Fantastic creatures in Greek Mythology

Dumitru Alex. Andrei STIT Anul III Engleza-Franceza

Table of Contents

Introduction Corpus

3-9 10-53

Greek Mythology The Theogony by Hesiod (fragment) Fantastic Fossils Unicorns, West and East Greek Mythology: An Introduction by Fritz Graf (fragment) Myth and Greek Art: Creating a Visual Language by Jenifer Neils (fragments) The Demonization of Pan by Kevin Hearne THE STUDENTS MYTHOLOGY - A COMPENDIUM OF Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies by C. A. White (fragments) Greek myths The Impact of Greek mythology on Western culture Poveste si adevar in legenda sirenelor Mitologia greaca Creaturi din mitologia greaca 54-65 66-77 78

Translations Glossary Bibliography

Fantastic creatures in Greek mythology

Despite twenty centuries of Christianity, the gods, heroes and monsters of ancient Greece are far from being forgotten. Every year, millions of tourists visit the ruined remains of the temples where they were once worshipped, the works of art representing them are considered priceless masterpieces, and ancient stories about them still thrill children and adults alike. Thus, Greek mythology, all the legends about Greek gods, heroes and fantastic creatures, represent a truly magnificent cultural treasure, a fascinating monument to art and literature. Myths are stories about gods whose purpose was to provide an explanation for natural phenomena and certain events and concepts (such as life and death or fate). Early humans, lacking scientific knowledge, sought to understand the mysterious forces that made plants spring each year, or those that made volcanoes erupt. These forces received the name of a god or a goddess. In time, these gods received more responsibilities and many more stories and legends were linked to them. A very complex and complicated mythological system was born this way. For a long period of time, these myths and stories were passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth, as part of an oral tradition dating back to the Bronze Age. It wasnt until 8th century BC, that the poet Homer wrote some of them down as part of his famous epics The Iliad and The Odyssey. However, he does not introduce his mythical characters, since all ancient Greeks were familiar with them. We owe the first written cosmogony of Greek mythology to the poet Hesiod, a contemporary of Homer. He gives a detailed account of the emergence of the Universe from a primordial void (Chaos), the birth of the first gods from the union of Gaia (the Earth) and Ouranos (the Sky) and that of the spirits and of the most well-known monsters in Greek mythology. The aim of this glossary is to compile some of the most popular fantastical creatures in classical mythology and to highlight their impact on our own culture and society. But first, let us delve deeper into the issue of their origin. According to Hesiods Theogony, Ceto and Phorcys, two primordial sea gods, both of whom were the children of Gaia (The Earth) and Pontus (the Sea), produced a host of monstrous children: Ladon (the Hesperian dragon, guardian of the Hesperides), the Graeae (thegrey sisters, who shared one eye and one tooth among them), the Gorgons (terrifying women with snakes for hair that could petrify humans

with their gaze) and Echidna. Echidna is the most important of them, for she was known as the mother of all monsters. Joined in love to Typhon, the most horrible of the monsters in Greek mythology, Echidna, whom Hesiod describes as a half nymph half serpent hybrid, gave birth to some of the most well known creatures from classical legends: Orthrus, a two headed hound and his more famous brother Cerberus, the guardian of the Underworld, whom Hesiod describes as having fifty heads instead of three, as it is usually depicted, the Lernean hydra, the many headed serpent slain by Heracles, and the Chimaera, a monstrous firebreathing creature slain by the hero Bellerophon. According to Hesiod, Echidna also mated with her own son, Orthrus, and gave birth to the Nemean lion and to the Sphinx. Other well-known mythical beings, such as the Cyclopes (one-eyed giants), the harpies (half-woman, half-bird creatures) and the nymphs (beautiful maidens inhabiting the sea, rivers, woods, trees, mountains, etc) were also born during this period. Since these stories had circulated and had been passed down through generations by word of mouth for hundreds of years before finally being written down, the genealogies presented in The Theogony may vary from author to author, from poet to poet. Not all monsters are born that way, however. Some are the result of the direct intervention of a god or goddess who wishes to punish mortals who have offended them. According to some legends, Medusa, the mortal Gorgon who was slain by the hero Perseus, wasnt the daughter of Ceto and Phorcys. She had been a beautiful woman, a nymph, some say, who was raped by Poseidon in the temple of Athena. Naturally, the goddess wrath turned against the mortal, whom Athena turned into the horrible monster we all know. The legend of the Minotaur provides another example of how cruel the gods could be and how terrible their retribution was. The Minotaur, a man with the head of a bull, was the child of Queen Pasiphae, who was cursed by Poseidon to fall in love with a fabulous white bull. The animal was given by Poseidon to king Minos of Crete as a gift and was supposed to be sacrificed in honour of the god. When the king decided to keep the bull for himself and tried to deceive Poseidon, the lord of the seas was not too pleased. These are the mythical explanations for the existence of monsters, offered to us by ancient poets and authors. Modern scientists, however, have tried to come up with reasonable explanations for this huge cast of highly imaginative legendary creatures. The most obvious answer is that, just like the gods, fantasy creatures provided people with an explanation for natural phenomena, from the most complex, such as volcanic eruptions, to the most common, like the wind. Some mythical creatures are actually based on real beasts, which the ancients knew very little about, while the existence of others is related to local traditions and customs. Here are some examples to illustrate each scenario. The myth of the Minotaur, whom we presented earlier, seems to be linked to the cult of the bull, which was presumably practiced in Crete between 2000 1450 BC. Archaeologists digging on the site of the Palace of Cnossos uncovered numerous images depicting dancers, men and women, performing acrobatics on the back of bulls. Rituals similar to bull fighting may have been held in Crete at the time. Also, the sheer size and complexity of the palace may have inspired the myth of the labyrinth where the Minotaur was held. The Chimaera was one of the most bizarre monsters in classical mythology. It was a fire-breathing creature that had the head of a lion, the body of a goat (with a goats head protruding from its spine) and a snakes head as its tail. It lived in Lycia, in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). It is believed that poets used the Chimaera as a metaphor for a volcano in Lycia, some even suggesting that lions roamed near the top of

the volcano, goats frequented the pasture-lands in the middle and that the lowest parts were infested by snakes. Another monster linked to volcanic activity and other natural disasters is Typhon. Typhon was the gargantuan son of Gaia and of Tartaros, a primordial deity and also the deepest part of the Underworld. Though depictions of him vary from source to source, all agree that it was the most horrible monster of Greek mythology. Most commonly, he is depicted as a many headed giant with a body covered in snakes and the lower body of a viper. His goal was to defeat Zeus and the other gods and to avenge his fallen brothers, the Titans and the Gigantes, whom Zeus had imprisoned in Tartaros. After a titanic battle, that created storms, earthquakes and tsunamis all around the world, Zeus managed to overcome Typhon and threw him into Tartarus. Legends say that the storm winds were born from the monsters body. According to other sources, Zeus chained Typhon and imprisoned him under Mount Etna in Sicily. Ancient Greeks believed the many earthquakes that rock the area and the volcanos eruptions are all caused by Typhons struggle to break free. The griffins are fantastic beasts with the head and wings of an eagle and the body of a lion that lived in the far North and guarded vast treasures of gold. Ancient Greeks named this mythical land where griffins roamed Hyperborea, a land of eternal spring. Classical folklorist Adrienne Mayor argues that the myth of the griffins may be based on an actual creature that lived millions of year ago and whose fossilized remains are littered all over certain parts of the Gobi desert, especially near the many gold mines and deposits that can be found here the Protoceratops. The Protoceratops was a beaked, four legged dinosaur with a thin, bony neck frill that, in fossilized form, often breaks off leaving behind only stumps that could have been interpreted as ears. Its large shoulder blades could have been taken for wings. Mayor believes that the unfamiliar bones sparked the imagination of ancient observers and that is how the myth of the griffins was born. Travellers brought these stories from Asia to Europe. Another mythical creature inspired by an actual, unfamiliar and, this time, living animal is the siren. The sirens were beautiful maidens, having the lower bodies of birds. Later, they were depicted as half woman half fish hybrids. They lived on an island, presumably near Sicily, and lured sailors to their deaths with their enchanting songs. The myth of the sirens is long lived, indeed. One of their first and most important appearances is in Homers epic, The Odyssey. On his way home from the Trojan War, Odysseus must pass by the sirens island. In order to do so unharmed, he plugged his sailors ears with wax, but ordered them to tie him to the mast, so that he might hear their sweet songs without jumping overboard and drowning. Stories about sirens were also popular in the Middle Ages, when sailors heard their songs, but lived to tell the tale at home and in taverns. Belief in sirens persisted as far as the 19th century, when fake corpses were sold at fairs. Even today, pseudo-scientists called crypto-zoologists catch a siren from time to time, yet it conveniently gets away each time. Scientists believe the source of this myth is a real, yet still mysterious animal the only known herbivorous sea mammal the dugong. They are so convinced that this gentle, chubby sea creature inspired the myth of the sirens, that they were categorized as sirenians (the name of the order they belong to). Dugongs spend most of their time feeding underwater; when disturbed, they emerge from the water, sea weed hanging from their heads like locks of hair. Zoologists believe that sailors who saw these unfamiliar animals from a distance might have mistaken them for maidens of the sea.

