means of special joints. Reinforced concrete slabs are poured on the ground in forms, one on top of the other, as shown in Figure 7. Precast concrete floor slabs are lifted from the ground up to the final height by lifting cranes. The slab panels are lifted to the top of the column and then moved downwards to the final position. Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in the position until the connection with the columns has been achieved.

countries where these systems have been widely used, it can be concluded that their seismic performance has been fairly satisfactory. However, when it comes to earthquake performance, the fact is that bad news is more widely publicized than good news. For example, the poor performance of precast frame systems of Seria 111 in the 1988 Spitak (Armenia) (M7.5) earthquake is well known (see Figure 8). However, few engineers are aware of the good seismic performance (no damage) of several large-panel buildings under construction at the same site, remained undamaged in the 1988 Spitak (Armenia) earthquake (far back), whereas the precast frame buildings suffered extensive damage (foreground)3 (WHE Report 32, Kazakhstan); these large-panel buildings were of a similar seria as the large-panel buildings described in the WHE Report 55 from the Russian Federation (Seria 464). The buildings of Seria 111 were similar to the precast concrete frame system of Seria IIS, described in the WHE report 66 (Uzbekistan). The precast prestressed slab-column system (IMS Building System) described in WHE Report 68 (Serbia and Montenegro) has undergone extensive laboratory testing that predicted excellent resistance under simulated seismic loading. These building have been subjected to several moderate earthquakes without experiencing significant damage.

Figure 6: A lift-slab building of Seria KUB under construction (WHE Report 39, Kyrgyzstan)

Figure 7: Plan of a typical lift-slab building (WHE Report 39, Seria KUB, Kyrgyzstan)

Earthquake Performance There is a general concern among the earthquake engineering community regarding the seismic performance of precast construction. Based on experience in past earthquakes in Eastern European and in Central Asian

Due to their large wall density and box-like structure, largepanel buildings are very stiff and are characterized with a rather small fundamental period. For example, a 9-story building in Kazakhstan has a fundamental period of 0.35 to 0.4 sec (WHE Report 32). In general, large-panel buildings performed very well in the past earthquakes in the former

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Soviet Union, including the 1988 Armenia earthquake and the1976 Gazly earthquakes (Uzbekistan). It should be noted, however, that large-panel buildings in the area affected by the 1976 Gazly earthquakes were not designed with seismic provisions. Most such buildings performed well in the first earthquake (M 7.0), but more damage was observed in the second earthquake that occurred the same year (M 7.3), as some buildings had been already weakened by the first earthquake (Russian Federation, WHE Report 55). Large-panel buildings performed well in the 1977 Vrancea (Romania) earthquake (M 7.2) and in subsequent earthquakes in 1986 and 1990 (Romania, WHE Report 83).

Figure 9: Seismic strengthening of precast columns with steel straps (WHE Report 66, Uzbekistan)

Benefits of Using Construction (A) Hotels

Precast

elements

in

Building

Precast Structures uses a system of precast elements which link together to form a cross-wall format. Panels can be formed in solid or twin wall styles to suit the design requirements of the structure. Whichever solution is selected the selections are produced in high quality finish which is suitable for direct decoration, with minimal preparatory work, obviating the need for plaster finishes, leading to cost and programme savings. The philosophy of PCS is to produce a design which will provide the most cost effective solution, utilising the most appropriate materials for the project. This can include such items as hot rolled steel sections and cold rolled steel infill panels as appropriate. Benefits of Using Precast Concrete Structures Include - High quality concrete designed for direct decoration or exposure. - Architectural and structural quality components.

Figure 8: Building collapse in the 1988 Spitak (Armenia) earthquake (WHE Report 66, Uzbekistan)

Seismic-Strengthening Technologies According to WHE reports, no major efforts have been reported regarding seismic strengthening of precast concrete buildings. However, seismic strengthening of precast frame buildings was done in Uzbekistan (WHE Report 66). The techniques used include the installation of steel straps at the column locations (see Figure 9) and reinforcing the joints with steel plates to provide additional lateral confinement of the columns.

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- Large volume supply capacity. - Dedicated experience project management. - In house Erection by trained and qualified erection personnel. - Solid room size slabs - Prefinished for direct ceiling decoration. - Suitable for direct carpet application. - Reduced structural zones free from downstands. - Erection of stair and lift cores as erection progresses allowing safe access for subsequent trades. - Pre-fitted windows option.

on the most economical means of manufacturing the components and sequencing the erection to the maximum benefit of the client. These benefits include: - Fast-build programme within term-time constraints. - Direct decoration to walls and ceilings, with only minor pre-decoration treatment. - Pre-installation of windows. - Early dry-box working for subsequent trades. - A variety of elevational treatments using non-loadbearing cladding systems (loads are transferred via the cross-walls and do not rely upon external walls for support). - Reduced structural zone without downstands.

Figure 10: Use of precast concrete in hotel construction

Precast Concrete Structures Ltd specialise in the fast efficient delivery of the building structure, where minimal wet trades and high quality finish are essential to follow on trades. PCS strive to be market leaders in quality of finished product and offer an innovative and non-contractual approach to building structures. Some typical hotels made of precast concrete shown in Figure 10. (B) Student Accommodation Cross-Wall Construction
The use of cross-wall construction in student accommodation (See Figure 11) gives significant benefits for short-term build projects where a deadline for opening is critical.
Figure 11: Use of precast concrete in hostel construction

(C) Apartments Apartment construction has become increasingly popular as a modular build (Refer Figure 12) alternative to traditional steel and insitu concrete frame methods. The system adopted uses cross-wall construction in a similar method to the hotel construction system, but differs in that the variability of room layouts and external elevations require differing techniques and innovative thinking to produce fast-build economical solutions. The options for apartments are both extensive and flexible providing key criteria in design are met. Precast Structures Ltd has broad experience in developing solutions for alternative construction, particularly suited to the Design & Build market. Benefits include - Direct decorative finish to walls with only minor predecoration treatment, negating the requirements for wet plaster. - Optional methods of floor construction, allowing flexibility for individual client requirements, including:

Precast concrete construction offers extremely durable accommodation, capable of sustaining even the toughest conditions of student living. By the use of direct finishing techniques to the walls and ceiling, together with solid room-sized slabs, and the preinstallation of bathroom pods, cross-wall construction offers speed of construction together with economy. Key requirements for economical construction in student accommodation include: - Repetition of room layout. - Consistency of vertical alignment to division walls. - Repetition of elevational treament. By adhering to these basic principles, Precast Concrete Structures Ltd will provide advice and innovative solutions

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- Traditional hollow-core. - Wide slab composite flooring. - Pre-finished solid slabs. - Direct soffit finishing in replacement of suspended ceilings, significantly reducing construction build costs - Reduced structural zone without downstands. - Construction of common stairs and lift cores as the erection progresses, permitting early access for subsequent trades. - Pre-fitted windows. - External pre-finished cladding panels, grey concrete inner leaf only, or curtain-walling / metal stud permitting total flexibility in elevational treatment.

Buildings are considered on an individual basis and assessed for integration of structural components to reduce programme and to ultimately drive down costs.

Figure 13: Precast concrete in making special architectural look

PP5 shown to the right is a flagship example of the benefits of incorporating Architectural Cladding into the structure. Originally concepted as an insitu frame, with independent cladding, the revised PCS proposal produced cost saving and significant overall programme reduction. Progressive Collapse Concrete building structures whether, insitu or precast, are required to perform in the event of accidental damage or explosion by meeting the design criteria set out in BS8110 for progressive collapse. Within the building structure, ties are incorporated to resist calculated forces determined by a variety of factors, including: - number of stories - centres of walls / size of spans - total loads carried These are achieved by the use of the following ties incorporated into the precast cross-wall design: - - - - vertical ties horizontal ties peripheral ties internal ties

Figure 12: Use of Precast concrete technology in apartment construction

Apartment construction is usually designed with traditional building solutions which are subsequently modified during the design process to obtain a competitive edge in Design & Build solutions. The benefits of early consultation with Precast Structures will result in significant savings in both cost and time, resulting from economical manufacture solutions and reduced erection periods. (D)Architectural Concrete Precast Concrete Structures has extensive use in manufacture and erection of architectural and structural building components (Refer Figure 13). Sections are bespoke and can be manufactured within the programme for our standard materials with a wide range of finishes and colours including: - Brick. - Wet cast reconstituted stone cladding and dressings. - Composite Architectural / Structural insulated columns. - Exposed structural elements.

Joints between panels are tied together using preshuttered insitu-fill to create a robust joint with minimal finishing required. The joints use wire ties designed to meet the specific tie-force criteria, but also to allow flexibility in assembly tolerances during erection. Peripheral and internal ties use high strength steel strand within the nominal insitu joints at cross-wall locations and around the perimeter of the building to create a continuous tie arrangement. Building design is analysed for structural stability by Precast Structures consultants who have extensive knowledge in the design stability of cross-wall building structures.

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Examples of Projects with Precast Concrete Technology - MOD Barrack Blocks As part of the MODs wider Project MoDEL works at RAF Northolt, Precast Concrete Structures Ltd have successfully completed the erection of 2 x junior ranks, barrack blocks for Norwest Holst Ltd. The project, completed to programme and budget, provides single living accommodation for some 182 airmen and airwomen at this prestigious West London unit. - Federation Headquarters in Precast The Police Federation of England and Wales which represents 140,000 police officers, Sergeants, Inspectors and Chief Inspectors commissioned a new Headquarters building in Leatherhead, Surrey. - Carvers Warehouse The listed Carvers Warehouse is the oldest surviving and only stone built warehouse remaining in Manchester City centre having been completed in 1804 and in recent times had been the home of a bathroom showroom. - Project Hal, Broxbourne News International, publishers of The Times, The Sunday Times, The Sun and News of the World, undertook a redevelopment of its printing facilities on 3 sites, Broxbourne, Liverpool and Glasgow. The largest of these sites was a new 27,250 square metre development at Broxbourne near the M25. - 1400 Student Rooms, Brunel University With growing student numbers Brunel University in Uxbridge decided to expand its en-suite student accommodation on its West London Central campus by 1,400 units. - 290 Apartments, Budenberg Pioneering developer Urban Splash teamed up with one of the UKs leading Architects, Foster and Partners to develop an environmentally sustainable, residential scheme on the banks of Bridgewater Canal in Altrincham, incorporating a number of innovative features. - The Hub, 5 Piccadilly Place The Hub is a 10 storey U shaped development, wrapped around a hard landscaped plaza, of 167 new apartments in the heart of a Manchester mixed use development area, by Argent Group in Manchester City centre. - Ramada Encore Hotel

The new 8m Ramada Encore Warrington, located on Birchwood Business Park, is a new hotel with a simple concept of being fresh, stylish vibrant and upbeat whilst offering comfortable contemporary accommodation. This hotel located near Warrington town centre provides 103 ensuite bedrooms, and 2 meeting rooms over 4 stories, with all public areas and bedrooms being fully airconditioned. Conclusion By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure and be closely monitored by plant employees. Utilizing a Precast Concrete system offers many potential advantages over site casting of concrete. The production process for Precast Concrete is performed on ground level, which helps with safety throughout a project. There is a greater control of the quality of materials and workmanship in a precast plant rather than on a construction site. Financially, the forms used in a precast plant may be reused hundreds to thousands of times before they have to be replaced, which allows cost of formwork per unit to be lower than for site-cast production. The use of precast concrete in Indian construction industry will definitely enhance the efficiency of the contractor interms of quality, safety and time of project completion. In developing country like India, adoption of this technology for building construction will boost the Governments development plans, as this gives really faster way of construction and also quality of work far more better than onsite casting concrete which is really value for money. Reference
[1] Definition of Mass Production in Industrial Engineering and Production Management Britannica Macropaedia, The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition, Vol. 21, p. 204, 1989. [2] UNIDO, 1983. Design and Construction of Prefabricated Reinforced Concrete Frame and Shear-Wall Buildings. Building Construction Under Seismic Conditions in the Balkan Region. Volume 2. UNDP/UNIDO Project RER/79/015, Vienna, Austria. [3] EERI (1989). Armenia Earthquake Reconnaissance Report. Special Supplement to Earthquake Spectra, El Cerrito, California. [4] http://www.precaststructures.com [5] Precast Concrete Construction, Svetlana Brzev, British Columbia Institute of Technology, Canada, Teresa GuevaraPerez, Architect, Venezuela

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Practical and Economical Design Aspects of Precast Concrete Building Structures


Bob Van Gils

Managing Director WBK Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. and Van Boxsel Engineering Pvt. Ltd.

Precast concrete shear walled structures, also called large panel systems, are a good solution for low rise and medium rise residential and commercial buildings. This paper describes the practical and economical aspects of designing and detailing these kinds of structures.

P
- - - - - - -

recast concrete structures with load bearing wall panels have several advantages compared to rcc frame structures with brickwork infill walls.

No brickwork infill walls required Superior quality of finishing (smooth surface) At mould face no plastering required Saves time and manpower Thin wall structure increases the carpet area Precast concrete is more durable than clay brick Better health and safety standards during construction

core slabs only have longitudinal prestressing reinforcement and no other reinforcement. Due to manufacturing methods it is not possible to make slabs with anchored tie bars, protruding stirrups or embedded welded plates. Diaphragm action is achieved through special joint design. Especially in seismic zones an rcc topping has to be added to join the slabs properly.

The external precast wall panels shall be a finished product and no plastering shall be required. The precast wall panels should be load bearing members and shall be capable of carrying the vertical and lateral loads. The wall panels can be connected to each other in various ways and together with the floor diaphragm they will form box type structures (figure 1 and figure 2). Precast Floor Slabs For residential and commercial building projects two different kind of precast floor systems can be considered. Hollow core slabs (figure 3.) These are prestressed floor slabs with longitudinal voids. The presence of the voids results in material savings and weight savings. With hollow core slabs large spans can be achieved and no temporary propping is required. Hollow

Figure 1. Large precast panel construction

Figure 2. Large precast panel construction

Precast planks with lattice girders (figure 4.) These are composite slabs made of precast concrete planks of 50mm thick with an rcc topping. The bottom reinforcement is placed within the precast planks and the top reinforcement is placed within the rcc topping. Basically the composite slab behaves the same as an rcc one way slab. The precast planks serve as the shuttering and have to be supported during casting and curing of the concrete. It is a very flexible system where size of planks can be easily adjusted and MEP (Mechanial Electrical Plumbing) services can be placed in the rcc topping.

