another.

On the other, the state should broaden ‘positive’

1 choices and support an individual by ensuring principles of

equality in basic human rights and access to opportunities.
Nevertheless there is a gap between proclaimed princi-
ples and the possibilities of adhering to them, which widens
particularly in times of deep transformation. The Lithuanian
THE INDIVIDUAL, Constitution ensures equal rights for everyone, but at the
SOCIETY AND THE STATE. same time the state is not always capable of providing the
necessary conditions for exercising these rights. In this way,
SOCIAL EXCLUSION the grounds for social conflict appear. For example, the rise
in crime threatens individuals’ right to personal security, the
Irena Zaleskienò volatility of the economy and labour market causes unem-
ployment, a low standard of living often undermines the right
The twin challenges of transition: responsibility for to education, a quality health service, adequate housing,
oneself and for the state. In 1990, when Lithuanian citizens freedom to travel and the choice of a place of residence.
demonstrated their intention to build a free and open society Rights and social exclusion. Lithuania has already
based on the supremacy of law and democratic principles, passed the first two stages of transition - the dismantling of
they simultaneously undertook the responsibility for both their authoritarian rule and transitional democratisation - and has
personal lives and the restoration and strengthening of the already stepped into the third stage: democratic consolida-
state. People were ready to overcome the legal, political and tion. In the stage of democratic consolidation particular
social legacy of a totalitarian society and face the difficulties of importance is attached to safeguarding human rights. In
transition. Nevertheless, it has now become clear that social 1998 we have been commemorating the 50th anniversary of
processes are developing at a much the Universal Declaration of Human
more rapid pace than the human Rights adopted by the United
mentality is able to adjust itself to new Many problems in contem- Nations, which Lithuania as an inde-
values and lifestyles. This stimulates porary Lithuanian society pendent state joined in 1991. There
psychological instability, social disinte- arise from the fact that the is an important task for this newly
gration and legal nihilism in society. relationship between the restored republic, still struggling to
Many problems in contemporary individual and the state is establish itself and be recognised
Lithuanian society arise from the fact changing fundamentally. within the international community, to
that the relationship between the indi- protect the entire range of human
vidual and the state is changing fun- rights outlined by the Declaration as
damentally. The supremacy of the state during the Soviet peri- well as to further develop the idea of human rights.
od is being replaced by the supremacy of the individual. The traditional view limits human rights to civil and polit-
Facing previously unknown problems and being unable ical rights, among which the rights of the ‘first generation’
and sometimes unwilling to solve them, the individual turns are: the right to life, liberty and security; the right not be dis-
to the elected authority, shifting personal responsibility criminated against on the basis of race, colour, gender, lan-
(sometimes excessively or disproportionately) to the state. guage, religion, social class or political opinion; the right to
Nevertheless, today the image of a benevolent state look- vote, freedom of speech and freedom of the press; the right
ing after everybody’s interests with equity and justice has to be free from the arbitrary invasion of privacy, and legal
been consigned to the past. It is important to recognize that rights (the due process of law and the presumption of inno-
the way in which people build their lives depends on many cir- cence until proven guilty). Today the traditional view of
cumstances over which they may have no control. For exam- human rights is being expanded and the developed democ-
ple, children who are not attending school and who are not racies have already complemented fundamental civil and
taught any skills are deprived of many political rights with the rights of the
choices and opportunities for their next generation, which include cru-
future lives. And those people who The Lithuanian Constitution cial social, economic and cultural
have no access to information have ensures equal rights for rights: the right to an adequate stan-
no opportunities to make decisions. everyone, but at the same dard of living; to education; the right
On the one hand, an individual has to time the state is not always to work and to equal remuneration
take responsibility for many aspects of capable of providing the for equal work; and the right of
his own life becoming a decisive fac- necessary conditions for minorities to enjoy their own culture,
tor in choosing one mode of life or exercising these rights. religion and language. Of particular

Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion 17

importance is that the ‘second generation of rights’ pays ly less success has been achieved in the field of rights to eco-
attention to the gender dimension of rights and advancement nomic and personal security. Although basic economic rights
for disadvantaged groups. It is obvious that the development such as the right to a minimum income and to social security
of human rights is directed towards the elimination of social are guaranteed, people are still not adequately protected
exclusion and the strengthening of social cohesion in society. against homelessness, unemployment and poverty. Access to
Today, after experiencing almost half a century of totalitar- quality health care and education depends on living standards
ianism the Lithuanian people can freely and place of residence (there are wide
and fully exercise their fundamental gaps between the quality of life in the
political and civil rights. Nevertheless, If there is an obvious break- cities, rural areas and small towns). The
not all fundamental rights are equally through in restoring democ- growing crime rate also undermines
assured, while the above mentioned racy and political rights, rel- the right to a secure life.
second generation of rights are still tak- atively less success has Lithuania is now in a phase of re-
ing up their position. If there has been been achieved in the field of distributing its national wealth. This
an obvious breakthrough in restoring economic and personal process is being accompanied by a
democracy and political rights, relative- security rights. rapid stratification in society, and also
by emerging new social actors (from
landowners, enterpreneurs and the
“ALL RIGHTS FOR ALL” self-employed, to the long-term
“... Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable unemployed, the homeless and beg-
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, jus- gars) as these divide society and bring
tice and peace in the world.” (from the Preamble to the Universal increasing social exclusion.
Declaration of Human Rights) Although social exclusion is a
According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the following complex phenomenon which is not
are the most important human rights: easy measurable, the judgement that it
•Everyone has the right to life, liberty and personal security. is growing rapidly can be confirmed by
•All are equal before the law and are entitled without discrimination to one of the most indicative (and in a
equal protection under the law. sense cumulative) indicators of social
•No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. exclusion - the suicide rate, which is
•Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence with- already highest in Europe. Most alarm-
in the borders of each state. ing is that suicide among disadvan-
•Everyone has the right to his own property as well as that in associ- taged groups (such as women, young
ation with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. people, the elderly, rural residents) is
•Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience and religion, of growing at an accelerating rate.
peaceful assembly and association. The nature of social exclu-
•Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, sion under transition. In a broad
either directly or through freely chosen representatives. sense, social exclusion can be
•Everyone has the right to equal access to public services in his coun- defined as involuntary alienation
try. from social and economic assets. It
•Everyone as a member of society has the right to social security. is in fact a relative and multi-dimen-
Economic, social and cultural rights are indispensable for his dignity and sional phenomenon, which is simul-
for the free development of his personality. taneously a characteristic of society
•Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment and to and the attribute of an individual.
equal pay for equal work. Social exclusion differs in form and
•Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limi- severity from the loss of previously
tation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. acquired rights or social positions
•Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health (scientists, technicians) to the com-
and well-being of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing, plete destruction of social ties (the
medical care and the necessary social services. homeless, beggars). Here we will
•Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least examine social exclusion through
in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be the prism of the rights of citizenship,
compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made general- in their broadest sense, as a combi-
ly available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the nation of political, social and eco-
basis of merit. nomic rights. A rights-focused