We began this short essay by asserting that the ancient gods, heroes and monsters have not been forgotten. That is simply because one cannot forget something or someone he or she comes across every day. Some of us may ignore them, not knowing they are there, but they have certainly not been forgotten. Since ancient times all the way to the 21st century, Greek mythology has influenced almost every aspect of Western culture, from language to astronomy and astrology, from religion to arts and literature and everything in between. We will try to briefly cover all these aspects, focusing on the role played by mythical creatures. Let us start with language. Greek mythology has shaped English and other languages on many levels and although few people have formal knowledge of Greek mythology, they understand and use many of the phrases and expressions that have been inspired by ancient myths. Someone forced to choose between two evils may complain that he is trapped between Scylla and Charybdis (two monsters that terrorized sailors in the Strait of Messina). An enticing plea or appeal, especially one that is deceptively alluring may be called a siren song or a siren call. A shrewish woman is a harpy, a young and beautiful girl is a nymph and the lewd man chasing after her is a satyr. A femme fatale is a siren and a watchful guard may be called an Argus or a Cerberus. However, even the terrifying guardian of the Underworld let his guard down once, when he was lulled to sleep by Orpheus sweet singing. Nowadays, we may offer a sop to Cerberus, that is a bribe or something given to propitiate a potential source of danger or problems. A fanciful mental illusion or fabrication may be called a chimaera, and the list can continue. However, what is important to note is that most of these phrases and meanings of words are not limited to the English language. They also exist in Romanian and probably in most Germanic and Romance languages, which speaks volumes about the universal influence and appeal of Greek mythology. Now, we shall tackle the issue of astrology and astronomy. Many people believe that the future is written in the stars and that one may read it by gazing at the sky. They also believe that the zodiacal sign under which they were born affects their lives and their personalities. However, few know the origin of that sign. All signs of the zodiac were inspired by gods, heroes and fantastic creatures in Greek mythology. Aries, the first sign, is actually the ram that wore the famed Golden Fleece. It was sacrificed in honour of Zeus, who turned it into a constellation. The sign of the Taurus is based on the legend of Zeus turning into a white bull to kidnap the maiden Europa. Leo and Cancer were inspired by two monsters killed by Heracles, one being a giant crab that was sent by Hera to aid the Lernean hydra in its fight against the Greek hero, and the other being the Nemean lion. The Sign of the Sagittarius is represented by a centaur, presumably Chiron, wisest of the centaurs. Leaving the zodiac aside, other mythical beasts gave their name to constellations as well: Draco (the Hesperian dragon), Hydra, Monoceros (the Greek word for unicorn), Pegasus, and Phoenix. Next, let us delve into the subject of religion. Christianity has a very interesting relationship to Greek mythology, and to so-called pagan belief systems in general. As Christianity started to spread across Europe, it encountered heavy resistance from people who did not want to give up their ancestral beliefs. When not imposing itself on people by the use of brute force, Christianity actually made compromises, adapting and even incorporating some of the pagan beliefs and traditions. Thus, many Greek fantastic creatures became symbols of Christian values, vices and even characters. In Medieval art, sirens are shown carrying a small hand-mirror, which was the attribute of the prostitutes. To the Church, they represented the dangers of indulging in fleshly pleasures. Noble and sacred creatures like the unicorn and the phoenix were naturally associated with Christ.

Descriptions of the unicorn vary from source to source but the most common image is that of a pure white horse with a long, spiralled horn protruding from its forehead and a lions tail. According to ancient legends that date back to 2000 BC the unicorns horn was a panacea, and it could only be captured by a maiden. The belief in unicorns persisted well into the Middle Age, also fuelled by the fact that their existence was attested in a translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek. The image of a unicorn placing its head in a maidens lap became a motif in Christian Medieval art which lead historians to believe that the unicorn was a symbol for Christ since this image is reminiscent of baby Jesus lying in his mothers lap. Other legends and works of art have the unicorn dipping its horn into poisoned water to make it safe for other animals to drink, which may be viewed as a metaphor for Christs sacrifice to cleanse humanitys sins. The association of the phoenix with Jesus is rather more obvious. The phoenix was a mythical bird of great beauty fabled to live 500 or 600 years in the Arabian wilderness, to burn itself on a funeral pyre, and to rise from its ashes in the freshness of youth and live through another cycle of years. Thus, it was an emblem of immortality and of reborn idealism or hope, and naturally, it became a symbol of Christ. A more interesting connection is that between Satan and the satyr god of nature Pan. Pan was a Greek pastoral deity that had the upper body of a man and the lower body of a goat. He also had goat-like features, such as pointy ears, horns, a beard, and was very hairy. His favourite activities were lying in the sun, playing pipes and chasing after nymphs. His lustful personality was his only shortcoming, though to ancient Greeks, that was no shortcoming at all. They often depicted him with huge genitals, in the company of nymphs or even mortal women. So what is the connection between this lewd, yet peaceful and benign deity and the arch nemesis of Christianity? Pan was very popular among Greeks, more so than the Olympian gods, some argue. The early Church may have viewed him as a powerful competitor for the hearts and souls of people. They considered all ancient pagan gods to be daemons. However, Pans salacity and his monstrous appearance made him a direct antagonist to the austere, pure Jesus Christ and a perfect candidate to become the Great Adversary. Pan lent his image to Satan and became the personification of moral decadence and the dangerous allure of fleshly pleasures. This process was started and encouraged by the Church, who needed a scapegoat to justify its desire to twist pagan ideals and to turn people into ascetics. The image of Satan as a goat-like creature has persisted for centuries, right to the present day. Finally, we will briefly discuss the impact of Greek mythology on art and literature. Mythology was part of the daily life of ancient Greeks. Gods, heroes and monsters were depicted on the vases they used at home and in their temples, in frescoes and mosaics, in statues and statuettes that embellished their homes, their temples and their palaces. While most depictions acted as decorations or objects of worship, some even served more practical purposes. Gorgon heads were carved at the entrance of certain establishments, as they were believed to be so hideous that they drove away bad luck and even the most malicious of spirits. Certain mythical figures were more important in some areas of ancient Greece than others. As we mentioned earlier, the Minotaur and the bull were more celebrated in Crete than in any other part of Greece, and this is shown by the abundance of depictions that were unearthed there. In the 7th century BC, the Chimaera was a recurrent motif for the vase painters in the city of Corinth. Greek mythology also proved to be an exhaustless source of inspiration for writers and poets. The history of Greek (and Western) literature begins with the work of Homer, a poet who is no less shrouded in myth than his poems themselves. His epics, The Iliad, the story of the mythical Trojan War (which turned out

to be less mythical than anyone expected) and The Odyssey, which describes Odysseus journey back home from the Trojan War, are not only invaluable sources of information about Greek mythology and culture, but also timeless literary masterpieces. Mythology also inspired the works of the poet Hesiod, a contemporary of Homer. His Theogony and Works and Days also provide information about the Greek gods, heroes and monsters, although he sometimes contradicts Homer. The three great Athenian tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, who lived in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, wrote numerous plays, all of which explore mythological themes and many of which are still enacted today. In the 2nd century BC, ancient Greece fell under Roman rule. The Romans may have bested the Greeks on the field of battle; however, it was the superiority of Greek culture that managed to conquer their hearts and souls. They adopted and adapted the Greek mythology and culture, and used it as a foundation on which they build one of the most advanced and wonderful civilisations ever known in human history. As the great poet Horace said: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit. That is: Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror. The Roman artists and writers were just as fascinated by mythology as the Greeks were. Vergil, a poet who lived in the 1st century BC, is considered to be the Roman counterpart of Homer. He wrote The Aeneid, an epic continuation of The Iliad. It tells the story of Aeneas, one of the few survivors of the Trojan massacre and the legendary progenitor of the Roman people (according to legend, Romulus and Remus were his descendents). Vergils poem had major political implications, as the first Roman emperors claimed to be descendants of Aeneas and used The Aeneid as proof. Another Roman poet that used Greek mythology as a source of inspiration to great effect was Ovid, the author of The Metamorphoses, a wonderful, humorous and imaginative retelling of some of the most famous Greek myths. Needles to say, these are only the most well known of the countless ancient writers and poets that explored mythological themes and stories. As the sun was setting over the Western Roman Empire, a great shadow fell upon Europe the Dark Ages had begun. The Christians were less than tolerant about ancient beliefs, which they deemed as pagan and heretical. Ancient gods became daemons and devils, and were replaced by the benevolent and loving Christian god. Monsters and mythical beings, however, had a better fate, since most people living in the Dark Ages and later during the Middle Ages actually believed in their existence and, most importantly, they posed no threat to the authority of the Church. As we stated earlier, some of them were even adopted into the Christian mythology, becoming symbols of Christian virtues, vices or even important characters like Jesus Christ. Powerful and noble beasts, such as the griffin or the phoenix were adopted by kings, nobles and cities to be used on their coat of arms and most of the creatures in Greek mythology appeared in bestiaries, compilations of fantasy stories and beings that were very popular during the Middle Ages. At some point in the 14th century, a torch was lit in Italy, chasing away the shadows that had reigned over Europe for almost a 1000 years the Renaissance began. Christianity began to loosen its grip over the minds of Western Europeans and classical mythology once again became a source of inspiration for artists and writers.