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in a later stage to the precast walls. Cantilevered balconies can be made by providing cantilevered brackets on the adjacent precast walls and resting the balconies on these brackets. In case there are no precast walls nearby, the precast balcony can be made cantilevered with protruding top reinforcement connecting to the rcc topping of the floor slab. Shafts should be strategically placed where they dont complicate the layout of the load bearing walls and precast floor units. Precast wall panels can be provided with false joints to achieve a better architectural design pattern (see figure 5). Flexibility Flexibility in precast concrete building projects can be achieved by creating larger floor spans with larger open spaces. Especially in office buildings this concept will provide a lot of advantages to the end user (see figure 6).

Figure 3. Hollow core slabs

Figure 4. Precast planks with lattice girders

In every precast concrete project the following aspects are important for the design team: - - - - - Architecture MEP Services Structure Manufacturing Erection

One by one these points shall be discussed in this paper. Architectural aspects Full advantage of precast concrete construction is achieved when the building has been designed for high construction speed and maximum repetition. The architect should be considering the following points: - - - - - - - - - - - - - Simple and symmetrical layout and elevations Achieve standardization and repetition Modular grid: multiple of 1200mm Modular design has big impact on the costing Design with larger floor spans Minimize joints In faade minimize horizontal or low sloped elements that collect dirt Keep precast elements as large as possible, but max. around 10,000 kg Wall panels are usually one storey high Design shouldnt be a conversion of cast in-situ structure Dont try to make everything in precast Integrate architecture, services and structure Avoid last minute changes

Figure 5. False joints in precast panel

Figure 6. Flexibility with large open spaces

MEP Services In precast concrete building projects it is important that the MEP services consultants and the MEP vendors are part of the design team. Services like air-conditioning, electrical and plumbing have to be an integrated part of the precast design. Wall panels can be provided with electricity conduits, electricity boxes and openings for ducts (see figures 7 and 8).

Modular design Modular design principles can be strictly followed but give less freedom to the architect. A balance should be found between modular design and customized prefabrication. Architectural features Sunshades are a common feature in Indian building projects. The precast walls are made on flat steel moulds and it is not possible to make the sunshade as one part with the wall. Sunshades can be prefabricated and connected
Figure 7. Electricity in precast wall panel Figure 8. Several openings in precast wall panel

Hollow core slabs can be provided with electricity boxes and block outs. Placing MEP services within the hollow core slabs is not possible. Services have to be placed above or below the floor, special hangers can be used (see

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figure 9). Precast planks with rcc topping can be provided with electricity boxes and block outs. Furthermore small conduits, ducts and plumbing pipes can be embedded in the rcc topping (see figures 10 and 11)

Figure 12. Forces acting on shear wall Figure 13. Forces acting within shear wall

Design aspects of hollow core slabs (see figures 14 and 15): - Standard width is 1200mm - Slabs can be cut in longitudinal direction - Minimum thickness can be 100mm but most manufacturers offer minimum thickness of 150mm - No propping required - Camber and deflection should be checked - Minimum 60mm rcc topping is recommended in seismic zones - In case of rcc topping the top surface of the hollow core has to be roughened - It is difficult to place MEP services within the hollow core slabs, services have to be placed below or above the slab. - Maximum shear stress in longitudinal joints can be 0.10 N/mm2 - Connection of hollow core slab to shear wall has to be properly detailed - Pay attention to fixation of hollow core units in between load bearing walls Design aspects of precast planks with lattice girders (see figures 16 and 17) Standard width is generally 2.4m or 3.0m Flexible system, any type of slab size can be made Bottom reinforcement is placed in the precast plank Top reinforcement is placed in the rcc topping Minimum thickness is generally 50mm precast plank with 100mm rcc topping - Propping of the slabs during casting and curing of concrete is required - MEP services can be placed in the rcc topping - - - - -

Figure 9. Typical load hangers for hollow core slabs

Structural aspects India being an earthquake prone country the seismic resistant requirements are the most important criteria of the structural design. Looking at the requirements we can draw the conclusion that the basic earthquake resistant design rules are favoring precast concrete. Generally the following design rules should be followed: - Simple and symmetrical layout - Uniform distribution of mass and structural stiffness over the height - Avoid torsion - Ductile behavior of the structure Simple, symmetrical and uniform buildings are normally easy to optimize for precast concrete construction. The structural behavior of precast concrete shear wall structures is different than rcc frame structures. The walls are to be considered as cantilevering from the foundation (see figures 12 and 13). Vertical Load Path Hollow core slabs and precast plank floors are considered to be one way slabs. Enough seating on the load bearing walls should be provided. Transfer of vertical loads between wall panels should be achieved by direct structural connection.

Figure 10. MEP services in topping of plank floor

Figure 11. Plumbing pipes in topping of plank floor

Figure 14. Complicated layout with hollow core slabs

Figure 15. Simple layout

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Communication Feature

Good Mixing Technology for Construction Chemical Manufacturing


onstruction chemicals are specialty chemicals used in pre and post Construction stages. They are used as an additives to concrete/mortar Or as an application on masonry surfaces. These chemicals modify and enhance the properties of concrete in fresh and hardened states . Construction Chemicals can be classified based on end users Admixture Water Proofing Compounds Flooring Compounds Repair and rehabilitiation Miscellaneous (Grouts,tiles and adhesives and others etc)

Right Mixing technology Toshniwal offers single shaft paddle mixer of A&J Mixing Technology, Canada. for manufacturing construction chemicals. The working principle of quick cycle single rotor to have all the particles moving in an organized transport system, the mixing action ensures to Mix ingredients quickly and overcome the segregation forces to achieve the perfect Mix. The mixer is ideally suitable for producing the coloured cement mixes, the Quick and accurate mixing with desired colour shade achievement features, will increase the process efficiency. The advantage are - Low or No installation cost - Reduced Mixing time - Improved process efficiency - Minimal maintenance - Perfect colour dispersion Further details from: M/s. Toshniwal Systems & Instruments Pvt. Ltd., 267, Kilpauk Garden Road, Chennai - 600 010, India Phone No: 91-44-26445626 / 26448983 Email: mixer@toshniwal.net / Web : www.toshniwal.net

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Figure 16. Layout of precast plank floors

Figure 17. Precast plank floors with various shapes

Lateral Load Path The precast floor units have to be properly joined together to act as a floor diaphragm that transfers the lateral loads to the shear walls. The connections between the floor diaphragm and the shear walls have to be properly detailed. The shear walls will transfer the lateral loads to the foundation by acting as cantilevered walls. Connections The wall panel connections can be classified into horizontal joints and vertical joints. The horizontal joints have to transfer vertical loads as well as lateral loads. The vertical joints can be open and not transferring any loads or they can be connected to transfer shear loads. In many countries the horizontal joints between precast wall panels are made with grouted corrugated ducts. The precast wall panels are lowered into position over the vertical reinforcement bars which are protruding from the below element (see figure 18.). The ducts and the horizontal joint are fully filled with non shrink high strength grout with at least 10MPa higher strength as the precast concrete. In the plastic hinge regions the ducts can be provided over the full height of the precast wall and the reinforcement bars can be lapped inside the duct. Another option is to use the splice sleeve type 2 connection according to ACI 318 (see figure 19.). It can also be decided to design the bottom stories, where yielding will occur, in cast in-situ concrete.
Figure 19. Splice sleeve connections

Filling of horizontal joints with non shrink high strength cement based mortar or grout can be done in several ways: - Placing the precast wall in thixotropic mortar bed (see figure 20) - Fill the joint with mortar by hand placement - Pump thixotropic grout in the joint (see figure 21) - Fill the joint with flowable grout - Injection of flowable grout Because of high temperatures in India and because clean filling has to be achieved it is advised to follow the third method and fill the joints by pumping thixotropic grout in the joints. Filling of the corrugated ducts is generally done by pouring flowable grout from the top or by injection/pumping from the bottom of the duct.

Figure 20. Placing wall in mortar bed

Figure 18. Connection through grouted corrugated ducts

Vertical joints can either be structural joints which have to transfer shear forces or non-structural joints which dont have to transfer any forces. In case fully monolithic behavior has to be achieved the best option is to use a protruding

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Prefabrication means precast elements according to a standard concept but with flexibility to customize according to the requirements of the project.

Figure 25. Circulating pallet system (flat moulds)

Figure 26. Battery mould (vertical moulds)

The design team has to understand the capabilities of the manufacturing unit.
Figure 21. Pumping grout in horizontal joint

Design aspects - Conventional, semi automated or fully automated precast plant? - Horizontal tables or vertical battery moulds (see figures 25 and 26) - Wooden side shuttering or steel side shuttering? - Custom made wooden moulds for special elements (see figure 27) - Minimum and maximum size and weight of the precast elements

Figure 22. Vertical connection detail

Figure 23. Vertical connections between internal walls

reinforcement connection in combination with drop-in stirrups. To ease the manufacturing process the protruding reinforcement can be replaced by coupler bars (see figures 22 and 23). It is advised to use these connections only for internal shear walls as the vertical joint has to be finished with plastering at both sides and this requires a lot of extra work. Manufacturing Aspects Difference has to be known between Industrialized building systems and Prefabrication systems. Industrialized building systems are consisting of standard prefab elements made in standard moulds with minimum customization (see figure 24).

Figure 27. Custom made wooden mould

Figure 24. Industrialized building system components

Figure 28. Standard coupler bars

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- Standard embedded parts anchors, lifting eyes, reinforcement etc. - Minimize the variation in embedded parts (see figure 28) - Avoid penetrations through the mould - Pay attention to stripping of the elements

- Block outs and rebates should be made tapered - Chamfer the edges of wall panels to reduce edge damage and to mask differences in alignment between panels at the joints. - Prefab reinforcement cages - Different types of finishing Execution / Erection Aspects Erection of the precast elements will be done by cranes which can be placed at a fixed location like tower cranes or by mobile cranes which can move around the building (see figure 29). In case of mobile cranes or crawler cranes there should be enough space to maneuver comfortably around the building. The speed of the crane often determines the speed of erection, especially in high rise structures where it takes more time to lift the elements. Another important aspect of the erection sequence is the casting of the rcc topping on hollow core or plank floors.

Figure 29. Space for crawler crane

Design aspects - - - - - - - - - - - Crane position and lifting capacities Lifting speed and speed of erection Space for mobile cranes or crawler cranes (see figure 29) Easy access to connections Clean construction process Tolerances Easy and fast erection Erection sequence Filling of joints with grout / mortar Casting rcc topping (see figure 30) Position of props and supporting structures

Figure 30. Casting rcc topping

Typical Details - Commercial Buildings Commercial buildings are generally constructed with false ceilings and therefore the usage of precast wall panels with corbels is preferred. The advantage of this solution is the direct load transfer from wall to wall and there is more space for seating of the floor units and connections. For commercial buildings large spans are required because of flexibility and hollow core slabs are best suited in this case (see figures 31 and 32). Typical Details - Residential Buildings In residential buildings the precast walls with corbels are not preferred by the client. Also the floor spans are smaller and the advantages of hollow core are diminished (see figure 33). Precast planks with rcc topping become a more feasible option with advantages like better structural behavior, more flexibility, weight reduction and easier to install MEP services (see figure 34).

Figure 31. Typical detail precast wall with hollow core slab

Figure 32. Typical detail of sandwich panel with hollow core

Figure 33. Typical detail of precast wall with hollow core

Figure 34. Typical detail of precast wall with plank floor

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Precision Precast LTd (PPL)

Malu Group

Focus Precast Concrete

Hollowcore Manufacturing and Factory Design

Stephen Carr C Eng MI Mech E


Managing Director Spiroll Precast Services Ltd.,

This document is designed to provide guidance and outline the main considerations in the initial planning of a Hollowcore plant. The information presented is based on 40 years of Spiroll experience. To summarise the key points: - The Plant should be planned with both the short term and long term capacity targets for hollowcore manufacture based on beds numbers and length. The normal bed length can vary from 60 to 150 metres - 120 metres is the most common as it provides good flexibility and fits well in to the daily production cycle. - The aim of any plant is to achieve maximum efficiency by filling every bed every day. To achieve this, adequate time must be allowed for curing the concrete, cutting the slabs to length, lifting the slabs and cleaning and preparing the beds for casting again. Of particular importance is the curing time as the strength of the concrete must be adequate to hold the bond when the wires are cut. Before releasing the tension in the free strand to transfer the strain energy into the concrete, the concrete must have enough strength. - The factory layout must also take account of finished product handling and storage, concrete batching and distribution, and maintenance and service requirements. - An economic approach to the investment is to have staged investment. The factory layout should then include provision for immediate and future production levels so that the production can grow to meet market demand without disrupting the ongoing production. - A low cost start-up can also be considered with minimal plant. This can be achieved with mobile plant, initially handling of the concrete and the product can be with a five tonne forklift. This system can be replaced by a gantry cranes, overhead cranes or travel lifts in the future. - This system using extruder casting machines with mobile plant can be extended to a mobile hollowcore production plant. In this way the plant is sited at the construction project site and moved when the project is complete.
Hollowcore Slabs In terms of selling hollowcore slabs into your local market, the slab is a versatile precast element that can be utilised in a wide range of applications and thus expand the available markets. Few building materials available today offer the economy, flexibility and reliability of precast prestressed concrete. The advantages of hollowcore slabs are significant for the following reasons: Durability: Hollowcore slabs provide long-term performance in extremely harsh conditions that could destroy lesser materials. It is extremely resilient to deterioration from the weather and the dense concrete and high cover to the steel allows design for high fire ratings. Speed: Factory production of hollowcore allows the producer to have full control over all the variables, which affect the durability, strength and appearance of the slab. The high quality and excellent finishes of the slabs reduce site work to an absolute minimum. Flexibility: Hollowcore slabs used for floors have good soffits which allow for direct application of ceiling finishes. They can also be used for wall panels. Speed and economy make them a good solution to which can add decorative finishes by using a thin layer of different aggregates and colours on the soffits and tops of the slabs.