18 Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion

approach allows for the examination In a broad sense, social duce different incentives and disin-
of factors determining involuntary exclusion can be defined as centives. Social exclusion becomes
restrictions in certain groups of peo- involuntary alienation from the property of society if racial, sexu-
ple exercising these rights. The rea- social and economic assets. al and other forms of discrimination
sons for these restrictions may be of are presented, as well as when
a personal and / or societal nature. sources of livelihood and public ser-
•An individual may not consider himself a part of soci- vices are segmented and inaccessible on equal terms.
ety for personal, psychological, cultural and economic rea- These reasons may give rise to individual incentives as well
sons. This means that such people experience a weak rela- as cause disillusionment. The most vivid example of the
tionship with society. They may lack ties to the family, to the inter-relationship between personal and societal causes of
local community. They may also be disadvantaged in terms social exclusion could be the problems of suicide and alco-
of their ability to realise their legal rights, and to establish and holism which both have deep personal and social roots.
maintain social contacts. With a growing number of people Factors affecting social exclusion in Lithuania.
who are unable to overcome the process of social exclusion, Over the last decade, the process of social exclusion and,
a group of marginalised individuals can be formed who may consequently, the structure of society have been fundamen-
become excluded from society on a long-term basis or even tally affected by the following groups of factors, including legal-
permanently. political, socio-economic, cultural and psychological:
•Society itself preconditions the situation where individ- Legal and political factors. In Soviet times social exclu-
uals and groups of people (national minorities, religious sion was mainly conditioned by legal and political factors. At
groups, illegal immigrants, displaced persons, convicts and that time Lithuania’s citizens had only declared political
ex-convicts, the unemployed, the homeless) feel they are rights, while the state regulated even private life. Therefore,
isolated due to historical, political, cultural and social rea- people did not have to undertake any responsibility for their
sons and that society is disrespectful of their needs, inter- future or for the present. There was the threat of being per-
ests and aspirations. Often (particularly in times of econom- secuted for political reasons and there were few possibilities
ic recession or deep social transformation), large groups of to exercise legal rights, but there was less of a threat of
such people may appear among the population such as unemployment and homelessness. In addition there was
pensioners, women, single parent families and so on, guaranteed free health care, which included regular mass
whose social status and habitual modes of life have crum- preventive medical examinations of the population and the
bled overnight. Society is divided into groups organised vaccination of children against dangerous diseases.
around different rules, institutions and interests which pro- Education from basic to tertiary was also free. Particular
attention was paid to children’s edu-
cation. Parents were responsible for
A characteristic feature of every society is that for certain reasons some peo- this and the state strictly saw to it
ple feel as though they have been, or in fact are, excluded from the society they that all children were enrolled.
live in. The term ‘social exclusion’ is used to describe this phenomenon. Social On the other hand, society as a
exclusion has always existed, although its manifestations, scope and conse- whole was isolated (in a sense social-
quences are different. ly excluded) from the world communi-
Theoretically, a modern social conflict can sometimes become identified with ty, while within it numerous obstacles,
social exclusion, particularly during periods of political and social change, when restricted personal freedoms, and
habitual social relationships and norms deteriorate and an individual is no longer possibilities for self-expression and
capable of adjusting himself to the newly established social values owing to his incentives were erected. Among the
social status. Here the emphasis is placed on the situation where people formal- larger population groups, rural resi-
ly have all civil rights but have no opportunity, or have lost the opportunity, to exer- dents were the worst affected in
cise them. On the other hand, the new phenomenon of the ‘fall of a cultural struc- terms of social exclusion by the total-
ture’ has appeared in modern social theory (Durkheim, Merton, 1994), and is itarian state: all socio-economic poli-
attributed to the specific features of a modern society. For example, young peo- cy was based on the ideology of the
ple are taught to strive for a career with all their patience and through education superiority of industry and the sec-
and diligent work. In times of change and instability the chances of getting rich ond-rate role played by agriculture.
quickly involve young people in risky and even illegal activities which may bear Consequently the incomes and quali-
fruit for few and disappointment for many. Consequently, the disappointed may ty of life of those employed in agricul-
find themselves marginalised and join the ‘underclass’ or become drug-addicts, ture were lower than for people living
alcoholics or criminals. For such people this may mean a disruption of links with and working in the cities. Dissidents
family, friends, the public and sometimes even with the nation and state. who opposed the communist ideolo-

Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion 19

gy were persecuted and often could not find work which cor- Minorities by the year 2000. In 1998, 56 periodicals were
responded to their education. So while officially possessing being issued in the languages of national minorities. State
every right, these people were in fact socially excluded. television broadcasts daily news programmes and a week-
In today’s Lithuania the role of political and legal factors ly programme in Russian and Polish. What is important is
in social exclusion have diminished and altered (compared that there is no intention to restrict or even abolish educa-
to the Soviet period). Immediately after the restoration of tion in minority languages, an action which would be con-
independence the new Constitution, along with a number sidered to encroach on fundamental human rights.
of laws, was adopted to protect human rights in line with Another example is related to children’s rights. For
Western democracies. Society has therefore become open example, not every child of school age can exercise his or
and noticeably more democratic. However, the present her right to education. More than 20,000 children do not
stage in the development of Lithuanian society allows one attend school, for reasons mainly related to their parents’
to ascertain that in reality not everybody can exercise his social status, the family’s living standards, or to being an
constitutional rights. orphan. Such children have every chance of becoming
Sometimes, exercising one’s political and cultural rights socially disadvantaged or even marginalised in the future.
throws up certain obstacles, despite the fact that these The right to social security in old age can also be under
rights are backed up constitutionally as well as by ordinary question if pensions are not always enough to satisfy even
laws. In Lithuania this is mainly related not to obstacles the most essential needs, let alone to allow for a life worth
deliberately erected by the state (though there are still many living. One more controversial constitutional right is the right
unsolved problems in the sphere of law and order), but to to a free higher education for diligent students. For example,
drastic changes and economic difficulties in this transitional students at Vilnius University who have an average of eight
period. For example, Lithuania has achieved more progress points (out of ten) which is rather high must pay for their
in ensuring the rights of minorities than neighbouring Latvia studies. Some more examples can be given to demonstrate
and Estonia, which is conducive to social cohesion. the deviation between the legalisation of rights and the actu-
Immediately after the restoration of independence, citizen- al opportunity to exercise them. The right to employment is
ship rights were granted to all permanent residents inside undermined not only by unemployment but by the wide
the country irrespective of their nationality and length of res- qualitative erosion of employment, when many people
idence. Consequently, the constitu- (almost 14% of the labour force)
tional right to elect and to be elected accept unsafe employment in terms
is accessible to all those who Lithuania has achieved of income and social insurance.
received Lithuanian citizenship. more progress in ensuring Although people formally have the
Meanwhile, on the basis of more the rights of minorities right to housing, thousands of fami-
restrictive citizenship laws in Latvia than neighbouring Latvia lies have no accommodation of their
and Estonia, almost half of the pop- and Estonia, which is con- own and many people are homeless.
ulations of the other two Baltic states ducive to social cohesion. Socio-economic factors. If
have no citizenship and, as a result, before the restoration of indepen-
no right to vote and can to some dence social exclusion had mostly
extent be considered socially excluded. been preconditioned by political and legal factors, then now
A no less important issue is the right to education in the main impact is being made by socio-economic factors.
one’s native language. In Lithuania the law incorporates During a period of deep transformation large groups of the
and ensures these rights. In 1997 and 1998 there were population may suddenly find themselves socially excluded
secondary schools in the following languages of instruc- because of their nationality, age, gender, education, occu-
tion: Russian, Polish, Belarusian, Hebrew (since 1989), pation, income or beliefs. For example, with the collapse of
German and Ukrainian (at the first grade in a state sec- the Soviet economy many people with certain occupations
ondary school). There are special programmes sponsored became unemployed. With the adoption of the Law on the
by the Government in the field of education for minorities: State Language speakers of other languages have faced
the Prospective Programme for obstacles in employment and every-
Acquiring Secondary, Vocational day life. The majority of those newly
and Higher Education for National More than 20,000 children excluded people who have become
Minorities residing in Lithuania do not attend school, for unemployed, and who are without
before the year 2000, and the reasons mainly related to fluent command of the state lan-
Programme on the Training of their parents’ social status, guage, particularly if they are in their
Teachers for the Educational the family’s living standards, fifties, experience severe difficulties
Establishments of National or to being an orphan. in integrating into society.