Painters such as Botticelli (The Birth of Venus, Pallas and the Centaur), Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo (both of whom depict the legend of Leda and the swan) and Raphael (Galatea) are just a few of the Renaissance artists that gave new life to myths and legends. In literature, writers such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante found their inspiration in the works of the Roman poet Ovid. In Dantes Inferno, Vergil serves as the Italian poets guide through Hell, where he meets Cerberus, the ancient guardian of the Underworld, and some of the most well-known heroes from classical mythology. Later, famous dramatists like Shakespeare, Racine and Goethe also explored mythical themes, reworking some of the ancient myths. Greek mythology continued to provide raw material for artists and writers throughout the centuries; in the late 18th century interest in classical myth reached a new peak during the Romantic period. Among the most notable artists who found inspiration in ancient legends are the British poets Byron, Shelley and Keats and the German composers Gluck and Meyerbeer. In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by such major dramatists as Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in England and by great novelists such as the Irish James Joyce and the French Andr Gide. Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others have set Greek mythological themes to music. The invention of cinema added a new dimension to the visual arts. Mythological figures that had up to the 20th century been depicted in paintings and in statues, that had appeared in poems, novels and plays now became movie stars. Even nowadays, in the 21st century, highly popular movie adaptations of ancient Greek myths are being made. The influence of Greek mythology on our modern culture cannot be understated. We can safely assert that the ancient gods, heroes and fantasy creatures have never been forgotten; in fact they are very much alive, even today. Weve adopted powerful mythic beasts as logos for our schools, companies, and even sports teams. We use their names in our daily conversations, we read about them, we see them when we go to school, to work, to church, to the theatre or the cinema, when we look up to the sky at night, they are all around us. They have lived for thousands of years and they may very well be, just like the ancient Greeks believed, immortal.

Corpus English texts Text 1

Greek mythology
"Myth has two main functions," the poet and scholar Robert Graves wrote in 1955. The first is to answer the sort of awkward questions that children ask, such as Who made the world? How will it end? Who was the first man? Where do souls go after death?The second function of myth is to justify an existing social system and account for traditional rites and customs. In ancient Greece, stories about gods and goddesses and heroes and monsters were an important part of everyday life. They explained everything from religious rituals to the weather, and they gave meaning to the world people saw around them.

Greek Mythology: Sources

In Greek mythology, there is no single original text like the Christian Bible or the Hindu Vedas that introduces all of the myths characters and stories. Instead, the earliest Greek myths were part of an oral tradition that began in the Bronze Age, and their plots and themes unfolded gradually in the written literature of the archaic and classical periods. The poet Homers 8thcentury BC epics the Iliad and the Odyssey, for example, tell the story of the (mythical) Trojan War as a divine conflict as well as a human one. They do not, however, bother to introduce the gods and goddesses who are their main characters, since readers and listeners would already have been familiar with them.

Around 700 BC, the poet Hesiods Theogony offered the first written cosmogony, or origin story, of Greek mythology. The Theogony tells the story of the universes journey from nothingness (Chaos, a primeval void) to being, and details an elaborate family tree of elements, gods and goddesses who evolved from Chaos and descended from Gaia (Earth), Ouranos (Sky), Pontos (Sea) and Tartaros (the Underworld). Later Greek writers and artists used and elaborated upon these sources in their own work. For instance, mythological figures and events appear in the 5th-century plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides and the lyric poems of Pindar. Writers such as the 2nd-century BC Greek mythographer Apollodorus of Athens and the 1st-century BC Roman historian Gaius Julius Hyginus compiled the ancient myths and legends for contemporary audiences.

Greek Mythology: The Olympians

At the center of Greek mythology is the pantheon of deities who were said to live on Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. From their perch, they ruled every aspect of human life. Olympian gods and goddesses looked like men and women (though they could change themselves into animals and other things) and were--as many myths recounted--vulnerable to human foibles and passions.

The twelve main Olympians are: Zeus (Jupiter, in Roman mythology): the king of all the gods (and father to many) and god of weather, law and fate Hera (Juno): the queen of the gods and goddess of women and marriage Aphrodite (Venus): goddess of beauty and love Apollo (Apollo): god of prophesy, music and poetry and knowledge Ares (Mars): god of war Artemis (Diana): goddess of hunting, animals and childbirth Athena (Minerva): goddess of wisdom and defense Demeter (Ceres): goddess of agriculture and grain Dionysos (Bacchus): god of wine, pleasure and festivity Hephaistos (Vulcan): god of fire, metalworking and sculpture

Hermes (Mercury): god of travel, hospitality and trade and Zeuss personal messenger Poseidon (Neptune): god of the sea

Other gods and goddesses sometimes included in the roster of Olympians are: Hades (Pluto): god of the underworld Hestia (Vesta): goddess of home and family Eros (Cupid): god of sex and minion to Aphrodite Greek Mythology: Heroes and Monsters

Greek mythology does not just tell the stories of gods and goddesses, however. Human heroes-such as Heracles, the adventurer who performed 12 impossible labors for King Eurystheus (and was subsequently worshipped as a god for his accomplishment); Pandora, the first woman, whose curiosity brought evil to mankind; Pygmalion, the king who fell in love with an ivory statue; Arachne, the weaver who was turned into a spider for her arrogance; handsome Trojan prince Ganymede who became the cupbearer for the gods; Midas, the king with the golden touch; and Narcissus, the young man who fell in love with his own reflection--are just as significant. Monsters and hybrids (human-animal forms) also feature prominently in the tales: the winged horse Pegasus, the horse-man Centaur, the lion-woman Sphinx and the bird-woman Harpies, the one-eyed giant Cyclops, automatons (metal creatures given life by Hephaistos), manticores and unicorns, Gorgons, pygmies, minotaurs, satyrs and dragons of all sorts. Many of these creatures have become almost as well known as the gods, goddesses and heroes who share their stories.

Greek Mythology: Past and Present

The characters, stories, themes and lessons of Greek mythology have shaped art and literature for thousands of years. They appear in Renaissance paintings such as Botticellis Birth of Venus and Raphaels Triumph of Galatea and writings like Dantes Inferno; Romantic poetry and libretti; and scores of more recent novels, plays and films.

Source : http://www.history.com/topics/greek-mythology

Text 2

THE THEOGONY
TRANSLATED BY H. G. EVELYN-WHITE [265] And Thaumas wedded Electra the daughter of deep-flowing Ocean, and she bare him swift Iris and the long-haired Harpies, Aello (Storm-swift) and Ocypetes (Swift-flier) who on their swift wings keep pace with the blasts of the winds and the birds; for quick as time they dart along.

[270] And again, Ceto bare to Phorcys the fair-cheeked Graiae, sisters grey from their birth: and both deathless gods and men who walk on earth call them Graiae, Pemphredo well-clad, and saffron-robed Enyo, and the Gorgons who dwell beyond glorious Ocean in the frontier land towards Night where are the clear-voiced Hesperides, Sthenno, and Euryale, and Medusa who suffered a woeful fate: she was mortal, but the two were undying and grew not old. With her lay the Dark-haired On in a soft meadow amid spring flowers. And when Perseus cut off her head, there sprang forth great Chrysaor and the horse Pegasus who is so called because he was born near the springs (pegae) of Ocean; and that other, because he held a golden blade (aor) in his hands. Now Pegasus flew away and left the earth, the mother of flocks, and came to the deathless gods: and he dwells in the house of Zeus and brings to wise Zeus the thunder and lightning. But Chrysaor was joined in love to Callirrhoe, the daughter of glorious Ocean, and begot three-headed Geryones. Him mighty Heracles slew in sea-girt Erythea by his shambling oxen on that day when he drove the wide-browed oxen to holy Tiryns, and had crossed the ford of Ocean and killed Orthus and Eurytion the herdsman in the dim stead out beyond glorious Ocean. [295] And in a hollow cave she bare another monster, irresistible, in no wise like either to mortal men or to the undying gods, even the goddess fierce Echidna who is half a nymph with glancing eyes and fair cheeks, and half again a huge snake, great and awful, with speckled skin, eating raw flesh beneath the secret parts of the holy earth. And there she has a cave deep down under a hollow rock far from the deathless gods and mortal men. There, then, did the gods appoint her a glorious house to dwell in: and she keeps guard in Arima beneath the earth, grim Echidna, a nymph who dies not nor grows old all her days. [306] Men say that Typhaon the terrible, outrageous and lawless, was joined in love to her, the maid with glancing eyes. So she conceived and brought forth fierce offspring; first she bare Orthus the hound of Geryones, and then again she bare a second, a monster not to be overcome and that may not be described, Cerberus who eats raw flesh, the brazen-voiced hound of Hades, fifty-headed, relentless and strong. And again she bore a third, the evil-minded Hydra of Lerna, whom the goddess, white-armed Hera nourished, being angry beyond measure with the mighty Heracles. And her Heracles, the son of Zeus, of the house of Amphitryon, together with warlike Iolaus, destroyed with the unpitying sword through the plans of Athene the spoil-driver. She was

the mother of Chimaera who breathed raging fire, a creature fearful, great, swift-footed and strong, who had three heads, one of a grim-eyed lion; in her hinderpart, a dragon; and in her middle, a goat, breathing forth a fearful blast of blazing fire. Her did Pegasus and noble Bellerophon slay; but Echidna was subject in love to Orthus and brought forth the deadly Sphinx which destroyed the Cadmeans, and the Nemean lion, which Hera, the good wife of Zeus, brought up and made to haunt the hills of Nemea, a plague to men. There he preyed upon the tribes of her own people and had power over Tretus of Nemea and Apesas: yet the strength of stout Heracles overcame him.