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Economical: Hollowcore slabs themselves are up to 30% lighter than the equivalent in-situ floor. With the prestress and the low self weight, longer spans can be achieved for the same loads or greater loads for the same depths. The building foundations can be lighter as they are required to support less weight. Alternatively the number of supporting columns and beams can be significantly reduced. Hollowcore therefore gives the opportunity for longer spans, greater loads and less foundation costs. Features of High Freq. Vibration - Fire resistance (2-4 hours fire rating) depending on design - High density product - No strand slippage - Low cement content - Greater span/depth characteristics - Consistent camber - Greater span load characteristic - Eliminates costly propping during installation - All weather construction - Immediate working surface - Custom made to length and detail - Excellent sound barrier (due to hollows) - Carpet direct top surface - Speedy erection, reducing interim financing - Maintenance free - Economical long line Production - Unlimited design possibilities, compatible with almost all building materials - Flexibility in design and application In summary there are a variety of uses for hollowcore with applications for floors, roofs and wall panels being the most common. Also some of the more innovative producers

have found use for hollowcore in such projects as parking decks, bridge deck (permanent forms), basement walls, retaining walls, pedestrian bridges and parapet walls (air displacement). Tests and Approvals Hollowcore slabs have world-wide recognition and acceptance as a building element. Many tests have been done for different purposes and in different countries. The design of hollowcore is covered in the British Standards, the EC by Euro Codes and in the USA by the Precast Concrete Institute (PCI). Many tests on hollowcore have been carried out initiated by some of the early tests, for example - Report on Structural Test on Spiroll Extruded Hollow Core Slabs, Report K68-05 Stockholm, Sweden, August 1968. - Report on Test to Demonstrate the Adequacy of Floor or Roof Assemblies using Spiroll Panels (By: S.B. Barnes and Associates). - In addition to the published design codes mentioned above some more recent publications included. The Extrusion Process The most common casting system for casting hollowcore is the extruder. It was the Worlds first machine for producing hollowcore slabs that did not require a separate driving force to move the machine along the production bed. The same effort that feeds the concrete mix through the machine and forms it into the final precast slab also provides the motivation to drive the extruder along the bed. This natural process propels the extruder along the production bed and allows the compacted concrete to reach the required density.

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With high frequency (HF) vibration in the Spiroll machines, the intense vibration and pressure within the machines, means the concrete mix is effectively plasticised during the short time that it is passed through the extruder. This results in dense concrete with little air retention and moulds the concrete to form the required section. The formed slab then reverts to its dry state and reaches a density high enough to stand on the slab immediately after the extrusion process. After a period of natural or accelerated curing, the slabs are then cut to length, stripped from the casting bed and transported to the storage area. Concrete strength of a minimum of 35N/mm2 is required to hold the bond between the concrete and the strands. The casting beds are prepared by cleaning and the application of a release agent. The high tensile steel strands are pulled down the length of the bed and stressed. The extruder hopper is filled with concrete and the machine moves along the bed, pushed by the pressure generated by the compacted concrete. The casting takes one and half to two hours depending on the length of the bed. The daily routine is established depending on the number of beds to be cast and the shift operated. Extruders are by far the simplest hollowcore machine on the market in terms of their design and ease of use. Once the machine has been commissioned and set-up to suit the local material, it simply requires the required mix to be put in the hopper and the machine to be started. Some adjustment of the mix may be necessary to achieve the desired quality and curing times and once set, one man is required to operate the machine. Maintenance is extremely easy. Wear components are designed for extended life. The simplicity, reliability, low maintenance, low labour costs and high strength of the finished product make the machine extremely popular and have stood the test of time with many reputable customers. Extruders are capable of producing hollow core slabs from depths of 150mm-470mm with widths from 600mm1800mm. Factory Design Scope of Plant Layout The layout of a new plant should be considered with a view to the future requirement for increased numbers of beds. This leads to reviewing the product handling and the distribution of the concrete. Consideration is required of the maintenance facility, the drainage, access, wiring of the beds, stressing of the beds and storage of the finished product. For a low cost start up, the plant would be designed with a

production facility with two (2) 120 meters long Production Beds and 1.2 metres wide. This will provide an approximate output of 65,000m2 of slabs per annum based on an average of two hundred fifty (250) working days per year. Provision would be made for future expansion by the addition of two (2) to four (4) identical beds in the future. The basic system would include one (1) extruder; one (1) saw, stressing equipment and lifting equipment. By locating the mixer in the middle of the factory the distribution of the concrete and the lifting and handling of the finished product can be completed with two overhead cranes. This minimizes the travel time for the concrete and allows the second crane to continue with other activities. If concrete is to be distributed to more than one bay then a batching plant at the end of the factory is usually necessary. Concrete distribution can then be aided by using an overhead travelling bucket and transfer crane. With both systems, overhead cranes are used to strip the product. Also the opportunity exists to extend the crane longitudinal travel beyond the production buildings. This enables it to be used for transfer of product to the yard and some for yard functions in the future. The batching plant should have the provision for handling of two (2) or three (3) aggregates and silo storage of cement. Batch size should match the machine usage of concrete to ensure continuous operation during casting. Transport of the concrete delivery skip/buckets to the extruder is accomplished by forklift truck(s), overhead cranes or other suitable methods. Stressing Abutments and Production Bed foundations are to be designed as per details provided by your consultant and Soil Investigation Report provided by the customers. Civil Work - Foundations for Batch Plant, electrical and mechanical

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Perma Construction Aids Pvt.Ltd

Stewols India (P) Ltd

Focus Precast Concrete

distribution centre and cement silos. - Roofed, insulated structure to cover production area ( Although this depends on local climate). - Fully enclosed areas for parts storage and maintenance. Production Beds The bed length is dictated by a number of factors. These factors are plant capacity, available space, concrete distribution time, batch size, bed production time, flexibility of product depth and strand patterns, bed utilisation and bed end wastage. Shorter Production Beds give quicker production cycle time. They are more flexible for scheduling of multiple machine sizes, but are not so productive. We would normally recommend a bed length of 120 metres if space is available. In practise bed lengths vary between 60m to 150m. Bed construction techniques vary, but generally heavier construction gives more dimensional stability and longer life. To reduce heat loss insulation should be installed under the beds. Hot water pipe for heating is installed above the insulation. The bed can be filled with concrete, before turning onto insulation to improve bed stability and reduce transmission of vibration. Abutments The capacity of the abutment design should take account of future requirements for deeper hollowcore slabs as a small additional cost at the installation stage will save significant costs later (The stressing load for a 500mm deep unit could be as high as 400 tonnes). When preparing the ground works for the abutments provision should be made for future beds to minimise costs. Fixed Steel Posts The simplest and cheapest method is to have fixed steel posts at both ends of the production bed. With this method the strands are tensioned individually using a hydraulic pump unit and stressing jack. These posts can be in line with the stressing load or a deflected strand system can be used with the post below the bed level. This later system allows strand patterns to be readily changed, facilitates drainage and is a safer system. If shock-detensioningis employed there is a potential for cracking and damaging to the slabs. Extra care needs to be taken when cutting the strand. Preferable is the slow release of tension using a hydraulic detensioning system.

Hydraulic Detensioning System To avoid the problems associated with shock detensioning, Spiroll has developed a simple and cost effective hydraulic detensioning system. The design of the abutment is based on two posts, which are cast on site into the concrete at an angle; this allows the highest point of the assembly to be below the level of the beds. The Stress is transferred to the posts by a yoke, which fits over the posts and is locked off, to allow the hydraulic detensioning assembly to be fitted and removed. Multi-Stressing System The most effective system for stressing and release of tension is hydraulic multi-stressing. This method allows all the strands to be both stressed and detensioning at the same time. Multi-stressing significantly reduces the time it takes to stress and eliminates the possibility of bond slip or damage to the slabs caused by shock detensioning. However this is the more expensive option and not recommended for start ups. Drainage Control of the water used during sawing, and maintaining a uniform level of water on the bed ahead of the casting machine can be achieved more easily if the beds or the channels between beds are installed with a fall of approximately 3 to 4mm per metre of bed run, over the length of the beds. Production Processes Batching/Mixing Concrete usage is approximately 1m3 every 6minutes per machine. For concrete distribution to match a batch size of 1m3 is preferable. To run two machines together the

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minimum batching capacity would therefore be 20 to 30m3/ h (note: if the pan size is reduced then the capacity needs to be increased). Needs only 20-70 litres of water but must be accurate to 1litre. Admix needs to be able to mix with water before going into mix. Concrete Mix Design The Spiroll system uses an extremely dry concrete mix, typically a water/cement ratio of approximately of 0.30 The mix design will depend on the availability of local cement and aggregates and can be easily fined tuned to suit local conditions. To reduce curing times and to allow double casting within a 24-hour period the cement proportions can be increased. A survey of customers suggests that the proportion of course to fine aggregates does vary to suit local conditions. Admix is normally not required but can be added to improve flow and workability with angular aggregates or assist to reduce curing times. Material Recommendations Course Aggregates: 10mm/14mm Aggregates (Max. Size 16mm for mechanical clearance). Irregular shape is recommended. Extremes of very rounded or extremely angular respective are prone to sagging and lower speeds or are difficult to compact. Sand: Clean Zone 2 or equivalent. Cement: Cement can be normal Portland cement or high early strength cement as they contribute to workability and benefit to rapid curing. Water: This could range from 23 to 70 litres per cubic meter of mix depending on the moisture content and/or degree of absorption of the aggregates. Admix: Admixtures may be useful for workability or set control, but are not normally required.
Method
Forklift Portal Crane

Concrete Distribution While the Extruder is the heart of the Hollowcore Plant, additional equipment is essential to perform other tasks. Most important is the transportation of the concrete mix from the batching plant to the Extruder. Delivery of the concrete must match the requirements of the Extruder so that it does not run out of mix and slow down production. Several methods of concrete delivery can be used such as overhead cranes, fork lifts or automated Concrete Distribution Systems (CDS).
Method
90 Cross Cut
0

Benefits
Low initial cost Faster cutting times Cut slabs longitudinally when still wet, which is faster Cuts any angle and long cuts on the bed Frees up production bed faster. Cheap method of cutting angles

Disadvantages
Need a secondary cutting station for long and angle cuts Poorer Finish

Long Rip Cuts

Multi Angle Secondary Cutting Station

Heavy and more expen Sive Saw Two stage cutting

To maintain continuity of supply of concrete to a Spiroll Extruder producing (as an example) a 200mm deep slab would require 1m3 every 6/7 minutes. The Extruder can be stopped between loads but it is preferable to maintain the continuity of the casting once the line has been started. The permissible standing time before the machine has to be lifted clear of the curing concrete would be established by trials but would normally be between 5 and 10 minutes. When delivering concrete the transfer between skips should be kept to a minimum to avoid segregation. The skip should be bottom opening with a wide mouth (1m2) to avoid trapping and segregation of the stone from the fines. Using an average extrusion speed of 1.2m/min and a Bed length of 120 metres, the casting time per bed would be around 100 minutes. Transfer for lifting of the Extruder, setting-up, cleaning time etc. would add approximately 15 minutes. Consideration should be given to the systems available to distribute the concrete as follows. Curing The curing process is the longest part of the production cycle. As such it is critical to the overall production cycle time.

Benefits
Low initial cost Readily available Low cost, reliable, flexible, no building required Low cost, reliable, flexible, clear of floor space, faster than Portal Crane Automation, more than one bay, speed, low labour content

Disadvantages
Floor space required Reduced floor space Danger of Legs Part of building Cost of structural supports

Overhead Gantry crane

CDS System

High cost of investment, maintenance. Poor reliability

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This means that all efforts to reduce this process will most affect the whole length of the production cycle. By having a concrete mix with a low water content the curing time is greatly reduced. The application of heat into the cast slabs through pipes under the bed initiates and accelerates the curing of the concrete. The Production Beds can be heated by either hot oil steam or hot water. Of these hot water is the cheapest to install and maintain and is by far the most popular as it is reliable, cost effective and manageable. Inlet temperatures of 60 80c should be maintained with enough flow to maintain outlet temperatures at around 25 35c. To ensure good early strengths, the beds should be hot when casting and the heat applied during the casting to maintain a concrete temperature of 60 degree centigrade. To trap the moisture and for efficient use of heat the product should be covered at the earliest opportunity after casting. Plastic sheet can be used but for efficiency particularly in colder climates the concrete should be covered with a good quality insulated sheet. Cutting the Slabs The estimated time for a cut is 1 to 2 minutes. With moving and positioning this gives a cycle time of 4 to 5 minutes per cut. The blades are diamond tipped and require water during the cutting process. Water can supplied to the saw using a hose Cable Reeler or directly with a trailing hose. The later is not an efficient system. Lifting (Stripping) Clamps Special Lifting Clamps are utilised to lift the product off the beds either by crane or forklift. The product can be transferred from the bed to the Stock Yard by crane, boggie trailers, forklift, purpose made lifters or directly onto trailer. Care is required to match the logistics of handling the finished product with the production cycle to ensure the beds are stripped at the optimum rate. Transporting Slabs Options for transfer of product are:- Forklift Truck Front Loader - Forklift Truck Side Loader - Stacker Lifters - Overhead Crane - Direct onto road trailers - Low trailer system - Bogie Trolleys The production rate will call for movement of: approximately 80 square metres per hour (or approximately 8 to 10 pieces per hour assuming average lengths 6 to 8 metres).

Preparing the Beds Once the hollowcore slabs have been cut to length and lifted away from the production beds, the beds then need to be cleaned and oiled. The prestressing strands are then pulled the full length of the bed from the strand dispensers, threaded through the abutments and the anchors fitted prior to stressing. The stages of preparation are: - - - - - - Clean the Casting Bed Clean the Bed Rails Push Debris off the Bed Spray the Bed Oil/Release Agent Pull the Prestressing Wires/Strands Stress the Wires/Strand

These activities can be done by hand. Equipment is also available to speed up the processes and reduce the labour costs. Quality Control Equipment Efficient Hollowcore Production requires good quality control systems to ensure the consistent quality of the aggregates, the concrete, curing conditions, good bond and dimensional accuracy of the finished product. To achieve this, the normal aggregate testing and cube testing equipment is required. Consistent concrete is achieved with batching calibration procedures. Preparation of the cubes with heavy vibration to match the extruder is necessary and extra cubes should be made to check the transfer strength of the concrete is required in addition to the 28 day strengths. Stressing and detensioning procedures require to be established with correct calibration. Conclusion The manufacture of hollowcore is not difficult. Low cost start up units can be designed with the potential to increase the capacity to match future demand. The degree of automation depends upon the capacity required and the local cost of labour to ensure good pay back periods. Start up factories can be run with a low level of automation; this will reduce the capital expenditure and increase the reliability of the plant. A high standard of product can be guaranteed by using the correct procedures and equipment. High Frequency Vibration Extruders as made by SPIROLL produce the strongest and most consistent product.