20 Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion

 When analysing social exclusion in modern society, rural population has for decades been excluded from all
we most often face the problem of insufficient attention the comforts of modern life, from a lack of modern domes-
being given by society and the state to safeguarding tic facilities to limited access to health care, education,
socio-economic rights and the principle of equality. Social employment, culture and entertainment. Social exclusion in
exclusion in transitional Lithuania is mainly related to: rural areas has intensified under transition. Social exclusion
•living standards. Low incomes and poverty in is significantly influenced not only by the low quality of rural
Lithuania (including employment-related poverty) act as a life itself but by the wide gaps between the quality of life in
barrier to the realisation of citizenship rights and do not the cities, small towns and rural areas. Many human devel-
allow a meaningful life to be led within the values accepted opment indicators confirm this. Mortality and morbidity
by society. The adverse patterns of consumption provide (particularly related to non-medical causes of death and
evidence that people (particularly the poorest) spend their social disease) in rural areas exceeds that of urban areas
incomes mainly on food and utilities while expenture on (taking into account the age differences in the population).
health, education, recreation are culture are disproportion- As was mentioned above, the rural poverty level exceeds
ately low (particularly compared to the urban one. Rural poverty is more
EU standards). Among poverty- severe, and deeper. Unemployment
prone groups in the population are If before the restoration of is also higher in rural areas.
families with small children, pension- independence social exclu- •age. Age-related social exclu-
ers and the unemployed, while sion had mostly been pre- sion is most acute regarding chil-
poverty is deeper and more severe in conditioned by political and dren and their rights (since children
small towns and rural areas. legal factors, then now the are very often unable to control or
Moreover, many people who do not main impact is being made influence those circumstances
belong to the category of the poor by socio-economic factors. which are ‘laying the foundations’ for
(such as the salaried middle strata: their social exclusion). The following
teachers, doctors, scholars...) have indicators and manifestations are
suffered a decline in their standard of living which has affect- indicative of the alarming situation concerning the violation
ed their habitual way of life and their social behaviour. of children’s rights which may lead to their social exclusion:
•education, employment and occupation. The major- the growing number of foster children and orphans; the
ity of people of working age have acquired their education fact that children often fall victim to poverty, since families
during the period of a planned economy, so today many with small children belong to those groups vulnerable to
of them have no marketable qualifications and are poverty; the number of children dropping out of elementary
exposed to the risk of open or latent unemployment. For school; and the alarmingly rising rate of juvenile delinquen-
example, many scientific and technical workers employed cy. Juvenile delinquency not only keeps to its obvious ten-
in machine building and electronics, or academics and dency to increase; minors are committing more and more
researchers, have lost their social status and employ- serious crimes. The problems involving such children
ment. Unemployment, particularly long-term unemploy- remain acute despite the fact that many efforts are being
ment, is spreading not only among people whose educa- made for the legal and institutional protection of children’s
tion or occupation fails to meet labour demands, but rights. Issues related to this problem are being addressed
among young people who have no employment record. by several institutions (including NGOs). The establishment
The unsafe, low-quality employment which provides a of an institution for an Ombudsman for the rights of the
livelihood for so many people exposes them to social child is currently under discussion. A Service for the
risks related to old age, unemployment and sickness. It Protection of the Rights of the Child was set up within the
dooms many to social exclusion in the future. The prob- Ministry of Social Security and Labour. This institution is
lem of basic education for children deserves a separate directly responsible for the organisation, control and super-
mention. As indicated above, drop-outs are certainly a vision of the enforcement of laws and norms regulating
group at high risk from social exclusion. children’s rights. In 1996, the Children’s Affairs
•place of residence. Contrary to urban residents, the Consultative Council was set up under the office of the
exclusion of the rural population has President, and a Commission of
a long history and a very broad Family and Child Affairs was estab-
nature. The primitive technology Social exclusion in rural lished under Parliament in 1997.
used in agriculture, scarce job areas has intensified under Similar services function in the vari-
opportunities and poor transport transition. Many human ous cities and regions of Lithuania.
and communications have led to a development indicators Important steps were made in the
situation where the majority of the confirm this. direction of social integration for

Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion 21

children who have already suffered from social exclusion
and other unfavourable circumstances. Yet in 1995 the
General Statute of Non-Governmental Child Care Homes
and a Provisional Statute for Special Education and Care
Homes for Children were adopted. These provided the
basis for numerous child care institutions to be established,
including those of a new type - Family Care Homes which
resemble as closely as possible the environment of the
family. The NGO ‘Save the Children’ collects information on
the situation in the field of children’s rights and this infor-
mation is often more accurate and objective than official
sources.
•gender. The Lithuanian Constitution and Lithu-
anian laws (including those which regulate labour rela-
tions) provide for equal rights between men and
women. The legal system has failed to formulate an
official definition of discrimination against women. In
reality, women face hidden discrimination. For exam-
ple, despite the fact that women dominate among
people with higher education, they still face discrimina-
tion when certain faculties in higher education institu-
tions almost openly demonstrate their preference to
men in entry competitions. In 1997 1,789 women and
3,706 men were scholars, out of whom 110 women
and 658 men held doctor habilities, of which 488 men
and only 54 women held the aca-
demic degree of a professor. The
most common notion of discrimi- Women make up a minority
nation in the labour market relates among supervisory manage-
to recruitment practices when rial groups, which severely
preference is given to men, and undermines their participa-
‘redundancies’ to women (it is tion in decision making.
usually the case that women lose
their jobs first). A persistent form
of labour market disadvantage for women lies in the
pattern of occupational segregation; women make up
a minority among supervisory managerial groups,
which severely undermines their participation in deci-
sion making. There is only one woman in the current
cabinet - the Minister of Social Security and Labour.
Out of 1,459 members of local government councils,
325 are women (21.9%). Out of 56 mayors there are
only two women (3.6%). In May 1997 36% of total
diplomatic service personnel were women. Finally,
women are disadvantaged in terms of wages and
earnings, on average earning approximately 1.5 times
less than men do. Perils for female employment could
lie ahead since women face a double challenge com-
bining a workload related to their family and a career.
Women become the victims of domestic violence
more often than men. Today, trafficking in women and
forced prostitution are acute problems. This allows
the assumption that in certain cases women in
22
Lithuanian society could be added to those groups at
high risk from social exclusion. In addition, public
opinion polls carried out by the Gallup Institute in
1996 show that 48% of the population (39% of men
and 56% of women) think that society gives its pref-
erences to men; 57% of the population are of the
opinion that professional opportunities for men are
better those for women.
•••
To sum up, it should be mentioned that to conform with
the nature of transition and social relationships in Lithuania,
a different ‘weight’ should be attached to the above factors.
Social exclusion in terms of scope is determined more by
low standards of living and poverty, deprivation associated
with latent, open and long-term unemployment and by the
differences in the quality of life between the cities, towns
and rural areas.
The underclass. There has still been no statistical or
empirical investigation into the so-called underclass, which
is made up of those who are marginalised completely
(chronic alcoholics, drug-addicts, people with psychologi-
cal problems, ex-convicts who fail to integrate into society,
the homeless). Nevertheless, indirect data (mostly based
on opinions and assessments) pro-
vided by municipalities and social
assistance units give plenty of evi-
dence that the number of such peo-
ple has almost doubled over the last
five to seven years. To them, social
security, charity and even emer-
gency medical assistance are
almost inaccessible. Certain occa-
sional assistance is sometimes provided by municipalities.
However, no uniform social protection policy for these peo-
ple has as yet been developed.
How the individual, society and the state chal-
lenge social exclusion. The state tends to be a key insti-
tution on which both the existence and patterns of social
exclusion, as well as the conditions for social integration, to
a great extent depend. Besides such an important thing as
providing education, health care, income-earning opportu-
nities and personal security, social exclusion also depends
on how the state takes care of the psychological well-being
of its people, on conditions for participation in civil society
and the public awareness of human rights.
As mentioned above, social exclusion is quite relative:
even cases where an individual seems to exclude himself