[333] And Ceto was joined in love to Phorcys and bare her youngest, the awful snake who guards the apples all of gold in the secret places of the dark earth at its great bounds. This is the offspring of Ceto and Phorcys.

Source: http://www.theoi.com/Text/HesiodTheogony.html

Text 3 Fantastic Fossils

Do mythic creatures have bones?
Imagine walking along a bluff in ancient Greece and finding a leg bone several times the size of your own. What would you think? What if you saw a massive, human-like skull, with only a single hole where the eyes should be? Or a skeleton with four legs and a sharp, curved beak? What sort of creatures could these be? Today, scientists recognize such bones as the remains of long-extinct mammoths, dinosaurs, and other animals. But to many ancient Greeks, these unfamiliar bones were proof of the existence of the giants, cyclopes, and griffins described in the popular stories and travel accounts of the time.

Griffin Bones
Griffin Bones?
"We stopped at a low saddle between the hills. Before I could remove the keys from the ignition, Mark sang out excitedly.... Several feet away, near the very apex of the saddle, was a stunning skull and partial skeleton of a Protoceratops, a big fellow whose beak and crooked fingers pointed west to our small outcrop, like a griffin pointing the way to a guarded treasure.... We continued to pounce on precious specimens with remarkable consistency.... Mark would sing out, 'Skull!' and, almost on cue I would find

one too. The surface of the gentle slopes and shallow gullies was splattered with white patches of fossils, as if someone had emptied a paint can in a random fashion over the ground." --American Museum of Natural History paleontologist Michael Novacek describing the discovery of Protoceratops fossils on a 1993 expedition to the Gobi Desert with fellow paleontologist Mark Norell.

Guarding Gobi Gold

More than two thousand years ago, hardy gold miners sought their fortunes in the vast Gobi Desert of central Asia. These miners were Scythians--members of a horse-riding people who controlled much of central Asia and the northern Middle East between about 800 BC to AD 200. Relying on travelers' tales, Greek authors reported that in the scorching heat of the Gobi, the miners battled not only the blazing sun, but also the mighty griffin: a fierce half-eagle, half-lion hybrid that guarded fantastic treasures of gold.

Evidence Everywhere
In many parts of the world, dinosaur fossils are incredibly rare and hard to find--but not in certain parts of the Gobi Desert. For thousands of years, Protoceratops fossils, like the one pictured here, could regularly be seen eroding out of hillsides. In recent years many have been collected, making them somewhat less common.

The Gobi Desert

According to legends, griffins made their nests near gold mines in the Gobi Desert.

Dinosaur Deathbed
Millions of years before humans arrived in the Gobi, some parts of the desert were home to strange animals that seemed to combine body parts of eagles and lions. But these animals weren't griffins--they were dinosaurs. Certain areas in the Gobi are littered with dinosaur bones, including those of the fourlegged, beaked Protoceratops. Ancient gold miners working in the desert may have seen these fossils-and perhaps based their descriptions of griffins on them.

At A Glance: Protoceratops
In 2000, classical folklorist Adrienne Mayor argued that the many similarities between Protoceratops dinosaur fossils and griffins indicate that the fossils may have influenced descriptions of the mythic creature. Protoceratops lived from 145.5 to 65.5 million years ago. A beak, just like a griffin.

Four legs, just like a griffin. The thin, bony frill of Protoceratops fossils often breaks off, leaving behind small stumps, which may have been interpreted as griffin ears. The elongated shoulder blades of Protoceratops may explain why griffins are commonly said to have wings.

Borrowed Body Parts

Many different dinosaur fossils found in the Gobi may have contributed to various griffin descriptions. Among these are the enormous claws of Therizinosaurus and Deinocheirus which are similar to the griffin claws seen in some depictions.

Fighting Fossils
The ancient Greeks are widely credited for their achievements in math, philosophy and art--but not for finding fossils. Yet we know the Greeks found the preserved bones of unfamiliar animals and tried to interpret them. An image on a ceramic mixing bowl, dating to around 550 BC, depicts a battle between the hero Hercules and the legendary Monster of Troy, shown only as a white, toothy skull emerging from a black cliff face. Adrienne Mayor suggests the monster is actually based on a fossil skull of the ancient giraffe relative Samotherium found eroding out of a hillside.

Death of a Dinosaur
On an expedition in the Gobi Desert in the 1920s, Roy Chapman Andrews of the American Museum of Natural History found a Protoceratops specimen poking out of a hillside.

Griffin
"Now the place where the griffins live and the gold is found is a grim and terrible desert. Waiting for a moonless night, the treasure-seekers come with shovels and sacks and dig. If they manage to elude the griffins, the men reap a double reward, for they escape with their lives and bring home a cargo of gold-rich profit for the dangers they face." --Greek author Aelian, c. AD 200

At A Glance: Griffin
Griffins are said to live in nests in the mountains. Head, torso and talons of an eagle--or sometimes other beaked birds, like peacocks. Body of a lion--sometimes with a serpent's tail. Tawny coat of a lion, or spotted fur, or colorful feathers. Most griffin descriptions include wings, but not all. Four legs.

The Wide World of Griffins

Griffin-like creatures appear in the stories of many cultures in North Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. But griffins do not always mean the same thing in every place. In some cases, the griffin became a symbol of greed. In others, it was majestic and noble, like eagles and lions.

Ancient Art, Modern Media

Dazzling griffin illustrations date back at least as far as 3300 BC. Some images were enormously popular in the artwork of many cultures and especially on European coats-of-arms in the Middle Ages. Today, children see griffins in popular movies and in books like Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.

Roman Statuette
Artists in the ancient world often associated griffins with Nemesis, the Greek goddess of retribution.

Greek Cup
Drinking cups, or rhytons, were often molded in the shape of an animal's head.

Griffin Statue
Powerful mythic creatures are often used as logos for schools, companies, or even sports teams. Woodcarver Joe Leonard made this griffin statue while working on a similar one for a Pennsylvania high school whose mascot is a griffin.

Source: http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/land-creatures-of-theearth/griffin-bones

Text 4 Unicorns, West and East

Are All Mythic Creatures Scary?

While many mythic creatures are man-eating monsters or evil spirits, others, like unicorns, are powerful and peaceful. Both the pearly white unicorn of European lore and the benevolent Asian unicorn avoid contact with humans, preferring to remain unseen. When humans do encounter unicorns, the creatures cause them no harm, a favor that is not always returned. Indeed, countless stories tell of humans hunting European unicorns and luring them into traps.

Mythic Unicorns
In modern fairy tales and other stories, the mythic unicorn looks like a white horse with a single long horn on its head. But in older stories, this fantastic creature had a short, colored horn and the body of a goat.

European Unicorn
Once upon a time, a hunter in the forest saw a brilliant white unicorn in the distance, emerging from a river and gleaming like the moon. Enchanted by the sight, the hunter called together his friends and gave chase. But the unicorn knew that men could never catch him, so he playfully waited for the hunters to draw close before bounding out of view. After a while, the unicorn came to a stop in front of a beautiful young maiden sitting under a tree. She reached out, combed his curling mane and rubbed his horn until he lay his head in her lap. But it was a trap! Looking up at the maiden, the unicorn saw her brown eyes were filled with tears and realized her deceit too late--the dogs and men suddenly seized him and carried him away. Afterward, the maiden remained in the woods, despondent. As she leaned down to wash away her tears in the stream, a movement in the distance caught her eye: She couldn't be sure, but she thought it was the shining horn of a unicorn disappearing into the night. --Adapted from medieval European folktales; Greek authors told similar stories over 2,000 years ago.

An Ancient Tale
You may have heard that the one-horned unicorn is so magical that its horn can counteract poisons, and it is so elusive that no person can catch it. But did you know these unicorn stories began in ancient Greece? More than 2,000 years ago, Greek travelers told tales of unicorns living in far-off lands. As the fabulous accounts spread around the Western world, few people questioned that unicorns actually existed. Indeed, in about 300 BC, scholars translating the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek concluded that the Hebrew term re'em referred to a unicorn. Even early naturalists considered the unicorn to be a living animal: Several ancient catalogues of animals of the world include unicorns and describe them as solitary beasts that often battle lions and elephants.

At a Glance: European Unicorn

In stories, unicorns live deep in the forest and are rarely seen by people. White coat--but some early authors and artists described it as yellowish red, or even brown. Usually a horse's body, often with cloven hooves like a goat; sometimes the entire body looks like a goat's. Long, white spiraled horn--but early Greek naturalists described a shorter, blunter horn colored red, black and white.