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Trichy Civil Services

Buildtech India Corporation

Focus Precast Concrete

An Overview of Construction of Buildings in Precast Concrete

Mangesh Kumar Hardas

Director, Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

India is developing at a very rapid rate with a result that demand is far more than the current pace of construction. With growing standards of living and the presence of multinationals in India, the expectations on quality have also increased. This has led to adaption of innovative methodologies in construction which reduce the requirement of manpower and material and increase efficiencies, quality and pace of construction. Precast concrete construction fulfills most of the requirements. And therefore, though not new to India, precast concrete construction is only now gaining acceptance in an unprecedented manner. The principles for structural design for precast concrete mostly remain the same as that for conventional in situ construction. However there are a few nuances arising due to the fact that concrete is cast away from the location where the element is supposed to be for its service life. Beautiful shapes and architectural finishes can be achieved which otherwise are very difficult or even impossible to achieve in a conventional in situ construction.

ike the game of Lego, Precast concrete buildings are structures made up of numerous small individual elements of concrete cast at an off-site location. These precast elements such as beams, columns, slabs and walls are transported to the site for assemblage and erection. Wind and earthquake loads are resisted by moment carrying connections of beams to columns for moment frame resistance, and coupling of wall elements together for composite shear wall resistance. Thus, generally in precast concrete buildings, the individual element on its own plays no role in gravity and lateral resistance. It is the assembly of all these elements by proper connections which gives the building its stability against vertical and lateral resistance. Precast concrete usually is either ordinary reinforced concrete or prestressed reinforced concrete. Prestressing gives advantages of reduced cross-sections and steel requirements (reduced weights). However, prestressing needs additional equipments, abutments etc. Precast Concrete is either a factory-cast (off-site) precast or site-cast (on-site) depending on the volume of work and logistics. Factory cast is typically more popular. Factory cast precast gives more control to the producer and the designer with better options for prestressing, architectural finishes and grade of concrete. A better quality can be

obtained as workers and supervisors are well trained and experienced. Work does not hamper due to bad weather. Site-cast precast is adopted when the project volume is so large that setting up a plant at site is economical. It is also adopted when the transport of precast products becomes very expensive or difficult due to large distances and adverse road conditions. Setting up of long line prestressed beds is difficult on site and may not be economical, hence most of the site-cast precast is non-prestressed. Wet concrete is poured in forms (moulds) and stripped out when it attains certain minimum strength. It is stored in a storage area and later transported to the site for erection. Forms are basically either stationary steel plate forms or Tilting tables or battery moulds or moving carrousel systems with production pallets. Selection of a system depends upon the volume of production of a particular element and flexibility desired in production. There are various patented systems for forms systems available in India. When compared to conventional construction, precast formwork can be vibrated in place using vibrating tables thereby giving excellent quality. In case of precast formwork it is very important to maintain shapes and dimensional accuracies (tolerances) or else the product may not fit at

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Focus Precast Concrete

its place at the time of erection. Steam curing and heating of the bed is possible in precast formwork which increases the rate of strength gain of concrete. Precast formwork presents unlimited possibilities of architectural finishes such as brick, stone, ribbed finish sand blasted or acid itched exposed aggregates. Cost of precast concrete structures comes down with repetitions. Sound Architectural and Structural Planning is a must. With precast just starting up in India, a regular precast concrete building may seem to be expensive at the estimation stage when compared to conventional one. However when completed, the cost of structure in Precast would come out to be lesser as the construction period is significantly less, thus substantially reducing the effect of spiraling costs of building materials. Time saved would bring in additional benefits. Procedure of Precast Concrete Construction Construction procedure of precast concrete buildings starts with architectural planning. Architect should be fully aware that the building would be made using precast components. Converting an existing plan designed for conventional reinforced concrete into precast would result in expensive and difficult propositions. There are some inherent advantages of precast concrete and some drawbacks which must be considered at the planning stage only. The architect should be aware of precast options available to him. Early involvement of precast specialty structural engineer and precast manufacturers is always advantageous. 3D models made using software result in accurate and speedy construction. Selection of a particular element in the building depends on the availability of the technology with the local precast manufacturer or in case setting up of the plant by the contractor the economics of the formwork and cost of setting up of plant. For example whether to use Hollowcore or half slab or solid slab for slabs will depend on the spans intended, loads, volume of work, speed of work desired and availability of any nearby manufacturer. A 2.4m wide hollowcore slab spanning say 10m or more will be very fast to erect, thus reducing the erection time and maybe costs. However if there are a lot of non-structural partition walls, the cost of these should be also considered. There are many light weight low cost options available now. Once the production is done, the elements are usually stacked in a yard preferably close to the construction site. In project planning phase, the availability and cost hiring of such land for limited period should be considered. The maximum weight and size is governed by local transportation limitations. It makes sense to consider

transporting of maximum number of elements in a single trip. The sizes of elements considered while planning should not overlook this aspect. Erection is done with the help of cranes. These cranes are huge with capacities depending upon the weight of precast element to be erected at the farthest distance from the crane. There are various cranes namely crawler or mobile cranes, tower cranes and tower cranes on the rails. Erection sequence is a specialized job and one has to take care of stresses generated during erection. Temporary shoring may be needed to handle such stresses. Type of Elements and Production Methods Precast buildings are made up of structural and nonstructural elements, which may be prestressed or non prestressed based on the use. Prestressed systems are usually long line systems wherein large numbers of elements are produced in a single bed. Typical elements produced in such a system are Hollowcore planks, Double Tee floor elements, Spandrels and Inverted Tee girders. A prestressed bed needs stressing abutments at the ends and a long form in-between. Generally, the forms for prestressing elements are either self stressing forms which take the hydrostatic forces of concrete and compressive forces from prestressing, or non-selfstressing or free forms which take only hydrostatic forces leaving the compressive forces coming from prestressing to the abutments. End abutments for stressing is a good solution but sometimes one needs setup for small quantity of elements where self stressing beds can be used. Sometimes post tensioning is also done within the factory for small number of elements. The forms must be designed properly so that they do not deform during any of the operations of production - pouring concrete, vibrating, stressing, distressing and stripping the element out of form. The end product must comply with the specified tolerances as specified in the BIS codes. Maximum reuse of formwork is the key to economy. The Architect must keep the number of different shapes to a minimum and design shapes which can be stripped easily, preferably cast in single pour. Even so, it should achieve the desired edges, surfaces and textures. Typically forms should be made for standard cross sections of columns, beams etc. The Architect should try to use these standard sizes as much as possible so that new forms are not required to be made. The form side(s) of the precast are usually on exterior of the building. When a panel is cast horizontal, the bottom side may be exposed aggregate, rubber form lined (to give

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Focus Precast Concrete

desired texture) or just plain surface. The upper surface of the concrete in the mould which is not as smooth is on the interior of the building. The interior edges of the form should be radiused or chamfered at least 10mm to avoid edge damage during stripping. This can be done using chamfer strips made up of wood or steel. In long line - prestressed method of casting during detensioning of strands concrete shortens, and so the inside forms need to be removed before detensioning. The design should be such that these inside forms can be removed without disturbing the strands. The form surface against which concrete is cast should be smooth. These are cleaned by wirebrush, scrapping, scrubbing and even chipping. The form sheet should be thick and strong enough to maintain its smooth surface. The plywood used is raisin coated. If steel bed is chosen, which normally is the case, magnetic systems can be used to fix side forms. Side forms are needed for not only defining the boundaries of the panel but also for door and window openings. Heavier construction of formwork as a rule, gives more dimensional stability and helps reduce transmission of vibration and results in longer life. Fabrication tolerances are typically half the product tolerances. The steel forms have thickness of plates of about 5mm to 8mm and have gussets at every 200mm to 500mm depending upon the forces. The smoother the steel surface, the better is the finish. Sometimes accelerated curing is achieved by heating. To do so, elobrate piping is done under the form bed and hot water or steam is passed through it. To reduce heat loss, insulation is installed under the beds. The pipe for heating is placed above the insulation. Vertical Elements In a long line method, there is a long form of about 50m to 100m with side fixed rail on one side which makes the common side for all the panels. The second rail is usually movable and is kept such that it is on the largest width in the pack. Others in-between are wooden. Sometimes the bed is capable of vibrating and heating. Tilting tables are used to cast wall panels. These tables are equipped with heating and vibrating bed as well. Tilting tables are hydraulically operated and are horizontal at the time of casting. At the time of striping, tilting tables tilt to almost vertical thus need lifting inserts only on the edges. They also reduce the steel required or can be stripped quickly.
Figure 2 - Tilting Table Figure 1 - A long moving Prestressed bed showing blockouts

Battery moulds are designed for the vertical fabrication wall panels. Each layer can have a variable area and reinforcement. They consist of bulkheads between which 5 to 10 panels can be simultaneously formed. Vibrators facilitate the effective compacting of concrete. Battery moulds offer to produce architectural wall panels with both inside and outside surfaces as smooth. Another system is based on production pallets (a steel table) which pass through various workstations manually over a set off protruding wheels before concrete products are complete. Various transport systems (such as central

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Robbins Tunneling & Trenchless Technology (I) Pvt. Ltd

Focus Precast Concrete

shifter, side shifters, and rollers) transport the pallets from workstation to workstation. Each workstation has a role preparing, concreting, curing and stripping. This system offers the flexibility of horizontal casting and economizes

2.4m. These are typically 150mm, 200mm, 250mm or thicker. These have hollows in them saving concrete and reducing the weight. The spans of hollowcore slabs vary from few meters to usually a maximum of 15m though it could be more based on use and thickness. Manufacture of hollowcore is a propriety system and a hollowcore machine manufacturer normally provides the equipment and beds. No side forms are required as hollowcore production needs a very dry mix concrete and remains there on its own. For larger spans such as 20m, Double Tees are used. These are prestressed elements with very high strength to weight ratio. Parking garages, podiums and IT buildings can be made using these. Triple Tees and Single Tees have also being used. Other types of slabs used in precast construction are Solid Slabs, Half Slabs, Lattice Girder Slabs, etc. These can be prestressed or non prestressed with or without voids. Prestressed slabs can span longer and be more economical with reinforcement however one time setup cost is more.

Figure 3 - Battery Mould

on tilting table. Strong magnetic systems are available which help in fixing the side forms. The force is more than 500kgs for a magnetic clamp of 5kgs. A fully automated system called carrousel system is also available. It is computer controlled and gives a very high rate of production. Lattice Girder Slabs can be made with such a system. Double wall formwork is essentially the same but it additionally needs a system to rotate one half of the already cast and set slab all around and keep it on the one which is recently concreted. Columns and Beams Usually precasters keep standard width and height forms. Column forms are usually non prestressed and can be made up of steel or wood. The sides of these forms can be detached. Long line prestressed forms have arrangements for prestressing steel. They need permanent abutments and hence are fixed to a particular place.

Formwork for IT beams

Steel Formwork for Rectangular Column

Figure 7 Lattice Girder Slab

Conclusions
Figure 6 Double Tee as a roof under construction and its typical section

Slabs Worldwide, approximately half of the floors used in commercial and domestic buildings are of precast concrete. It offers both design and cost advantages over conventional methods. Hollowcore slabs are available in the widths of 1.2m or

Precast project needs a lot of thinking to go into the process in the planning phase of the project. All related activities such as casting, curing, stacking, transport and erection are required to be planned and finalized on paper at the start as per project timelines. There are various systems available for manufacture of precast elements. There are various ways to configure a building. The most economical method depends on the building type. Regular buildings can be most economical with precast concrete.

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Communication Feature

Truck Loader Cranes: Extremely Versatile Machines


ALFINGER, a company with 80 years of history behind, has been pioneering in the field of technology for lifting and shifting... Today the company is recognised as World No. 1 in the field of Truck Loader Cranes. With its global base across 5 continents and manufacturing prowess, Palfinger Truck Loader Crane is redefining the scope of transportation .. loading and unloading is an integral solution with transportation, when the truck is fitted with PALFINGER Crane. Concept The Indian transport and logistics industry is in long overdue for this performance and efficiency enhancing equipment. Indeed it is an high cost investment in today's scenario, in which the truck is dependent on another mobile crane, but the return on this investment is fast, as there is substantial saving in

Knuckle Boom Crane with Orange Peel Grab Handling Construction

operational expense and increased profitability thru efficiency enhancement. PALFINGER Truck Loader Crane is

really a MULTIFUNCTIONAL Equipment ... the possibility of having hydraulic power in the boom end, enables the Truck loader Crane to be attached with various sorts of Hydraulic attachments in order to handle the challenge of different shapes, sizes and forms of materials. It is no exaggeration to say that no load is beyond reach, when one is a proud owner of truck fitted with Palfinger Crane. New Product Launched Palfinger is the first company to manufacture global truck loader cranes in India and launched two variants of stiff boom crane viz. PS 8000 4.0 and PS 13000 6.3 in the year 2011. PS 8000 can lift 4 Ton load with ease and PS 13000 is very efficient in lifting load of 6Ton at 2 meter distance. Newly developed Palfinger stiff boom cranes are having more lifting power on each load lifting distance than any other crane available in same class. Thanks to use of high grade steel, these cranes are designed for optimal dead weight,

Stiff Boom Crane Handling Hume Pipes

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thereby not only providing more lifting power, but also creating opportunity for more payload. Palfinger stiff boom cranes are Powerful yet simple machines which provides power of self loading and unloading to the truck integrated with the transportation. Palfinger cranes with brick grab attachment has potential to change the conventional loading and unloading of bricks: Advantages With humongous growth in Indian infrastructure segment, construction is all around ... landscape on Indian cities are changing faster than ever. In most of the cases, modern day building is built with Concrete or Fly Ash bricks or blocks. Palfinger Crane fitted with Brick Clamp can ensure on time and safe delivery of Bricks without any intervention or engagement of manpower and with 100% safety. Palfinger has 8 to 18 tonmeter Crane which can handle various

sizes and weight of blocks. This wide capacity range of crane ensures the possibility of fitment of equipments on various sizes of trucks, which can be helpful to abide traffic restriction and ensure the logistic is possible round the clock. With minimal time taken for loading and unloading with consistency and precision, the truck can make more trip and adds up to profitability. Palfinger Truck Loader Cranes are used in various Applications: Palfinger Truck Loader Cranes are extensively used in various industries in India doing varied jobs like: Brick, Tiles, Paver Block handling, Metal Scrap Handling, Sand and bulk material loading, Prefabricated steel structures lifting, pre cast drain handling and laying, Spun pipes handling and laying, Street Light /Over head electricity maintenance, lifting transformers and gensets, Prefabricated Modular Offices and cabins handling, Off the road truck tyres handling, as a utility equipment for

Knuckle Boom Crane with Fly Gib.

construction equipment service vehicles, lifting cars for traffic department etc . Clients Palfinger truck loader cranes are welcomed by many corporate companies like L&T, Afcons, ITD, Jindal Steel and Power Ltd, PMC, Ultratech, Tata Metaliks to name a few and considered as safest alternative of conventional Pick n Carry Cranes by the industry specialists. Network PALFINGER India strongly believes in moving closer to its customers. It has fortified its presence not only in India but also in its neighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan & Bangladesh. It has an ever-increasing sales and service network with well qualified and experienced workforce deployed across all strategic locations in India. It has also built a strong independent dealership network through 20 strong enterprises.