from society can be treated as the result of an insufficient
social policy. International experience gives evidence that
social exclusion is characteristic not only of developing or
transitional economies, but also of mature industrialised
Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion
economies. The upsurge of social exclusion in this transi- Particularly important is human rights education at the
tional period becomes the problem of the state, which basic school level, since this is what will empower the
requires the urgent attention of policy makers. The role of coming generations. Human rights topics have already
the state in reducing social exclusion in essence depends been incorporated into the Basic Programmes of
not only on a policy of income distribution, social security Education, in the subjects of civil education, history and
and law and order, but also on the ability to integrate prin- ethics. It is very important to chose the right angle for the
ciples of sustainable human development into its develop- presentation of human rights-related problems, avoiding
ment strategy. In other words, the state’s rules and institu- politicisation and a biased, ‘pro-government or pro-ruling
tions should be aimed at building a ‘society for everybody’, party’ approach.
where diversity of choice is combined with equality of The institution-building capacity for the protection of
access to important human development opportunities and human rights is also one of the important activities of the
obeying the law. The success of this task will very much state, indirectly related to reducing social exclusion.
depend on the ability of the state to establish a constructive Although the institutions of a civil society cannot
and confident dialogue with individuals. In this respect, inte- replace the state, their mutually reinforcing efforts, partic-
grated programmes and projects combining the efforts of ularly in the situation of a non-universal (unequal) enforce-
individuals and civil society should be encouraged and sup- ment of citizenship rights, can help to break exclusion.
ported by the state, aiming at the psychological and social Both the relationship between an individual and the state
consolidation of society; strengthening personal security, and the formation of a civil society depend on an individ-
and law and order; stimulating participation; and supporting ual’s participation in governance, decision-making and
employment and meaningful leisure. solving pressing social problems.
Such programmes would become a Moreover, in the opinion of psy-
decisive factor in, and would exert a The state tends to be a key chologists, the general psychologi-
profound influence on, social inte- institution on which both cal climate in society, people’s
gration in society. the existence and patterns beliefs in the success of reforms,
Education on human rights is of social exclusion, as well and confidence in one’s own capa-
becoming vitally important, since as the conditions for social bilities and those of public institu-
knowledge inherited from the Soviet integration, to a great tions exert a profound influence on
period on this issue is insufficient. extent depend. participation, and reduce social
exclusion.
In 1998 the first investigations
Marginalised people in selected cities* into NGOs, commissioned and
financed by the US Agency for
Districts Kaunas ·iauliai Vilnius Visaginas
International Development, were car-
asocial families 2000 350 568 49
ried out in Lithuania (an opinion poll
people without permanent residence 500 60 150 45
and survey of 50 NGOs). Analysing
foster children and teenagers 294 570 563
the participation of citizens in their
people forced to beg 10 130 116
activities from the point of view of
people who have chosen to beg 90 120 116
reducing social exclusion, several
drug-addicts 129 958 94
important findings may be empha-
others 108 160 9100 47
sised: who participates in NGOs;
people in abandoned flats 23 20 76 30
which NGOs are known to the
Lithuanian people; whether these
*Aggregated information submitted by municipalities
organisations are supported finan-
cially by the population; and which
population groups make use of
Despite the difficulties of economic transition, people generally share a those services provided by NGOs:
positive view of the market economy. Data from ‘Baltijos tyrimai’ (Baltic •Participation: only 9% of the
Surveys; autumn 1997) showed that 68% of adult respondents approved of population indicated that they
the development to a market economy, and that only 26% were of the belong to some sort of organisation.
opposite opinion (Lithuanian Barometer, ‘Baltijos tyrimai,’ Autumn 1997). A similar situation can be observed
The most active section of the population still gives preference to the accel- in other transitional societies, while
eration of reforms, but people aged over 50, particularly pensioners, think in mature democracies this propor-
that the economy should not be reformed at such a rapid pace. tion reaches 70%.

Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion 23

NGOs mentioned most often has been noticed that providing services to institutions
or, for example, businessmen, is not as important to
No. %* them as representing their interests and protecting their
1. Caritas 35 rights. Socially deprived people, young people and
2. Charity Fund 15 women find both social services rendered and the pro-
3. Society for the Disabled 14 tection of their interests and rights equally important. In
4. Trade Unions 11 analysing the extent of the educational activity of NGOs
5. SOS Children (SOS vaikai) 10 it becomes clear that fewer educational services are
6. Red Cross Society 9 rendered to socially deprived people. The conclusion
7. Organisation of Social Security 8 can be drawn that NGOs tend to provide specific ser-
8. The Greens 4 vices rather than empower people, creating the condi-
9. Sports Club 4 tions for them to change the situation by themselves. In
10. ‘Viltis’ (Hope) 4 our opinion this attitude should be changed in essence
11. Open Society Fund - Lithuania 4 towards empowerment, which will be conducive to
12. Farmers’ Union 4 social cohesion.
13. Association of the Blind 3 Participation in political parties and elections and the
14. Children’s’ Aid Fund 3 influence of this on social cohesion deserves a separate
15. Vytautas Landsbergis Fund 3 mention. Over the last decade the decrease in citizens’
16. Society of Environmental Protection 3 participation in political parties and in elections has been
17. Society of Political Prisoners and Deportees 3 observed in society. Currently, 2-4% of the population
18. Society of Deportees 3 are members of political parties. On the one hand, this
can be explained by the fact that the individual’s inter-
*Percentage calculated from the number of people who indicated at
est in politics most often depends on the real possibility
least one NGO
of influencing political decisions.
At the beginning of the restoration
•Which NGOs are known to Fourteen per cent of the of statehood many people
people: it is clear that it is only these population have provided believed that such a personal
organisations which can exert any financial support to NGOs influence could be achieved.
influence upon society. It is interest- during the last eight years. Some wanted to try politics out for
ing to note that 64% of the popula- themselves. However, with the
tion know at least one NGO. Having stabilisation of social and political
made a more detailed analysis of which NGOs are known life, certain political interests represented by groups of
to the respondents, one can draw the conclusion that the professional politicians have formed, while public inter-
majority are familiar with those NGOs dealing with social est in politics has diminished.
problems (Caritas, SOS Children), and cultural and edu-
cational organisations (such as the Association of Artists, •••
or the Open Society Fund - Lithuania).
•Financial support, and making use of services pro- The problem of social exlusion, indeed its very con-
vided by NGOs: the survey data show that 14% of the cept, is still very new in the Lithuanian context. In actu-
population have provided financial support to NGOs al fact there has been no in-depth research conducted
during the last eight years (3% of respondents did not into this problem so far, and consequently no compre-
remember having done that). As little as 13% of respon- hensive social statistics by which exclusion may be
dents make use of the services provided by NGOs (4% measured, as well as the methods for such analysis,
did not remember). have so far been developed. There are, therefore, very
A qualitative analysis of NGO activity shows that few publications on the issue. In a sense, this publica-
trends in rendering social services and those for repre- tion is pioneering, aiming at raising the issue of social
senting interests are inversely proportional. This means exclusion and at suggesting a framework for its future
that the more services are provided to a certain group research and conceptualisation.
the less its interests are represented. Nevertheless, it

24 Chapter 1. The Individual, Society and the State. Social Exclusion