Goat's beard. Tail of a lion--but some descriptions include the tail of a horse, goat, or boar.

The Christian Unicorn

Art historians have long considered the unicorn to be a symbol for Christ, a link seen most clearly in the story of a maiden capturing a unicorn (told above). For instance, the unicorn's placing his head in the lap of the young maiden, or virgin, recalls baby Jesus lying in the lap of the Virgin Mary. In other stories and artworks, the unicorn dips its horn into poisoned water to purify it for the other animals to drink, a reference to the story of Christ's sacrifice to cleanse the sins of mankind.

So They Say
"There are wild elephants and plenty of unicorns, which are scarcely smaller than elephants. They have the hair of a buffalo and feet like an elephant's. They have a single large, black horn in the middle of the forehead... They have a head like a wild boar's and always carry it stooped towards the ground. They spend their time by preference wallowing in mud and slime. They are very ugly brutes to look at. They are not at all such as we describe them when we relate that they let themselves be captured by virgins." --Italian explorer Marco Polo, c. AD 1300, most likely describing a Sumatran rhinoceros

Royal Respect
Even today, unicorns remain objects of wonder and beauty, often appearing as characters in popular movies and books. But they can also symbolize majesty and power. Strong and powerful unicorns are featured on the Royal Arms of both Scotland and the United Kingdom.

Natural History Book

In 1551, Swiss naturalist Konrad Gesner wrote Historiae Animalium, a book describing all of the animals that he thought lived on Earth. This 1620 edition includes a description of a unicorn, presumably based on the accounts of travelers to far-off lands.

Horn in Case
The Monastery of Saint Mary in Guadalupe, Spain, gave an African white rhinoceros horn to a dying Pope Gregory XIV in 1590. Like unicorn horns, rhinoceros horns were thought to have magical, curative properties. Though the tip of the horn was cut off and administered to the Pope, it proved ineffective and he died shortly thereafter.

Coin
James III, King of Scotland from 1460 to 1488, issued several coins that featured unicorns.

Is This a Unicorn Horn?

No, but it certainly looks like one. This enormous "horn" is the tusk of a male narwhal, a kind of Arctic whale. Before Europeans became familiar with these tusks, unicorns were often described as having horns in a variety of sizes, shapes and colors. But in the Middle Ages, Danish sailors and other merchants from the North brought narwhal tusks to European markets, where buyers considered them to be valuable, magical remains of elusive unicorns. From then on, nearly all descriptions of unicorn horns are consistent: They are long, white and spiraled, just like this one.

A Magical Horn
Many stories of unicorns refer to the magical properties of their horns, a claim first made by a Greek physician named Ctesias nearly 2,000 years ago. Those lucky enough to possess a horn might take advantage of its wide range of healing properties, from detecting and neutralizing poisons and curing fevers to prolonging youth and acting as an aphrodisiac. Narwhals are small whales from the icy channels of northern Canada and northwestern Greenland. Narwhals are sometimes called sea unicorns because of the enormous tusk that grows from the upper jaw in males. Some scientists have speculated that narwhal tusks, which can grow almost as long as three meters (about 10 feet), might be enormous sensory organs that can detect subtle changes in temperature and pressure.

A Magical Cup?
In the Middle Ages, narwhal tusks were widely thought to be unicorn horns with magical, curative properties. Indeed, cups made from narwhal tusks were thought to neutralize poisons and were highly valued. Elizabeth I, Queen of England in the 1500s, is said to have owned a tusk worth 10,000 pounds, the price of a castle.

Unicorn Sign
This sign was made around 1750 and hung above the door to a German apothecary, or pharmacy, a continuation of the medieval association of unicorns and medicine. Indeed, in medieval Europe, unicorn horns were thought to be able to cure a range of illnesses, from epilepsy to the plague. This unicorn's horn is actually a narwhal tusk.

Asian Unicorn
Thousands of years ago, the sage Fu Hsi was sitting by a river when he was splashed with water. Raising his eyes, he saw the unicorn, which the Chinese call the qilin ("chee-lin"), wading carefully through the river. The animal resembled a deer but had shining scales like a dragon. A single horn grew from its forehead. Its back was covered with strange signs and magic symbols. As the qilin walked away, Fu Hsi grabbed a stick and traced the symbols as best he could in the dirt. --Adapted from ancient Chinese stories

An Eastern Omen
Long before the pearly white unicorn of European lore, a one-horned, magical animal was said to roam the Eastern world: the Asian unicorn. First mentioned in written stories around 2700 BC, this unicorn is described as a creature of great power and wisdom. Always benevolent, it avoids fighting at all costs and walks so softly it will not crush a blade of grass. Much like its European cousin, the Asian unicorn enjoys its solitude and cannot be captured. Its rare appearances are omens, celebrating a just and wise ruler.

At A Glance: Asian Unicorn

According to legend, the Chinese philosopher Confucius was the last person ever to see an Asian unicorn. Scaly coat--or multicolored in blue, black, red, white and yellow. Deer's body. A flesh-covered horn--or sometimes two or even three horns. Tail of an ox.

Unicorn Beer!
In Japan, the unicorn is called the kirin and is the symbol and name of a popular beer. The word kirin has also come to mean "giraffe" in modern Japanese, perhaps owing to an earlier confusion: In 1414, Cheng Ho, the returning leader of an expedition to Africa, presented to the Chinese emperor a live "unicorn" that was, in fact, a giraffe.

Source: http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/land-creatures-of-theearth/unicorns-west-and-east

Text 5 Greek Mythology: An Introduction

By Fritz Graf

Hesiods account of the origin of the gods begins with Chaos (Chasm). Then broad-chested Gaea (Earth) came into existence, and Eros, the principle of sexual reproduction. From then on every

new creature (with some exceptions) would have a father and a mother. For the time being, however, there was a shortage of sexual partners. From Chaos were formed Erebus (Nether darkness), and black Nyx (Night). The children of Nyx were bright Aether (Upper Air) and Hemera (Day). Gaea gave birth to Uranus (Sky), the Mountains, and finally Pontus ( Sea). Gaea and Uranus united to become the first couple. Their children were the Titans, the one-eyed Cyclopes, and the enormous Hecatoncheires (Hundred-Handers) : Gaea and Uranus, half-formed forces of nature, had a tendency to produce hulking offspring. Terrified at the hideousness of his children, Uranus prevented their emergence from Gaea by copulating with her continuously. In answer to his mothers pleas, and with her aid, Cronus, a child of Uranus and Gaea, severed his fathers genitals with a toothed sickle (175). Uranus parted from Gaea, the children were freed, and Cronus made himself ruler over the second generation of the gods. Such is Hesiods version of a widespread myth according to which the sky and earth were separated at the beginning of creatio From the blood that dripped upon Gaea from Uranuss wound were formed the Giants, the Erinyes (goddesses of retribution), and the Dryads (tree nymphs). From the foamy semen that gushed from his severed organ, which Cronus had flung into the sea, grew the goddess Aphrodite (aphros means foam ; cf. 195-98). The rather lengthy account of the first generation of the gods is followed by more genealogies: the progeny of Night (mostly dark powers such as Sleep, Death and Strife), the water or sea deities descended from Gaea and Pontus, the children of the Titans, and finally the offspring of Cronus and Rhea, his sister. As a father, Cronus was no better than Uranus. He had learned of an oracle foretelling that one of his sons would overthrow him, and to prevent this he swallowed them as they were born. But the future predicted by oracles is fixed. Rhea tricked Cronus by giving him a stone wrapped in rags to swallow in place of their youngest son, Zeus, whom she hid on the island of Crete. Zeus grew up quickly and overthrew his father by wiles and force (496), causing him to disgorge the stone along with his brothers and sisters (in Hesiods day this stone marked the navel of the world at Delphi). He then freed the Cyclopes, whom Cronus had imprisoned beneath the earth , and he received from them the thunderbolt as an expression of their gratitude. Still more genealogies follow. Hesiod tells how each of the rebellious sons of the Titan Iapetus was punished by Zeus, ending with Prometheus. Zeus chained him to a column; an eagle fed on his liver by day, but the liver regenerated itself by night; much later, he was released from his torment by Zeuss son, Heracles. To explain this bizarre punishment, the poet tells at length how Prometheus attempted to deceive Zeus. The date that Hesiod assigns to this attempt is an odd one: when gods and mortals reached a settlement at Mecone (535-36). On that occasion, Prometheus divided up a slaughtered ox, placing to one side the meat and entrails, which he wrapped in skin and paunch, to the other the bones, which he concealed in savory fat. Zeus protested that the division was uneven, and Prometheus invited him to choose between the two portions, whereupon Zeus at once claimed the outwardly more appetizing one. From that time on, mortals have been immolating the bones and the fat as offerings to the gods, and eating the meat and entrails themselves. Zeus, Hesiod emphasizes, deliberately made the wrong choice, for he was brooding evil designs against mortals ( the revision shows that Hesiod was working with an older source). In retaliation Zeus concealed fire from mortals, but Prometheus stole it and gave it back to them. Zeus countered by sending them woman, a beautiful evil (kalon kakon , 585): Pandora, as she is called elsewhere. Since that time, whoever marries