For further details:


PALFINGER Cranes India Pvt. Ltd.
15th Floor, Ambience Court, Opp Vashi RTO Office, Sector 19 C Vashi, Navi Mumbai - 400705 Ph: +91-22-41126200 E-mail: s.poorvi@palfinger.com Web: www.palfinger-india.com
Knuckle Boom Crane Handling Bricks

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Columbia Pakona Engineering Pvt.Ltd

Interview

Industry Interaction: Steel Fibre Flooring


What are the benefits of Dramix steel fiber reinforced floors? Initially, floors were applied either plainly or reinforced with conventional reinforcing steel welded meshes & Rebars. It was, however, only in the early seventies that the first experimental work was undertaken with Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete (SFRC). SFRC is defined as concrete, containing discontinuous steel fibres, which are homogeneously mixed into the concrete. Dramix steel fibres are designed especially for the reinforcement of concrete and are made of prime quality hard-drawn steel wire to ensure high tensile strength at extremely close tolerance along with hooked ends, they deliver optimum anchorage. Dramix Technical & Economic advantages The use of Dramix reinforced concrete reduces the construction time of the floor compared to mesh reinforcement. The floor thickness can be reduced by using Dramix steel fibres. Dramix steel fibres with a high l/d ratio offer the most economical solution compared to other types of steel fibres. A Dramix steel fibre floor offers the best cost/performance ratio. Approx 8-22 % Saving per M ^2 of a floor * An increase in load bearing capacity due to the redistribution of stresses . Reinforcement throughout the full depth offers excellent crack - control. Optimal resistance against impact and dynamic loads . Joint spacings can considerably be increased . Phenomenal increase in post crack strength No labor involvement to store and handle reinforcement steel at job site. Increase in load bearing capacity due to redistribution of stresses. Drastic Improvement in fatigue resistance. Avoids wastage of steel reinforcement providing and an increased economy rate of 5 to 10 %. Dramix glued together bundles offer homogeneous distribution and can easily be added in the batching plant or in the truck mixer.

Ganesh Chaudhari
General Manager Building Products Bekaert Industries Pvt. Ltd.

Mr. Ganesh Chaudhari is a Civil engineer with 15 years exposure to construction technology and steel reinforcement industry. Having begun his career as a pre-stressing engineer at Freyssinet, moved on to sales and then into marketing at Tata Steel, He has been involved in the design and application of steel fiber reinforced concrete for the last 9 years. Speaking exclusively to 'The Masterbuilder', Mr. Ganesh Chaudhrai, sharing with us his immense knowledge and experience, has addressed the various topics surrounding Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Below are the excerpts of his interview.

How green are steel fiber reinforced industrial floors? Dramix steel fibres minimize the impact on the environment Using less steel for the same strength compared to rebar. Using at least 20% recycled steel in the production process. Producing in ISO 14001 certified plants. Creating Green products. Allowing to build durable structures.

Dramix glued together bundles offer homogeneous distribution and high tensile strength. Mechanical anchorage (hooks)at the ends foroptimal pull-out resistance

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MRT Chemcials Pvt. Ltd.

ACD Machine Control Co.Pvt. Ltd

Relyon Facility Services Pvt. Ltd

Kalyan Industries

Interview

Bekaerts Dramix steel fibres, used to reinforce concrete constructions, allow a reduction in the energy consumed per cubic meter of concrete, by 26%, when compared to the classical steel rebar solution. Typically what are the steps involved in laying steel fiber reinforced industrial floors? Unlike during the laying of rebars/ mesh reinforced floors Dramix reinforced floors need less labor involvement, and is not time consuming placing of the mesh/rebar Executing quality floors involve Sub base preparation. Preparation, detailing. Concrete & addition of Dramix steel fibres. Pouring & finishing. Saw cuts. Curing of concrete panels.

and builders have considerably cut down on the under-construction time by using new construction technologies and construction aids. This has led to decrease in the overall operational expenditures and also improved the construction quality. Though such formulations have been limited for use in only large-scale infrastructure projects like up market private constructions, it is expected that the usage will slowly pick up in all the other construction areas as well. Are there any particular industrial sectors that according to you are driving the demand for SFRC industrial floors? The logistics sector has been growing at an impressive rate of 8 to 10 per cent per annum since 2002 .The World Bank's report in 2007 ranks India 39 amongst 150 countries in terms of logistics performance during the year as well as its future potential. Further, the Indian logistics industry is expected to grow annually at the rate of 15 to 20 per cent, reaching revenues of approximately US$ 385 billion by 2015.Fuelled by the increasing trend 3Part Logistics, including on the warehousing/ports & transport segment is estimated to grow at about 30 per cent annually. Apart from SFRC which are the other technologies that you feel have potential in India, with respect to industrial/commercial flooring? Infrastructure development has been on full swing in the country with large scale investments planned in both public works as well as private development projects. The construction techniques and aids are constantly changing, and with the constant efforts to reduce the total time for construction without adversely affecting the quality or worksmanship; products that can help attain these criteria are likely to achieve a control position. Give us a few examples of industrial flooring projects in India wherein your products have been used?

With a 110 Tons Axle load. Toyota Container Stacking Yard in Karnataka sprawled across an area of 17200 sqm, in their existing campus stacks 4 Full Containers of 26 Tons weight each and have a Kalmar Reach Stacker for the movement of containers. Bayer India decided to set up a chemical unit at Ankaleshwar in Bharuch district of Gujrat. Bekaert thus building the First superflat leak-proof floor in India. Liebherr CMCtec India Pvt. Ltd. manufactures products from the mixer and construction crane sectors at its location in Pune, India. The manufacturer required a flat floor with minimal joints, The solution offered was construction of 25m x 25m panel size. The selected design option was a SFRC Jointless floor.

Ensuring that the work is executed as Bekaert guidelines end result is a Dramix reinforced concrete slab with excellent load carrying capability, a technically superior solution providing an increased economy of 5-10 %. How big according to you, in terms of value, is the market for industrial flooring in India? The Indian economy is booming, with rates of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth exceeding 8% every year since 2003/04 One of the worlds fastest growing economies and growth expected to continue at 7-7.5% despite the global downturn India is one of the favorite destinations for investments. Nearly all of the infrastructure sectors present excellent opportunities, Public private partnerships (PPPs) are gaining in importance, and are benefiting from government support targeted PPP participation. Construction is the second largest economic activity in India after agriculture, and has been growing rapidly. The flooring industry in India is relatively unorganized. Contractors

Tell us about the support services provided by you to your clients for successful execution of industrial flooring projects. At Bekaert we do not believe in selling our product, we are a solution provider a partner to our clients. Our work does not end at supplying , to ensure that our product is used in the best manner and to its maximum advantage, we provide the Bekaert application engineering team on our clients site. This team ensures the correct use of Dramix SFRC for the flooring of the project , this service comes to the client with no additional cost and is a gesture from Bekaert ensuring our clients successful project execution. At Bekaert our motto of better together stands strong with our continuing focus on providing quality service to our customers and develop relationships built on trust.

For further details:


Bekaert Industries pvt. ltd.
E-mail: building.india@bekaert.com Web: www.bekaert.com

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Communication Feature

'Simplifying' the High-Rise


he magnanimous increase in urban and rural population has raised the need of building high rises. But, the conundrum stays that even with population increase there is a permanent deficit of labourers and work force. Labour has become pricey and unreliable making it a necessity for contractors & civil engineers to find other mechanised solutions. High Rise building needs a large workforce for moving bricks, cement, tiles, steel and other gamut of building material to every floor. Workforce unavailability heavily affect project timelines, and hence was conceptualized, designed & manufactured the 'JK Mini Crane'. Just as they say at Safari Your Necessity. Our Creation.

JK Mini Crane is used to lift material to every floor. Four models of mini crane are available with 150 kg, 300 kg, 500 kg & 1 Ton lifting capacity. Benefits of JK Mini Crane Gets the work done by 2-3 labourers No skilled labour required to operate the mini crane Highly affordable & decreases labour requirement on site Works anywhere! Available with single phase, three phase or diesel engine 360 degree rotation Detachable parts, easy to carry

JK Mini Crane is very safe to use due to the following features JK Mini Crane is unique because of

its design. It is this unique design that makes it very safe to use. A smart counter weight system, which only needs to be simply filled with sand makes itself balanced and well grounded. A minimum boom length of 2 meter ensures that the bucket does not hit any of the cantilever structures of the building and hence is very safe. Maximum boom length of 4 Meter available. Auto Mechanical Brakes stops the mini crane operation on power and/or on any drive failure. The 360 degree movement of the boom of the mini crane is controlled by an automatic locking system, so that when the mini crane is in operation,

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JK Mini 500

boom cannot be rotated or moved by accident. Applications & Clientele JK Mini Crane's utility is not limited to high rises, but has varied applications. Gannon Dunkerely & Co. Ltd is currently using JK mini crane at their SEPCO Power Plant Project, Korba, Chattisgarh.

L&T uses it for their ongoing residential project at Adani House, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Shapoorji Pallonji & Co. Ltd used JK mini crane in their project of strengthening the over 100 years old Walwan and Shirwata Dams, near Pune, Maharashtra. Jaypee group is currently using JK mini crane in the construction of Bina

Thermal Power Plant at Sagar, Madhya Pradesh. Safari Construction Equipments Pvt. Ltd. excels in manufacturing innovative and quality construction equipments. Their product range includes JK Tough Rider, Safari Mini Batching Plants, Safari Reversible Drum Mixers, Safari Concrete Mixers, Tremix De watering System and other miscellaneous construction equipments. Brigadier IPS Soin, Sr. General Manager at Jaypee Thermal Power Plant on Safari : I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for your excellent responsiveness in supplying the 'Safari Construction Products'. Your products are reliable and cost effective, also it so refreshing to receive prompt and professional service.

For further details:


Safari Construction Equipments Pvt. Ltd.
Plot 132, Phase II, GIDC, Gujarat, Bharuch - 392015. Ph: +91-2642-245224,
Fax: +91-2642-246740,

JK Mini 150

E-mail: contactus@safariequipments.co.in Web: www.safariequipments.co.in

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Techobl Expo 2012

Communication Feature

Setting New Benchmarks in Terrazzo Tiles and Concrete Block Making Machinery
The company has a modern manufacturing unit located in Bangalore India. The factory is equipped with world-class infrastructure consisting of the latest manufacturing equipment. Adequate care is also taken by the inhouse quality assurance team that every machine is inspected for various parameters before the actual delivery. The company has a team of experienced technicians who take care of every aspect including installation, erection and commissioning of the machinery. Speaking exclusively to The Masterbuilder, Mr. Ramesh, Managing Director of the company gave detailed insights into the company's range of machines, its quality assurance processes, and future plans. Here are excerpts from the interview. Give us an overview of your product range? We are the trendsetters in the field of Terrazzo Tiles machinery in the country. We have been the pioneers in this field for almost 25 years now. We are also considered among the leading manufacturers of Concrete Blocks making machinery in the country. Our range of machines include, popular names including, Parijatha paving block/tile making machine APM 216 HD, concrete block machines PBM Plus and PBM 06, three station rotary wet press, heavy-duty liner wet press for manufacturing of high density kerb stones and slabs. We also offer a wide range of mixers, conveyors, handling equipment and related equipment. What do you feel about the growth of the market for block making machinery in the country? The growing infrastructure development activities in the country have meant that a range of high quality precast concrete products are now in

Jayaram Ramesh,
MD, Sri Parijatha Machinery Works pvt. ltd.

ree Parijatha Machinery Works is a leading manufacturer and exporter of Terrazzo Tiles and Concrete Block making machinery in India since 22 years. The company offers a wide range of machines including, automatic block making machines, planetary mixers, conveyors and batching systems for tile and block plants, among others. Parijatha also has its own fullfledged Terrazzo tile and Block manufacturing plant working since 38 years, which helps the company to get immediate feedback of all the machines that it produces, apart from ensuring that it has vast expertise in the tile manufacturing process itself. This in turn means that the company has a unique and unmatched advantage of offering machines that are fully tried and tested. The company has been a pioneer in its chosen field with its strong R & D focus bringing out outstanding products is regular intervals of time, keeping in tune with changing market requirements.

PBM Plus 2

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Construction Project Managers Congress

Communication Feature

demand and this in turn needs specialized machinery. However, not all machines are match up to the expectations of the market. Customers today want machines that are easy to operate, maintain, and at the same time be able to produce good quality products. After all, the customer has to keep in mind the initial investment and the running cost. At Parijatha, we have been able to provide customers in India, the right kind of machines, keeping their requirements in mind at a very reasonable price. While presently we are just about able to keep up with the demand, we are in the process of increasing our production capacity by doubling our floor space and augmenting our infrastructure with latest equipment and trained personnel to meet future demands. What has been your strategy to keep ahead of the competition? As mentioned earlier, the market today has several leading reputable manufacturers, while there are also some dubious ones. However, as the market evolves, every manufacturer can carve a niche of their own, based on their product range and service and how they go about catering to the needs of the market.