embarks on a potentially ruinous adventure, whereas whoever does not will have no children to nourish and care for him in his old age, and his possessions will be divided among strangers after his death. Zeuss struggle with Cronus and the Titans dragged on for ten years, and there was a deadlock until Zeus, again on the advice of Gaea, freed the three Hecatoncheires and enlisted them as his allies. In the subsequent clash, heaven and earth rumbled, Olympus and Tartarus quaked. Zeus deployed the thunderbolt (perhaps for the first time), and the Hecatoncheires drove the Titans into Tartarus and fettered them there. A description of Tartarus and its inhabitants (a passage that some scholars consider spurious) is followed by an account of Zeuss last battle. After the expulsion of the Titans, Gaea bore the monster Typhoeus, who rose against Zeus. It is unclear what Gaeas motives were in producing this rebel, for up to this time she had been the loyal councillor of the younger gods. Typhoeus would have been ruler of mortals and immortals, Hesiod says, had not Zeus thundered and scorched him with lightning. Defeated, the monster was cast into Tartarus. From him originated the harmful winds; the beneficial ones , Notus, Boreas, and Zephyrus, had been produced by Eos (Dawn) long before then. Zeus, his regime finally secured, assigned to the gods their various privileges and functions (timai). There follows a long catalogue of Zeuss marriages. His first wife was Metis. On teh advice of Gaea and Uranus, Zeus swallowed her to forestall the birth of a son who would depose him. Afterwards he became pregnant with Athena, who was born from his head. His subsequent unions are listed first those with other goddesses, the those with mortal women. The marriages of the other male Olympians are also mentioned. An epilogue-like distich (963-64) is followed by a second invocation (965-68) introducing a catalogue of goddesses who bore children to mortal men: this ending (from 963 to the end of the poem) is obviously an appendage that served to link the Theogony with the Catalogue of Women (see Chapter 6) .

Source: Greek Mythology: An Introduction By Fritz Graf

http://books.google.ro/books?id=L2yMRI5xML8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=greek+mythology &hl=en&sa=X&ei=72_dUIzONPCY0QWR8YCACg&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAw

Text 6
9: Myth and Greek Art: Creating a Visual Language
Jenifer Neils

In perusing any book devoted to Greek art, one is struck by the ancient Greeks obsession with their gods, heroes, and mythological creatures. From the earliest extant work of figurative art produced in the so-called Dark Ages, the terracotta centaur from Lefkandi (ca. 950900 BC), to that icon of late Hellenistic group sculpture, the marble Laocoon (ca. 3020 BC), Greek artists and their patrons were drawn to mythological subjects not only for their intrinsic interest but also for the important roles they played in explaining the cosmos and shedding light on human nature. Although Greek artists shared this interest in mythological narrative with poets, they did not illustrate written texts; rather, theywere guided by that oral culture or Volksvorstellung that was an essential part of every Greeks upbringing.1 They, like all artists, were heavily influenced by the work of their predecessors, the demands of the marketplace, and the restrictions imposed by their medium. That said, Greek narrative art displays an amazing degree of imagination, ingenuity, and originality that continues to fascinate today, as it must have engaged viewers in antiquity.

[...]

Horse, Bird, and Man: The Artists Toolkit

In the first two centuries of Greek art (900700 BC), the figurative repertoire of artists consisted of simple geometricized forms: humans, quadrupeds, and birds. With this basic toolkit the artist could create super- or subhuman creatures of myth by devising imaginative combinations. Thus, for instance, attaching a horses hindquarters to a human resulted in a creature that combined the powers of human intelligence and equine strength making it an equal opponent (Nessus) as well as a tutor and friend (Chiron, Pholus) of gods and heroes. In precanonical Greek art this hybrid, commonly known as the centaur, was also used to depict other monsters such as Medusa (by the addition of a skirt) or the Minotaur. A male figure with only an equine tail and ears became the subhuman satyr, while a horse protome (forequarters) attached to a roosters body produced the somewhat ridiculous Mischwesen known as the hippalektryon. To create a daemon of subhuman intelligence the artist would surmount a human body with an animals head, as in the case of the canonical Minotaur (see Figure 3). Wings were added to horses, enabling them to fly (Pegasus) and power the chariots of heavenly divinities. A female with wings could be either a goddess (potnia theron, Iris, Nike) or a monster, if given an ugly or leering frontal face (Harpy, Fury, Medusa). Fish tails added to human torsos resulted in fantastic marine creatures such as Triton or Skylla. Finally, perhaps only the Greeks would invent a semidivine being that was both male and female, Hermaphroditus. Another method available to the creative artist for fabricating a mythological daemon was simply to multiply its form. Dual- and triple-bodied humans, such as the Molione/Actorione and Geryon, are formidable opponents of heroes, as are multiheaded dogs (Cerberus, Orthus), snakes (Hydra), and hybrids (Chimera). Many mythological figures take the form of male twins (Dioscuri, Cercopes, Boreads) or female triads (Gorgons, Fates, Graiae). Hecate could be depicted either as a normal woman or as a triple-bodied divinity. Most of the canonical hybrids were either invented or adapted from Near Eastern or Egyptian prototypes (e.g., sphinx, siren) by the mid-seventh century and continued relatively unchanged throughout classical art and well beyond.7
[...]

Heracles: From Hero to God

As the Panhellenic hero par excellence, Heracles is represented in all periods of Greek art and in nearly all regions of Greece. He appears struggling with Apollo for the tripod in the earliest narrative art of the Late Geometric period (ca. 750700 BC) and can be found in a Roman copy of a late Hellenistic painting transformed into a weary family man with Arcadia and his son Telephos. The iconography of Heracles changes over time, as does his meaning for a Greek audience, but his popularity never seems to wane. He is especially prevalent in Attic vase painting from the sixth to the fourth centuries, and it is in this medium that one can best plot the changes that occur in his imagery. Not surprisingly, in sixth-century Athenian vase painting, myths highlighting military, athletic, and hunting prowess predominate, as these represent the primary values of elite male society at that time. Scenes of the Trojan War, funeral games in honor of kings (Pelias) and heroes (Patroclus), and group expeditions in search of major prey (Calydonian boar hunt) are popular themes. Because he exemplifies all of these talents, Heracles is the sixth-century hero par excellence: he fights formidable opponents (Kyknos, Amazons, Geryon), competes in athletic contests (wrestling Antaeus, archery competition with Eurytossons), and single-handedly conquers wild beasts (Nemean lion, Cerynitan hind, Erymanthian boar, Stymphalian birds). By contrast, other heroes such as Theseus, Perseus, and Bellerophon have only one claim to fame in the art of this period the conquest of a monster (Minotaur, Medusa, Chimera). The labors, deeds, and parerga of the hero fit a variety of formats (vases, pediments, metopes, gems) and had a universal appeal throughout Greek lands. It is enlightening to compare the number of Attic vases with representations of Heracles with those of other heroes. According to the Beazley Database there are 3,751 vase paintings of Heracles, compared to 786 of Theseus, 114 of Perseus, 27 of Bellerophon, and only 10 of Jason. Predictably, Heracles is also the most popular mythical hero in Laconian vase-painting, which is limited to the sixth century, and it is interesting to note that he is sometimes dressed as a warrior, a feature calculated to appeal to the Spartans.21 On Corinthian vases, Heracles is also a common motif, but the choice of deeds is rather different from that in the Attic corpus. While the Nemean lion is by far the most popular deed on Athenian black-figure vases, that of the Lernaean hydra predominates on Corinthian vases, perhaps because the labor was performed not far from Corinth.22 Naturally, Theseus is more popular in Athens than elsewhere, but his sixth-century repertoire is limited almost exclusively to the Cretan adventure. On the archaic Acropolis, Heracles is far more prevalent, being featured on at least four pediments. This sampling of regional variations demonstrates how local taste affected not only the choice of myths but also their manner of representation. Looking at Attic vase representations of Heracles diachronically is also revelatory. While the Nemean lion constitutes twenty-five percent of all black-figure scenes of Heracles, in red-figure before 450 BC the percentage drops to a mere four. After 450 a significant shift occurs from depictions of his Labors and other adventures to the heros apotheosis and his appearance in the company of the Olympian gods. In the fourth century, the favorite themes are the apples of the Hesperides and his initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries. These more metaphysical scenes can be related to the humanizing process that takes place in literary and philosophical circles. Likewise, his appearance as an infant strangling the snakes sent by the jealous Hera on early fourth-century silver coins from Byzantion to Croton demonstrates a more human side to the brawny hero.23 The fact that Alexander the Great minted coins with the head of Heracles in his own likeness attests to the universality of the hero as an emblem of Greekness in the early Hellenistic period. This ubiquitous and long-lived hero even survived pagan antiquity, emerging as the figure of Fortitude in Christian art.

Source: The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology

http://ebookbrowse.com/gdoc.php?id=305824784&url=b765e775c076f8f7c76fe689a9e49569

Text 7 The Demonization of Pan.

Kevin Hearne (c) 1998

Midas, no longer lured by dreams of riches, Took to the woods, became a nature-lover; He worshipped Pan... (Ovid 303).

Such a mention of the ancient Greek god, Pan, hardly seems threatening. It certainly does not suggest that Pan was evil incarnate yet by approximately 300 C.E., the demonization of Pan had begun, and it continued until the western world largely associated images of Pan with the devil. To the Greeks, Pan was a shepherd: he was half goat and half man, a thing of nature certainly not the Antichrist or a being who was out to corrupt and steal men's souls. He was lusty; he played pipes and was therefore musical; and he was a god of nature. And though much is made in schools and textbooks of the major Olympian gods Zeus and the gang it is clear from archaeological evidence that Pan was the favorite god of the Greek people. "It's a fact that there are more dedications to him than to any other..." (Pitt-Kethley xi). Perhaps this is what led Christian theologians to demonize Pan; they sensed a powerful competitor for the hearts of the people. This demonization was no accident, but rather a deliberate twisting of pagan ideals as Christianity spread its influence throughout Europe. After the Council of Nicea issued the Nicene Creed and the Roman Catholic Church was established in 325 C.E., Christian theologians

(beginning with Eusebius) transformed Pan from a benign nature god to Satan the great Adversary. There is some evidence to the contrary that in fact, Pan went the other way, and was associated with Jesus Christ. The connection may not be apparent at first: how can a "minor" god of the sizable Greek pantheon have anything to do with the central figure of a monotheistic, eschatological religion? The mere suggestion of this would get someone burned at the stake during the Spanish Inquisition. But the similarities are there. For example, they were both shepherds, after a fashion. Also, neither of them were entirely divine: Jesus was supposed to be one hundred percent divine and one hundred percent human simultaneously, and Pan was likewise a god and "also an earthly being, by virtue of his mother Dryope, his occupation, and his association with man. This fusion of the human and divine in one creature has led many later Christian poets most notably Milton to describe Pan as a pagan prefiguration of Jesus Christ" (Baker 11). The crucial point here, however, is that such comparisons were made by poets and mostly poets who lived after the Reformation not by priests or bishops of the Church and certainly not by any of the popes.

The obvious problem with comparing Pan to Jesus, in the Church's view, would be Pan's incredible virility. Jesus was never portrayed as a sexual being, and to this day people still feel traces of guilt about sex, as if it were an unholy act. Pan was unabashedly libidinous. A survey of statuary and bas-relief sculpture conducted by Fiona Pitt-Kethley left no doubt of this. In almost every instance she recorded, Pan's manhood was fully aroused, "though never Priapically endowed" (xiii). With depictions such as these, Pan's image was obviously as far away from that of Jesus as another deity could get. No member of the clergy would ever dare to draw comparisons between them when the contrast was so evident, so the poets were alone in raising Pan to a Christ figure. But what is it about sexuality that makes Christianity so afraid of it, besides the fact that Jesus didn't seem to have any? One scholar believes that since Pan was "a phallic deity like his father [Hermes], he represented sexual desire, which can be both creative and destructive" (Russell 126). The Church still preaches loudly about the destructive power of sexual immorality, and pretty much leaves the creative aspect of it for granted. Since Pan's sexual nature was so evident, this might explain the Church's readiness to hold up Pan as an example of profound moral turpitude. "Sexual passion, which suspends reason and easily leads to excess, was alien...to the asceticism of the Christians; a god of sexuality could easily be assimilated to the principle of evil" (Russell 126). Pan's sexuality, when combined with his unwholesome visage, thus gave the ascetics exactly what they needed. Since he had never been attractive to begin with, and Christians were wont to associate ugliness with evil (deformations and plagues of all kinds were seen as a punishment from God for sins committed), Pan became the image of the devil. Pan's entire physique was so gruesome to behold that the Church could almost point to Pan and say, "This is what happens to the sexually immoral."

Pan wasn't the only pagan god getting his name besmirched at first. Believing in only one God and forsaking all others, Christians had a tendency to equate all pagan deities with demons. Eusebius, writing in the early fourth century, was the first to take aim specifically at Pan. In responding to Plutarch's account of Pan's "death" during the reign of Tiberius (who reigned during the time of Jesus' crucifixion), Eusebius interpreted the story as evidence that God had rid humankind of its biggest demon. "As the pagan deities were demons, in the Christian view, Eusebius' equating Pan with the daemon, seems natural and unforced" (Merivale 13). By the time of Eusebius, it might well have been natural to make such an equation; but according to A History of the Devil, such slander would have been impossible without the emergence of the Septuagint and the concept of a devil, period: The concept of the Devil was also aided by the development of the concept of evil demons. At first, demons are morally ambivalent like the gods. Then two groups of demons are distinguished, one good and the other evil. Finally, a shift in vocabulary occurs. In the Septuagint, the good spirits are called angels and the evil spirits demons wholly evil spiritual beings. These are now easily amalgamated with the Devil, either lending their traits to him, or being spirits subordinate to him (Russell 170).

It is not difficult to see here how Pan's rampant sexuality so sinful to Christians made him an ideal candidate for demonization. This defamation of a once pastoral god was part of a vast campaign of religious propaganda designed to put the fear of the devil (where the fear of God didn't seem to work) in the people's hearts for Christianity had several pantheons of old gods to conquer, and a personification of evil was efficacious in helping the process along. Thanks to Christianity, Pan literally became the world's biggest scapegoat. The conversion of pagan Europe to Christianity took up most of the first millennium; history shows that pagan converts had problems assimilating the ideas that violence and sensual pleasure were sinful. The former is certainly obvious in the evangelical methodology of Olaf Trygvesson, king of Norway in 999 CE: "All Norway will be Christian or die" (Reston 30), he said. However, the forcible conversion of the populace was being mirrored elsewhere at the same time, and the old cycle of violence (burn, rape, and pillage one's way to the throne) that had ruled since ancient times was curtailed enough so that civilization could begin. "The last apocalypse was a process rather than a cataclysm. It had the suddenness of forty years. Limited to Europe, its drama lay in the deliverance from terror rather than terror itself" (Renton 277). But while Christianity might have been mildly effective in blunting Europe's taste for violence, it is clear that it had (and still has) difficulty blunting human sexuality. With Pan and the other pagan gods, sexuality had always been something to be enjoyed and people took great delight in imitating the gods. Trying to quell one's desires and imitate the celibacy of Jesus was therefore a bit too much to ask even simply confining sexuality to marriage was (and is) a problem. No one felt this more keenly, apparently, than St. Augustine of Hippo, who rails at length in his Confessions about the perils of sexuality. He was the first to demonize Pan specifically for his sexuality (approximately 400 C.E.), going beyond the general Christian tendency to equate pagan deities with demons on

general principle. "Saint Augustine first mentioned the existence of incubi, which he thought to be forest deities; Augustine had spun both them and the succubi out of such Hellenic holdovers as Pan and his Dryads as well as other nymphs" (Massadie 275). Augustine's ideas were brought to America by the Puritans centuries later; they thought that the devil, horned and goat-footed, actually lived in the forest around Plymouth. Of course, the myth of his deviltry was widely spread and emphasized throughout the Middle Ages. The Church did propagate the image of Pan as the devil to give an ugly face to all of Satan's temptations, but they were primarily concerned with snuffing out the libidinous nature of the populace else why not choose an even uglier creature to symbolize ultimate evil? "The devil was everywhere, carved on cathedral doors and pulpit pediments, always with the same Pan-like body...an image that, in this era torn between ribaldry and Gnostic mysticism, betrayed and obvious obsession with sex" (Massadie 275). As time went on, Pan's image as the devil continued to be reinforced--especially during the Renaissance, when ancient Greek and Roman gods regained some of their fame for awhile. The Church was anxious to prevent Pan from slipping back into his harmless nature, and so commissioned works of art appropriately: "Pan's knobbly horns...took on a newly, diabolic meaning in Christian art...such examples are not "misinterpretations" of classical content but purposeful...Christian diabolization of pagan forms" (Camille 103). This Pan-like image of Satan persists in fundamental denominations today, and can be seen in comic adaptations of C.S. Lewis' The Screwtape Letters. A horned, goat-footed devil appeared in the movie Legend, and doubtless such caricatures pop up in horror movies as well. These silly ideas about the Pan-like image of Satan are all thanks to the pioneering efforts of Eusebius and Augustine, whose ideas were perpetuated and embellished by a horde of subsequent zealous clergymen. The Christian demonization of a randy but otherwise benign nature god seems quite clear to one living in a secular century, and it must have been irritating to those who believed in him if they realized the purpose behind it at the time. From all ancient sources and archaeological evidence, Pan was obviously a greatly revered, rather than greatly feared, being at one point. It was only the ascetic values of the Judeo-Christian tradition that doomed him to play the role of the ultimate bad guy. Indeed, "it is a strange comment on a changed morality that this god... should have been turned by the Christian theologians into a devil" (Woods 86), for he was the god of all nature, and thus behaving naturally not as the incarnation of evil.

Source: http://www.mesacc.edu/~thoqh49081/StudentPapers/pan.html

Text 8
THE STUDENTS MYTHOLOGY - A COMPENDIUM OF Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies BY C. A. WHITE.