As far as the cost-effectiveness of our products go , we need to mention here that we are known in the market for offering a wide variety of machines at a very reasonable cost. We also make sure that our products also match up to international quality standards, offering customers a true value for money proposition. What makes your recently launched automatic block machine PBM Plus different from others? There are a few factors which include the product design, working mechanism, robust construction, and absolutely flawless performance. Its trouble free operation and innovative user-friendly features and that too at a reasonable investment has made this machine a preferred choice in the Indian market today. How has the rental market for mixers and block making machines evolved over the years? This concept, although quite popular in other developed countries, is new to India. Due to certain constraints I personally feel that there is no bright scope for rapid growth of the rental market in the near future. With the emphasis these days on going green, what are the environment-

friendly measures taken by your company? We are known to make machines with the lowest power consumption. This means that the systems, mechanism, and design we adopt require low power consumption for the same output. This energy saving is achieved by incorporating innovative technologies in hydraulics, bearing selection, product design and the use of energy saving motors, which although cost us higher, but are used for all our machines, as our contribution to eco-friendly machines. We also ensure that waste disposal, machinining practices and other procedures in our factories are continuously improved in order to achieve maximum eco-friendliness. Give us an insight into your after-sales support services? At Parijatha it has been and will be our endeavour to design machines that are generally maintenance free and work with least possible downtime. However, in the event of any breakdown, we have a team of qualified and well-trained technicians who can cater to customer's different needs at a very short notice. We are also among the few who have dedicated helplines where we can solve small issues instantly over phone. Tell us about future expansion plans? Parijatha is now a strong brand in the concrete block machine industry with our machines working all over India, as well as in different parts of the world. We would however, like to increase our customer base in smaller towns and cities, where the demand for high quality concrete products is rapidly rising.

For further details:


Sri Parijatha Machinery Works Pvt. Ltd.
1-D, 2nd Phase, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore-560058 Ph: +91-80-23572332, 28994221 Fax: +91-80-28392894 E-mail: parijatha@sify.com Web: www.parijatha.com

APM 316

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The Masterbuilder Corporate Ad

Communication Feature

Durable Waterproofing Solutions


upreme Industries, which has been offering durable, costeffective and environmentfriendly products for the construction industry for over six decades, counts DURAboardHD100, DURAmembrane INSUshield and INSUreflector among its topline products. The company believes in tailoring its innovative products to its clients and also constantly upgrades them to meet the current challenges in recommending the best solutions in the field. Being environment-friendly, all the products of the company help in reducing

consumption of available resources thereby helping the environmental cause. The DURA range The DURA range of products are known for their durability for the simple reason that thay have been developed after strenuous interactions with experts in the field, studying current requirements and emerging trends to cater to the fast-changing demand scenario in the sector. The range: DURAboardHD100 (formerly Silflex), which is a cross-

linked, pre-moulded, high-performance joint filler for structural expansion of joints in concrete bricks and block works, DURArods (formerly Sil Seal) expanded polyethylene foam rods as a backup to sealants, DURAroofil (formerly Sil Roofil), which is modern customised, light-weight, resilient, soft, polymerbased closed-cell profiles for PEB structures. Apart from this, the company also makes available DURAvapourbarrier (formerly Sil Vapour Barrier), which is a high-performance multilayer microcell PE film for water vapour barrier

Duramembrane

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applications. Similarly, DURAprotector (formerly Membrane Protection Board), another product of the company which is chemically cross-linked block foam for protection of waterproofing membranes, liquid applied waterproofing membranes in horizontal and vertical applications. DURAfill (formerly known as Silfil) is an alkali-resistant, closed cell polymerbased board for black cotton soil barrier, weak soil foundation and the latest addition to the portfolio is the newly launched DURAmembrane for all types of waterproofing applications. DURAmembrane Among its various innovative products, the company has added Duramembrane, a new offering in the portfolio of competent and DURAble products for its Construction Accessories Division. DURAmembrane is a new generation, cost-effective solution for waterproofing of basements and roofs. It is a versatile material, capable of retaining the dryness of concrete, masonry, metal and wood structures. It is also resistant to salts, alkalis and various types of acids. In fact, the product is a high-performance, composite polymeric membrane offering a quick and easy-to-apply system, ensuring hassle-free maximum productivity. The most striking advantage of the product is that it can be used in new constructions and also at the time of repairing old structures. Interestingly, the company is the only manufacturer of this type of waterproofing membrane in India, and it has plans to use DURAmembrane for applications including concrete roof waterproofing, basement waterproofing, water proofing of bathrooms, and terrace gardens. Striking features DURAmembrane is a highperformance composite polymeric membrane, which is durable, lightweight,

non-deteriorating, puncture-resistant, and is available in length stretching up to 50 metres. While bitumen disintegrates after contact with water and also catches fungi after which it starts melting during summer due to lessening of its puncture-resistant strength, Duramembrane has a very good puncture resistance of 199 N (Test method - ASTM E154: 1999) and because it is polymer based it will not deteriorate. That apart, none of the waterproofing solution systems provide any added advantage except waterproofing whereas Duramembrane is not only 100% waterproof but also an excellent insulating material. Other treatments have a tendency to absorb moisture and conduct heat but Duramembrane does not absorb water at all. Its 'K' value does not deteriorate because its inherent closed cell structure ensures truly effective thermal insulation and waterproofing for a lifetime. Excellent in extreme conditions In view of the unpredictable climatic conditions in India where the ambient temperature varies between 0 to 50C, the overlying treatment must withstand the corresponding variation in temperature from 1 to 65C. Duramembrane meets these challenges with complete and effortless ease and can withstand temperature ranging from -40 to +115C. Any roof treatment has to contend with the unrelenting assault of surface expansion and contraction due to daily or seasonal temperature variations. Further, roof treatments have to withstand more than just surface expansion and contraction including structural movements during sudden drop in temperature resulting in thermal shocks. Duramembrane has an excellent elongation and tensile strength that enables it to take all movements in its stride. It is fracture-, crumble-, shatterand abrasion-proof and resistant to most corrosive chemicals.

Demand Scenario Shortly after the onset of monsoons, problems like leakage and seepage in roofs, walls, basements, and bathrooms both in commercial and residential buildings including factories, is a common feature. After every shower of rain, structures tend to expose their limitations and flaw the monsoon rains, in fact, test buildings and reveal the defects that are not normally observed during sunny days. To avoid huge losses to the buildings and other structures, people increasingly pay attention to the leakage related problems prior to the next rains. As it is being the first-of-its-kind concrete roof and basement waterproofing product, specially designed to withstand the hot and humid Indian conditions, Duramembrane is a perfect blend to solve problems and avoid huge losses arising out of leakages to both individual and contractors. The entire construction industry in India will benefit because of the fact that the product will not only help them to overcome complex challenges, but also enhance their productivity and durability. Amongst others, there are four primary reasons why the company's Construction Accessories Division is a strong choice with regard to durable solutions: Quality: A methodical, systematic and stringent approach to quality ensures that the company's products are not only world-class but also durable. It adheres to international quality standards while manufacturing products. ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001 certifications and NABL accreditation for its plants is a testimony to its serious approach to quality.

For further details:


The Supreme Industries E-mail: dura@supreme.co.in Web: www.supreme.co.in

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Wise India

Communication Feature

Technology and R&D: A Formula for Success


harting out their own unique and distinct victory path is said to be the topmost trait of leaders. Perhaps, no other company symbolizes this trait than Balakrishna Tyres (BKT). The company has carved a niche, its own, as a global market and technology leader in off-highway tyres. Balakrishna Tyres (BKT) is a part of well diversified Indian industrial conglomerate, the Siyaram-Poddar Group with presence in textiles, garments, chemicals, paper, and tyres with sales in excess of US$ 800 million. Founded by Mr. Dharaprasad Poddar, the current group chairman and late Mr. Mahabirprasad Poddar, the founder chairman, the group began its operations as textile trading house, in 1951 and grew steadily by diversifying into other business sectors. The group made its foray into tyres in 1988 after it set up BKT, initially manufacturing two and three-wheeler tyres. The real growth story of the group began when BKT in 1995 ventured into production of off-highway tyres. A combination of intensive market research, extensive product knowledge and investment in cutting edge technology, has enabled BKT to become a name synonymous with quality offhighway tyres, catering to a wide range of industries. Plant Visit A team from The Masterbuilder had recently visited the plants of BKT at Bhiwadi and Chopanki, located in the state of Rajasthan, (about 100 kms from New Delhi), as part of the India Media Summit 2012, organized so meticulously by the company. The state-of-the-art manufacturing units stand testimony to the stringent adherence to quality standards, something that has been the cornerstone of the company's remarkable success story. All BKT plants are ISO 9001:2008 and IS0 14001:2004 certified and every tyre goes through a mind-boggling 450 checks. The company is a firm believer in investing in the latest technology and constant up-gradation of the same and this was evident from all its three plants and warehousing facilities in Bhiwadi and Chopanki. The rapid strides made by the company in the technology front were clearly evident from the automated machinery that was in use at the All Steel Radial plant of BKT, at Chopanki, which has been set up indigenously without any foreign collaboration by the company. Rapid Growth Given its commitment to quality and excellent technical support services, the company has been able to grow 35% y.o.y for the past decade and maintaining the momentum in the new decade too. For the calendar year 2011, despite the finite available resources and various capacity constraints,

the company has achieved its target in terms of production, with an increase of 20 % in terms of output tonnage. The company is confident of closing this financial year (2011-12) with an estimated growth of over 40%, which is remarkable. 2011 overall has seen BKT forge ahead in the field at a rapid pace. The company received the Highest Export Award from CAPEXIL ( Chemical and Allied Products Export Promotion Council) and the Best All Round Performance Award from AIRIA (All India Rubber Industries Association). Another feather in the cap of the company has been the fact that the Bhiwadi plant has been receiving the National Energy Conservation Award from the Ministry of Power, Government of India, on a consistent basis for the last few years. Strong R & D Focus BKT has always been synonymous with innovative products. The group's strong R &D focus has meant that it has been developing successful solutions, catering to a variety of customer needs, right from small turf tyres to large OTR tyres. The modern R&D centre is capable of developing various types of rubber compounds required for manufacturing tyres for varied applications. Cutting edge technology is used in its Analytical Lab, Chemical Lab, Physical Lab and Rheo Lab, to ensure that quality standards are maintained in every stage of production. A visit to the laboratories quite clearly showed the reason as to why the company is a preferred choice in Europe and America (in fact over 130 countries around the world) which has some of the most discerning customers. On an average 150-160 SKU's are developed every year by BKT.

State-of-the-art laboratories ensure excellent quality

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Communication Feature

Highly Motivated Workforce Another distinctly noticeable factor that was evident during the visit to the company's plants and something that has been playing a key role in BKT's remarkable growth story is the emphasis placed on Human Resources Development. A thoroughly prepared training calendar ensures that every employee is trained at regular intervals of time. Working constantly on the philosophy of togetherness, BKT has also devised a unique training program- named EDIFICE 2012Building Together. The company has one of the lowest attrition rates in the industry, bearing testimony to its progressive HR policies. The high motivation levels of the employees were evident from the discipline maintained at all the plants. Whether it was curing, or the Creel Room, endurance testing, inspection finish, or operating the Maragoni machine, X-ray machine or Sheorography, employees were going about their work in the most professional manner, with minimal supervision, which spoke volumes about the company's top notch people policies and systems in place. Emphasis on Safety and Quality A system driven production process has been instrumental for the company's versatile product range. Latest system concepts including, SAP , TPM, TQM, SPC and 5S, among others are being implemented in the company's manufacturing plants. Similarly, a lot of emphasis is placed on safety in all the plants. Detailed pictorial depictions of safe working procedures dot almost every corner of the factories.

(cross ply & radial), industrial and construction tyres (cross ply & radial), OTR tyres (cross ply & All Steel Radial), turf tyres, ATV, Golf, Go Cart tyres, and Military tyres. Ambitious Growth Plans The last few years have seen the company's growth rate increasing rapidly. Speaking about the vision of the company, Mr.Arvind Poddar, Vice-Chairman and Managing Director of the company said, Our vision is to become a global leader in off-highway tyre solutions with a 10% market share. The company's current market share statistics

Off-highway tyres ready for export at the modern Chopanki warehouse

The hi-tech Maragoni machine in action

The company has been continuously expanding its production base and has today a comprehensive product range with 2000 SKUs (Stock Keeping Units) and is recognized as a One Stop Shop for off-highway tyre solutions. Apart from tyres for the replacement market, BKT caters to all major Original Equipment (OEM) customers for their requirement of off-highway tyres, globally. The range of tyres offered by the company includes agricultural tyres

include 48% sales from Europe, 24% from America and the rest 28% from the rest of the world. On the anvil is a new Greenfield plant in Bhuj, Gujarat. The new project, with its cost pegged around Rs.1800 crores is going to be yet another feather in the cap for the company. Most of the machinery for the new tyre plant is already into the commissioning mode, and a part of the plant has already started tube production from December onwards. The plant is in addition to the new BKT Mould Plant, which was inaugurated in October 2011 at Dombivali, Mumbai. BKT has charted out aggressive growth plans for 2012. The production is targeted to increase by 32%. The company is targeting that during the 2nd half of the year, the new Bhuj plant will contribute around 20% of the total production for 2012. In fact, the company is confident that it can target to pre-pone commercial production out of the new plant by at least a quarter (3rd quarter instead of 2nd quarter) and once complete, the new plant would almost double the capacity of BKT.

For further details:


Balkrishna Industries Ltd.
BKT House, C/15, Trade World, Kamala Mills Compound, Senapati Bapat Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai-400 013 India, Tel: +91 22 66663800, E-mail: apc@bkt-tires.com, Web: www.bkt-tires.com

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Communication Feature

Ranjit More: Elected as the New Vice President of BAI


that, the construction and construction equipment industry is at the crossroads. While there is a huge demand for infrastructure in India and other developing countries, this industry faces stiff challenges such as skilled and unskilled man power, need for mechanization and suitable policies to give impetus to growth. Being the vice president of BAI, he has planned to take the construction industry to the next level by strengthening BAI by opening new centres in the weastern region, developing entreprenuers through various centres, awards for improving construction industry outcome, bringing awareness in construction industry through mechanization and also liasioning with other associates of the construction industry and government bodies to achieve the common goal of construction industry uplifment. Being a member of 12th five year plan's steering committee on construction and having worked with BAI Pune center in the capacity of Chairman twice will help me to work for the industry requirements and take some proactive steps to meet the challenges. Ranjit More has a distinction of being the youngest chairman of BAI Pune center. He has been truly instrumental in resolving many issues and initiated many activities like award ceremonies, workshops, training programs, seminars etc. during his tenure as chairman for Pune's 'BAI Centre'. The installation ceremony of the new office bearers will be held at Hotel Le Meridien, Pune, on 20 April 2012. The western region governance includes five states which are Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Ranjit More
Managing Director, Universal Group

anjit More, MD of Universal Group who has been the Chairman of BAI Pune Center for two consecutive terms was elected as the Vice President of Builders' Association of India Western Region. Ranjit More was elected by a huge margin in the governing council meeting held recently. This is the most sensational victory said BAI officials. Speaking on the occasion newly elected Vice President Ranjit More said

For further details:


Unniversal Construction Machinery & Equipment Ltd.
Universal House, Warje Naka, Pune-411052, Ph: +91-20-25230777,
Fax: +91-20-25231777,

E-mail: rmc@uceindia.com Web: www.uceindia.com

Contract Management & Arbitration-Role of Engineers & Architects


he Indian Institution of Technical Arbitrators (IITArb) , Karnataka State Centre , Bangalore is organizing a Seminar on Contract Management & Arbitration Role of Engineers & Architects on Saturday the 9th , June 2012 at Fortune Park JP Celestial Hotel, 5/43, Race Course Road, Bangalore- 560 009. Architects and engineers from around the country are expected to participate in the seminar. The Indian Institution of Technical Arbitrators was established in the year 2003. The institutions head quarters is based at Chennai with state and local centres in Bangalore, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kochi, Mumbai, and Madurai.

One - Day Seminar on

The IITArb conducts seminars at frequent intervals on arbitration, with special focus on engineering contracts. The emphasis of IITArb is that in case of disputes of technical nature, as and when referred to arbitration, the arbitrators should preferably be an engineer or an architect. One of the key objectives of IIT Arb is to conduct training programs for its members and others in various aspects of arbitration by conducting short term courses, seminars, workshops and in-house programs. Its other main objectives include carrying out research in arbitration, taking up institutional arbitration and offer consultancy in arbitration with special reference to preventive aspects. For further details about the forthcoming seminar, readers can contact: Mr.K.S.Venkatakrishnan, Secretary, IITArb, Bangalore Mobile No: 9845497602 Email: venkie_in@yahoo.com

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Rail Asia 2012

Composite Technology Rebar

Effect of Yarn Size on the Performance of Hybrid Braided Composite Rebar

Dr. Christopher M. Pastore1, Eileen Armstrong-Carroll2, Frank K. Ko3


1,2 3

School of Textiles and Materials Technology Philadelphia University Department of Materials Engineering, Drexel University

eplacement of the steel reinforcement in concrete structures with more corrosion resistant substitutes such as composites is rapidly becoming a more economical option for construction facilities worldwideMufti et al., 1991, Iyer and Sen, 1991, Nanni and Dolan, 1993, Basham 1994, Saadatmanesh and Ehsani, 1996, 1998. Composites can be used in new or repaired reinforced concrete structures. In general, composites have high strength, a range of moduli and low ultimate tensile strains compared to steel. The stress-strain behavior of all of these fiber systems is linear up to failure, which makes it impossible to have significant hysteretic behavior. In spite of their superior light weight, corrosion resistance and non-magnetic properties, the lack of material ductility and energy absorbing capabilities is a severe limitation of all these fiber systems if they are to be considered for earthquake resistant applications. Design Concept In order to achieve ductility in reinforced concrete structures without using conventional steel rebar, a new design methodology was introduced to identify suitable composite materials that mimic the stress-strain characteristics of steel [Somboonsong et al., 1998]. The technology of braiding, as detailed by Ko and Pastore [1989], is a well established technology which intertwines three or more strands of yarns to form a tubular structure with various combinations of linear or twisted core materials. By judicious selection of fiber materials and fiber architecture for the braid sleeve and the core structure, the load-deformation behavior of the braided fibrous assembly can be tailored. The rebar sleeve is fabricated from tough aramid tows (Kevlar 49) and the core structure composed of high modulus carbon (Thornel P75S-2K) to provide the initial resistance to deformation. The rib effect is built into the sleeve structure during the

Figure 1. Schematic Illustration of Braidtrusion process

braiding process. A 24 carrier braiding machine was employed to form the structure. The core consisted of 12 plies of 2,900 denier P75S-2K. The braiding yarns were 3 ply 1,240 denier Kevlar 49, except two of the bobbins was loaded with a 15 ply 1,140 denier Kevlar 49. These large bundles were used to create two spiraling ribs in the braid for mechanical bonding between the composite rebar and the concrete. The design of this rib is similar in concept to the current steel rebars. A process, called Braidtrusion was used to form the rebar (Figure 1). This process takes the braided fabric through a forming ring, and runs the braid through an infusion zone wherein Epon 828 epoxy resin is dripped onto the fell of the cloth. The wet fabric is then run through a heated chamber to cure the resin. The fabric has a 30 minute dwell time before being collected. A resin system from Shell Chemical, consisting of EPONTM Resin 9310/EPICURETM Curing Agent 9360/EPI-CURETM Curing Agent Accelerator 537 is used for consolidation. A typical rebar made with this process is shown in Figure 2. The rib yarns running in opposite helices can be clearly seen. The core carbon yarns are completely encased by the aramid sheath yarns.

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Composite Technology Rebar

The effect of the large braiding yarns on creating a rib structure is shown in Figure 3. These very large yarns create substantial distortions in the braided structure which provide the mechanical connection to the concrete system, but provide additional difficulties in modelling.

Fabric Geometry Model The fabric geometry model (FGM) REF was used predict the elastic properties of the rebar. In this model the fibers are considered rods that are classified according to their orientation. Since the rebar was tested in tension the orientation of the fibers relative to the x-axis was determined. The core was straightforward, the fibers were considered aligned with this axis. The braid tube contained 4 distinct fiber orientations as shown in Figure 4. The angles and represent the braid and crimp angles. Due to symmetry with the x-axis and the tensile loading condition being characterized, each braid yarn orientation could be considered equivalent. The transformation tensor for rotating the braider yarns so they were aligned with the x-axis was developed by rotating the yarn an angle (made by projecting the rod into the yz plane) so the rod lies in the xy plane, and rotating by the braid angle so the rod is aligned with the x axis. Using the geometrically defined unit cell, fiber mechanical properties and matrix mechanical properties, a 6 x 6 stiffness matrix can be formed for each system of yarns using the stiffness matrix of a comparable unidirectional composite and transforming it appropriately for the systems fiber orientation. This stiffness matrix will form a link between applied strains and the corresponding stress responses. For each system of yarns, this stiffness matrix is expressed as: where [Ci] = stiffness for the ith system of yarns [T ,i] = Hamiltonian strain transformation for the ith system of yarns and [C] = stiffness matrix for a comparable unidirectional composite. The transformation matrix [T ,i] is a Hamiltonian tensor transformation matrix which can be defined in the following form: (2)

Figure 2. Micrograph of typical hybrid rebar showing rib yarns on surface

Figure 3. Effect of rib yarns on braided fabric geometry

Considering the effect of core yarns on the rebar diameter a geometric model was constructed accounting for the core yarn size, number of aramid braid carriers, and rib effect. The cross-sectional area of the area changed with movement of the two rib yarns. The local increase in diameter was most marked when the two rib yarns were along the same diameter line. At these instances (when the ribs are on top of each other and when they are 180 from each other) the diameter was 30% greater than a diameter measurement across a line with out rib yarns. The two rib yarns crossed each other in 2mm intervals. The graphite core had an ellipticity of 1.3 (b/a) and accounted for 19% of the cross sectional area. The nominal braided tube cross-section was calculated by subtracting the core area from the tube area as calculated using the minimal rebar diameter. The braided tube area calculation was then refined to account for the ribs. The average width, height, and length of the ellipsoid protrusions formed when two rib yarns were on top of each other were measured. The average area contribution from the rib yarns was determined by dividing the ellipsoid by its length. The area of overlap with the nominal tube and average rib yarn areas was calculated and subtracted out. Thus At = At* + Ar - Ao (1)

where At = area of the tube, At* = nominal area of the tube, Ar=area of the rib and Ao = area of overlap between rib and braid.

where l = cos , m = 0, n=-sin , l=sin l = sin cos , m = sin , n = cos cos , sin sin , m = - cos , n = cos

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Composite Technology Rebar

and , are the two angles which define the orientation of any fiber, i.e. = the orientation of the fiber with respect to the longitudinal axis of the structure and = the azimuthal angle of the fiber.

where c11 = (1- 232)E11 / K* c22 = c33 = (1- 12 21) E22 / K* c12 = c13 = (1+ 23) 21 E11 / K* c23 = ( 23 + 12 21)E22 / K* c44 = G23 c55 = G13 c66 = G12 and K* = 1 - 2 12 21 (1 + 23) - 232 The terms which fill the [C] matrix are derived from fiber mechanical properties, matrix mechanical properties and fiber volume fraction. It should be noted that the fiber volume fraction is the particular fiber volume fraction associated with the system of yarns under investigation. The particular derivation of the elements of the stiffness matrix are achieved through the well established micromechanical analysis using the following representations.

(5) where
m

=3-4

and

=3-4

LT

Figure 4 Geometric Relationships Used in the Mechanical Analysis of Braided Composite Materials.

(6)

Because a braided structure can have longitudinal and braiding components, and the 3-D braided structure can have longitudinal, transverse and braiding components, the orientation of all possible components ( , )are: (0,0) for the longitudinal components (90,0) for the transverse components ( * , *)for the braiding components. Thus, the Hamiltonian transformation is based singly upon the orientation of the yarn. As seen in the previous equation, the other term required for the calculation of the braided composite stiffness matrix is [C], which can be given as the symmetric matrix where
f T

(7)

=3-4

TT

(9) where
m

= 3 4

. (10)

A stiffness matrix is determined for each system of yarns, and the stiffness matrices for each of these systems are superimposed proportionately according to contributing volume to determine the fabric reinforced composite system stiffness: (11)

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2nd Int'l Conference onSpeciality Chemicals Conclave 2012 (FICCI)

Composite Technology Rebar

where [Cs] = total stiffness matrix and ki = fractional volume of the ith system of yarns. In order to account for the potentially nonlinear behavior of the materials, the system stiffness matrix should be calculated anew at each strain level. Thus, the incremental stress-strain behavior of the composite can be determined as (12) where { } = incremental stress vector (6x1) and { } = incremental strain vector (6x1) From this, the stress vector can be determined as (13) where { } = stress vector (6x1) Tensile Response Tensile stress-strain characteristics have been obtained for the rebar and compared to the FGM. The stress-strain behavior of the 5 mm D-H-FRP bar is compared with theoretical predictions in Figure 5. Note that the 5 mm hybrid bar achieved high initial modulus as well as a ductile failure mode characterized by the trapezoidal area under the stress-strain curve. The model correctly predicted the initial failure point, demonstrating that the rib yarns could a modelled as interchangeable with the other braider yarns. The definite yield strength is achieved by the hybridization process and is a manifestation of the fracture of the fibers with the lowest failure strain, the graphite core fibers. The model contains a damage parameter to describe the initial drop in stress. In this type of damage modelling, the carbon core yarns begin to fail at a determined strain level, but the core yarn contribution decreases linearly over a range of strains to account for gradual failure of individual filaments in the core due to inherent fiber waviness. This approach enables the load bearing capability of the core to degrade over a strain range in which the unidirectional core is evolving into a chopped-fiber filled core. Typically in core-filled braids that fail initially in the core there is an elastic recovery period in which the braided sleeve continues to take load. A second damage mechanism is proposed and modelled wherein the rib yarns fail somewhat earlier than the other braiding yarns due to the increased bending strain on these yarns. Again they initiate failure and gradually lose full contribution to the system. The whole system fails when the remaining braiding yarns fail. With the actual rebar, this tendency is interrupted and damage progresses in a series of increments. The reasons

for this post-damage mechanical behavior is not yet known. Perhaps the spiraling orientation of the ribs yarns well outside the overall geometry of the part induces a bending moment onto the rebar sufficient to cause flexural failure at the point of double rib overlap, and thus creates this unique damage progression.

Figure 5. Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical stress-strain response for 5 mm hybrid braided rebars

The theoretical model of stress-strain behavior illustrated in Figure 5 is based on the process modelling of the braid structure and use of a stiffness averaging predictive model. Failure of the core yarn is predicted by strain to failure criteria. The braided yarns reorient themselves during loading, resulting in the slight non-linearity of the curve. The next step of modelling is to include the resin cracking at the interlacing points and the residual contribution of the fractured carbon yarns in the core. Additionally the possibility of flexural failure due to bending forces from the ribs need to be added. As can be seen in the experimental data, there is a characteristic step phenomenon which recurs throughout loading. This is not predicted by the damage model presented. Although the damage model does fall within the range of stresses throughout much of the experimental regime, it does not fully capture the behavior of the rebar. Further investigation is required to identify the actual cause of these stress drops and rises. The next step of research will be to examine specimens at different damage levels and identify causes. Conclusions Predictive models of the hybrid braided composite show promise. Processing conditions and initial failure can be predicted well. Post-yield ductile response requires additional modelling. The effects of yarn size and process parameters on the tensile response have been

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Roof India Exhibition

Composite Technology Rebar

demonstrated. Remaining to be done is post-yield behavior and cyclic response. Results have been presented of the cyclic flexural behavior of a new ductile hybrid braidtrusion reinforcing bar for earthquake resistant concrete structures. Loaddeflection and moment-curvature relations from small beams show that the D-H-FRP rebar can achieve a ductile behavior with ductility indexes similar to those of mild steel reinforcement. References
- - K. D. Basham, Proc., Third Materials Engineering Conf., American Society of Civil Engineering, New York, NY, 1994. M. M. El-Badry, Advanced composite materials in bridges and structures, The Canadian Society of Civil Engineering, Montreal, Canada, 1996. H. G,. Harris, W. Somboonsong and F. K. Ko, Proceedings of the 1997 International Conference on Engineering Materials, Ottawa, Canada, Vol. I, 1997, pp 593-604. H. G. Harris and G. M. Sabnis, Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques, Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. (1999). R. Huesgen, Flexural behavior of ductile hybrid FRP rebars in singly reinforced concrete beams, MSc Thesis, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA. (1997) S. L. Iyer and R. Sen, Advanced composite materials in civil engineering structures, Proc. Specialty Conf., American Society of Civil Engineering, New York, NY (1991).

F. K. Ko, W. Somboonsong and H. G. Harris, ed. M. L. Scott, Proceedings of the International Conference on Composite Materials, Vol. VI Composite Structures, pp VI-723-VI-730. (1997), Ko, F.K., ed. Chou T. W. and Ko, F.K., Textile Structural Composites: Series 3, Elsevier, New York, (1989) Mufti, A., Erki, M. A. and Jaeger, L. (1991). Editors, Advanced composite materials with application to bridges, Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Montreal. Naaman, A. E. and Jeong, S. M. (1995).Structural ductility of concrete beams prestressed with FRP tendons, Non-metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Edited by L. Taewere, RILEM, Published by E & F N Spon, 2-6 Boundry Row, London. Nanni, A. and Dolan C. W. (1993). Editors, Fiber-reinforcedplastic reinforcement for concrete structures, Proceedings of International Symposium, Vancouver, ACI SP-138. Saadatmanesh, H. and Ehsani, M. R. (1996). Editors, Fiber composites in infrastructure, Proc. First International Conf. on Composites in Infrastructure, Tucson, Arizona, Jan. 15-17, Dept. of Civil Eng. and Eng. Mech., University of Arizona. Somboonsong, W. (1997). Development of ductile hybrid fiber reinforced polymer (D-H-FRP) for concrete structures, Ph.D.Thesis, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, December 1997. Somboonsong, W., Ko, F. K., and Harris, H. G. (1998). Ductile hybrid fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) rebar for concrete structures: design methodology, ACI Materials Journal, V. 95, No. 6, Nov.-Dec., pp. 655-666.

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Communication Feature

In-Pit Crushing and Conveying Transmogrifying the Coal Business


Subhash Chandra Niyogi,
CEO, Rockster Recycler India Pvt.Ltd., Bangalore,INDIA

or an investor, coal mining today is not just mining, it is a business. Today, one is bound to look for the most cost-effective and efficient operation of the mine to produce the ore or coal at most cost effective way. The ever increasing operating costs and declining commodity prices at most properties have forced us to look at various alternatives to cut costs and stay competitive. In the complete mining activities the haulage cost has been an area that has risen significantly with the ever increasing diesel prices. We are left with nothing but to reduce the haulage costs in the mines by

shortening the truck haul distance by bringing the truck dump point into the pit. The solution, is simple: Useof an in-pit movable crusher or crushers, and convey the ore, coal and/or waste out of the pit to reduce the hauling costs. The potential effects of installing in-pit crushing and conveyor haulage in open pit operations and on mine planning requirements can be significant. The other aspect is the carbon emission, it is definitely going to be the threat to mining operations in the future, and we in India can not escape! It is not only in light of the environment but

also in consideration of future financial aspects. The day is not far when, a mine operator, even in India, will need to pay taxes on carbon emissions and one has to take cognizance of this potential risk in future in the mining business. There are many aspects in a coal mining processes which can not only help doing mining by the environmental friendly process, but at the same time augment the system and lower the cost of the production. Reduced Truck Haulage benefits of reduced diesel burning Positioning a crusher within the mine pit of an opencast mine, closer to the

Partnership with the Customer: Mr. Kumerash Chatterjee, ED, Karnataka EMAT Coal Mines Ltd., BOCP, Maharashtra & Mr. Subhash Niyogi, CEO, Rockster Recycler India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India EMTA Goes for Rockster In-Pit Crusher Solution

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center of the mining operations shortens the travelling distance and cycle times between the excavation and crusher operations, requiring fewer trucks without decreasing the production rate. By using this it can supplement the existing mining system and further augments benefits for the mine operator, ensuring lower-cost and most efficient mining operations. A mine operator, when gets the goahead for an expansion project, he needs to examine the options to include technologies and processes that support the highest levels of efficiency. During an expansion phase, or even in the initial starting of the mine business, one has a basket of capital that can be considered on different alternatives or redirected. An alternative to trucking will not only lower diesel requirements, owing to the use of fewer trucks and/or the use of conveyor belt systems as opposed to vehicles, and this also contributes to lower carbon emissions. There is also the need to decrease tyre use for the equipment in the mine, and therefore essential. This is another benefit expected from fewer trucks to be used in the pit. There is already the crisis, a worldwide shortage of tyres,

and therefore, it is important to implement risk management of consumption of tyres. The other aspect worth looking into is that the reduced use of trucks that leads to less dust pollution and of course decreases in-pit traffic congestion. Many time a mine suffers from traffic congestion from trucks owing to the way in which opencast coal operations are set up, and that the reduced congestion would lead to safer conditions in the mine, with shorter hauls that will contribute towards fatigue management. When the mine does follow the in-pit crusher route, the other solution in the form of the availability of technical expertise and maintenance resources, that is, experience operators and maintenance foremen, will be taken care of better by deployment of fewer new trucks being required and also the costs. Reducing costs, which is the ultimate goal of the implementation of the in-pit crusher system as part of expansion programme. Mobility of in-pit crusher This is the other aspect whicha mine operator will have to consider before implementing an in-pit crusher.

This is what Hager (the Mining Processes Manager Mr. Johann Hager of Grootegeluk Coal Mine of Exxaro group, the largest supplier of coal to Eskom, which supplies Eskom approximately 35 Mt/y of coal) refersto as the 'Moving Void Principle'. As a part of mine rehabilitation process, the waste needs to put back into the void as pit diameter steadily increases and becomes large enough as opencast mining operations progresses. This demands for a crusher to be placed within the pit and requires a degree of mobility in order to be moved at regular intervals and keep pace with the changing pit dimensions. In moving the crusher, the challenge is to avoid disruption in production, and needs to consider crushers that offer compactness and ease of mobility. Rockster Track Mounted Mobile Crushers and Mobile Screens supplied by Kormann Rockster Recycler GmbH, Austria and supported by Rockster Recycler India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India, offer not only the compactness but also the ease in mobility. Of course, the success is not without the dedicated and prompt after-sales service by experienced technical staffs of Rockster and their policy of partnership with the customers. The aspects of Mine Geology and Mine Geometry to be looked into While implementing the mobile crushers and conveyors in the coal mines, it is necessary and most important to consider the effects on mine geology, pit geometry, operating strip ratio, and mine access requirements. This applies to coal or other minerals - precious metals or industrial minerals. The drawback, one has to accept, the fact which is not readily apparent in in-pit crush-convey systems, is the additional or accelerated stripping required to install the system as against the experience over what an all truck haulage pit would require. Here, it demands the necessity to look at the mine geometries which will illustrate the problem. Fig.1 shows an example of InPit Crush-Convey System.

IIT in turn from Mining Engineering Engaged in detail study of Mine geometry & Material Handling equipment parameters at BOCP Chandrapur Karnataka EMTA Coal Mines Ltd.

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Communication Feature

operating costs per ton of material conveyed, on the other hand for shorter hauls in the pit it offers reduced size of the required truck fleet and thereby truck capital and replacement capital costs. To conclude, some of the points could be summarized as below : Consider the importance and give due importance of the eco-friendly operation of the mine and reduced carbon emission and finally stay competitive in the market. The geology of the deposit including the mine geometry needs to be studied to incorporate the crushconvey equipment into the mine geometries with minimal custom earthwork. The equipment configuration and their working geometry should be evaluated. The operating schedule and the surge capacity of the materials handling system should be established. Consider the additional stripping requirements for installation of the system. Consider all alternatives to maintain consistent material flow. Proper care should be taken to make sure of proper selection of all equipment and matching of the mining & material handling equipment, synchronization factor of matching equipment like loading equipment and crushers or screens. Work out detailed mine planning, material movement and the handling equipment. Finally consider the maintenance expertise and maintaining the schedule for all equipment, may be implement the RCM Reliability Centered Maintenance system.

Fig.1

considering the implementation of inpit crushers and conveyors in the mine under consideration with due consi-derations of all the above factors. The tradeoffs of lower operating costs versus the increased strip ratio, more complex mining geometries, less flexibility in mining, and the initial installation capital costs must be evaluated. On a general look, one may feel to be not worth to take the trouble of implementation of in-pit crushers and conveyors for his project, but when the important benefits are studied and considered, installation of the in-pit crush-convey system can have a dramatic impact on the pit geometry, operating strip ration, and mine access. It however, requires detailed sequence planning much ahead of the implementation, and consideration of the advance planning of conveyor routes, crusher locations and number of crusher moves, and coal or ore availability. The best of the systems is, both for the long haul uphill or shorter haul in the pit, the in-pit crushing and conveying has the financial benefits on the long hail uphill it has cheaper

The schematic in Fig. 2 below shows two situations, cross sections through a pit. The first situation is the pit wall geometries of truck access. The slice numbers represent push backs mined in sequence. Haul roads are on benches in each section. The other scheme shows the pit wall geometries utilizing in-pit crushers and conveyors. Due to the additional room required for the crushing

Fig.2

and conveying equipment, the volume of coal in the first scheme of the truck option is greater than that of second scheme of the crush-convey option. Conclusions: In conclusion, the options of all truck haulage and in-pit crush convey should be evaluated before

For further details:


Rockster Recycler India pvt. Ltd.
No. 500, 17th Cross, Ideal Home Society, RR Nagar, Bangalore - 560098 Ph: +91-80-28604528 E-mail: subhash@rocksterindia.in, Web: www.rocksterindia.com

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Communication Feature

New Range of Dock Shelters


utting off the inside environment from the outside is not only useful for human working condistions, but also helps in energy savings, ecological safeguarding, protection of goods and so on CAMPISA offers a complete range of dock shelters, for every kind of use and environment. Campisa dock shelters protect the internal heated environments from the outside cold conditions, the chilled ones from outside heat, and all from rain, wind, snow, dust. Strong and of good quality, the different models are designed to resist to docking of the vehicles, reducing their impact in different ways: with retractable structures able to absorb the strokes(standard retractable dock shelters, with polyurethane stuffing (cushion dock shelters); closing against the vehicle, as the patented HYDRAULIC DOCK SHELTER can grant. PVC Dock Shelter The retractable PVC front panels dock shelter is the most popular and used. Thanks to its simplicity, low cost and efficiency, it grants for a constant pay back of the investment. Available for dock level installation, or for ground level installation for the protection of doors without dock. The front panels are made of high resistance black PVC reinforced with a double waving of polyester that works like a spring in order to seal the vehicles of different shapes. Cushion Dock Shelters, ideal to maintain the cold chain Thanks to its high insulation factor, the cushion dock shelter is the ideal solution for controlled temperatures. The three cushions are made of elastic polyurethane foam, covered with PVC coated polyester, supporting the vehicle pressures and perfectly sealing the three sides, including the space between opened rear doors and sides of the vehicle box. The two vertical cushions have continuous overlapped anti-friction limpets allowing for the up and down heavy friction of the vehicle on its suspensions, during the loading. It is available with fixed or adjustable horizontal top cushion, adjustable to the different vehicle heights. Hydraulic Dock Shelter The new innovative patented HYDRAULIC DOCK SHELTER has standard or insulated perimeter panels that wait in open position the vehicle. They close against it only after the lorry has stopped in final docking position, by an hydraulic mechanism tied with the dock leveler power source. They are opened at the end of the load, before the vehicle departure, in order to eliminate accidental tears caused by vehicle hooks and hinges. Also in this case, CAMPISA cared about the after-sales, designing a solution that quickly repays the investment.

For further details:


Gandhi Automations Pvt. Ltd.
2nd Floor, Chawda Commercial Centre Link Road, Malad (W,) Mumbai 400064 Ph: +91-22- 66720200, Fax: +91-22-66720201, E-mail: sales@geapl.co.in Web: www.geapl.co.in

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E.Scape

Inviting and Refreshing

Fruit-shaped Shelters
at Bus Stops
onagai, a town in Japans Nagasaki is known for the unusual shapes of its bus stops that are rather interesting and attractive. The designers took inspiration from the well-known fairy tale Cinderella. Each bus stop is constructed in the shape of a fruit to render a colorful and refreshing touch to the otherwise dull concrete structure that forms a bus stop. The fine-looking fruit shapes not only evoke the lively atmosphere in the play area of a nursery school, but also harmonize with nature and impart a cheery air to the space. The vivacity of the design adds a sparkle to the area, so as to enliven the public and break the humdrum in their routine. Such innovative architecture serves as an impetus to the creative trends in the field. Wish such initiatives liven up Indian cities too in the near future. (Source: wearbulletproof.com)

Right in Midst of Skyscrapers

Pod-Shaped Accommodations

ive Between is a mobile hotel that moves from one city to another just like a circus, rendering a unique experience for its guests. However, what makes it different is the location of the rooms in mid-air, as the accommodation units consist of suspended pods that hang amidst skyscrapers. The unique experience is rather spine-tingling and utmost, despite the safe and secure construction of the pods. It is an innovative concept of HKS Inc to enliven the city residents, while maintaining sustainability to ensure that the impact is low. It also aims at boosting the local economy by promoting tourism. Each pod is hung several hundred feet above the ground level using high strength cables coupled with a tension pulley system that is configured specially for a given space. The floor plates of nearby skyscrapers serve as the lobby and house guest amenities. The hotel is assembled in landmark spots with giant screens to conceal the assembly till it is completed. Each pod is self-sufficient and uses photovoltaics to meet its electricity requirements and has low-flow fittings and waterless toilets for minimal water use. The waste generated is converted into fuel for the transportation vehicles that carry the hotel to different places. The sustainable architecture is indeed amazing, but guests must be prepared to boldly walk into the high-flying pod, if they wish to realize their dream of sleeping in the clouds. (Source: Inhabitat)

iscovery Channel is a name that has become synonymous with well researched content and it comes as no surprise that a new program based on construction equipment has raised expectations. Called Machines of Glory the program features three crews of highly skilled machine operators who battle it out to determine who is the king of the construction job site, said the company on its website. The company will feature machines including, power excavators, speedy backhoes and agile skid steers. The new competition show is expected to be quite a hit with construction industry professionals. (Photo Courtesy: www.photo-dictionary.com)

Discovery Channel Series on

Construction Equipment
Raises Expectations
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