CHAPTER XX. Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities. Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities. PAN. Ques. Who was Pan? Ans. He was a woodland deity, and was honored by the Romans as the god of shepherds and the patron of fishing and fowling. The Latins sometimes called him Incubus or the Nightmare, and at Rome he was worshipped as Lupercus, or Lynceus. His origin is uncertain, but he is said by some authors to have been a son of Mercury and a nymph of Arcadia. Ques. How is Pan represented?

Ans. As half man, and half goat, having a human head ornamented with horns, and a garland of pine: he holds in one hand a crooked staff, and in the other a pipe of uneven reeds. The music which he made on this rude instrument was so sweet as to cheer the gods. Ques. What famous action is related of Pan? Ans. When the Gauls, under their King Brennus, made an irruption into Greece, and were about to plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi, Pan suddenly showed himself, and so terrified them [85] that they fled in disorder. Hence it comes that any sudden and unreasonable terror which spreads through an assemblage of persons, particularly an army, is called a panic. Ques. What was the origin of Pans reeds? Ans. A beautiful nymph, named Syrinx, was so persecuted by this god, that she prayed the waternymphs to help her, and change her into reeds, which they did. Pan saw the transformation, and was much grieved. He took some of the reeds away for a remembrance. On applying them to his lips, he found they produced the most melodious sounds, so that he formed them into a rustic pipe. Milk and honey were offered to Pan.

SATYRS AND FAUNS. Ques. Who were these? Ans. They were hideous monsters who dwelt in forests, and were, like Pan, half man and half goat.

CHAPTER XXI. Goddesses of the Woods. [...] NYMPHS. Ques. Who were the Nymphs? Ans. They were graceful young women who attended on Diana and the greater goddesses. Some, also, had charge of certain fountains and rivers, and were called Naiades; the nymphs of Ocean were Nereides and Oceanides. The Oreades were mountain nymphs, and others presided over groves and even single trees. Ques. What were the woodland nymphs called? Ans. Those who watched over the forests, and always lived among the trees, were called Dryades, from a Greek word which means an oak; the Hamadryades were so called because they were [91] attached, each to some particular oak. The Hamadryad was born with the tree, flourished and died with it. This belief lingered for a long time amid the German forests, as also the superstition about water spirits. [...]

CHAPTER XXII.

Gods of the Sea. NEPTUNEPOSEIDON.

Ques. Who was Neptune? Ans. He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the god of the sea, and the father of rivers and fountains. Ques. How is he represented? Ans. As standing upright in a chariot made of a sea-shell; for a sceptre, he holds a trident, that is, a fork with three barbed tines; he is arrayed in a blue mantle, and is generally accompanied by his queen Amphitrite. Neptunes chariot is drawn by sea-horses, and his attendants, who swim on either side, are human only to the waist, the body terminating like that of a fish. Whenever Neptunes chariot moved upon the waters, the sea grew calm, and tempests were appeased. Ques. What were the offices of Neptune ? Ans. He conducted ships safely to port, and presided over horse-races. Ques. Why was he supposed to preside over horses? Ans. In memory of his contest with Minerva, when he produced a horse by striking on the ground with his trident. Neptune was obliged by Jupiter to aid Apollo in building the walls of Troy. Ques. How was Neptune worshipped? Ans. Neptune had an altar in the Circus at Rome where sacrifices were offered, and plays were acted, representing the carrying off of the Sabine women. The solemn games in honor of this god were called Consualia, and were celebrated in the month of March. While these lasted, horses were released from work, and mules were adorned with garlands. Ques. Who were the most remarkable of Neptunes children? Ans. Triton, and Phorcus or Proteus. Ques. What is told of Phorcus? Ans. He was vanquished by Atlas, and drowned in the sea; after which the people worshipped him as a god. There was another Phorcus who had three daughters, concerning whom a remarkable circumstance is related. The sisters had but one eye for their common use; each one wore it in turn, in the middle of her forehead. They were the guardians of the Gorgons, of whom Medusa was one. The

hero Perseus, when about to attack Medusa, visited them, and, watching his opportunity, while one of the sisters was handing the eye to the other, he snatched it from her, and left all three in darkness. Ques. For what was Proteus remarkable? Ans. For his power of transforming himself instantaneously into any shape he wished. Ques. Who was Triton? Ans. He was the son of Neptune and Amphitrite, and was his fathers companion and trumpeter. The upper half of his body was like that of a man, but below the waist he resembled a fish; his tail was cleft and crooked, and his hair resembled wild parsley.

Ques. What other sea-monsters were celebrated? Ans. The Sirens, also Scylla, and Charybdis. Ques. Who were the Sirens? Ans. They were monsters who had the faces of women, but the bodies of flying-fish; they dwelt near the promontory of Peloris, or in islands called Sirenus, south of Italy. By the magical sweetness of their singing, they allured all who sailed by those coasts; and after they had lulled them into a trance, drowned them in the sea. Ques. What was there remarkable in the songs of the Sirens? Ans. They blended the notes of different musical instruments with their voices, and adapted the style and matter of their songs to the inclination of their hearers. They had bold and stirring strains to entice the ambitious, softer melodies for the lovers of pleasure, and with still different notes, they drew on the covetous to their destruction. Ques. Did any escape who passed those coasts? Ans. History mentions only two; Ulysses and Orpheus. The first was warned against the danger by the enchantress Circe; he therefore stopped the ears of his companions with wax, and had himself firmly bound to the mast of the ship, by which means he passed the fatal coasts in safety. Orpheus overcame them in their own art; for he sang the praises of the gods, accompanying himself upon his lyre, and made such divine melody that the music of the Sirens attracted no attention. The Fates had decreed that the Sirens should live until someone who passed by, had listened to their songs unmoved. When they saw themselves overcome by Orpheus, they knew that their hour had come, and flung themselves headlong into the sea, where they were transformed into rocks. Ques. Who was Circe? Ans. She was a skillful enchantress. Having poisoned her husband, the king of the Sarmatians, she was obliged to fly into Italy, where she fixed her dwelling on the promontory Circum. She presented to all travellers an enchanted cup; and after they had drunk, transformed them into wolves, swine or other

animals. Ulysses escaped by throwing an herb into the cup, which rendered it powerless; he then rushed upon the sorceress with his sword, and forced her to restore his companions whom she had transformed. After this, Circe entertained Ulysses in a friendly manner. Ques. What did the poets endeavor to teach by the fables of the Sirens song, and the cup of Circe? Ans. They wished to signify by the singing of the Sirens, the allurements of vice, and the dangers of listening to its seductions; by the story of Circe, they showed that when men drink of the cup of sensual pleasure, they become soon degraded to the level of the beasts.

Ques. Who was Scylla? Ans. The fable relates that she was the daughter of Phorcus, and that she was transformed by the jealousy of Circe, into a frightful monster. Scylla was so much grieved by this transformation, that she cast herself into the sea, where she was changed into a rock, made famous by the many shipwrecks that occurred upon it. Over against this rock is the whirlpool of Charybdis, about which the poets relate a similar fable. They say that Charybdis was a very ravenous woman, who stole Herculess oxen. For this theft, Jupiter struck her dead with a thunderbolt, and changed her into the whirlpool which bears her name. The ancients placed Scylla and Charybdis in the straits of Messina. It was considered a great feat to steer successfully between them. [...] CHAPTER XXIV. FABULOUS MONSTERS.

Ques. Were there any fabulous monsters besides those of Hell? Ans. Yes, many; the Centaurs, who were half man and half horse; also Geryon, who was king of the three Balearic Islands, now known as Ivica, Minorca and Majorca. For this reason, he was said to have three heads and three bodies, and passed into fable as a monster. He was probably a wicked and cruel prince. There were also the Harpies, which had the faces of women and the bodies of birds. Ques. What was the Chimra? Ans. A fabulous monster, which vomited fire. It had the head and breast of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon. Ques. What was intended by this fable? Ans. Poets thus described a volcano in Lycia, on the summit of which were lions; in the middle was pasture-land frequented by goats; and the lowest part was infested by serpents. Bellerophon made this mountain inhabitable, and was therefore said to have killed the Chimra. At present [106] anything which is quite imaginary is called a Chimra.

Ques. What was the Sphinx? Ans. It was a monster with the head and shoulders of a woman, the wings of a bird, and the paws of a lion. She infested the country about Thebes, so that the people, in their distress, went to consult the oracle of Apollo. An answer was given that no remedy could be found until some one should solve the riddle that the Sphinx had proposed, and which she had learned from the Muses. The question was this: What animal is that which goes on four feet in the morning, on two at noon, and on three in the evening? The Thebans often met to try their skill, and when they had failed, the Sphinx carried off and devoured one of their number. At length Hmon, son of Creon, was destroyed by the monster, and the king made a public proclamation, that he would give the throne, with the hand of his sister Jocasta, to that man who should solve the riddle. dipus, who was then at Thebes, came forward and answered the Sphinx, that the animal was Man, because when an infant he creeps on all fours; in manhood, he walks on two feet, and when old uses a staff as a third foot. Upon hearing this answer, the Sphinx dashed her head against a rock, and expired. Ques. Why is the story of the Sphinx interesting? Ans. Because there still remains in Egypt an [107] enormous statue of the monster, carved in solid rock. Formerly, little was visible save the head and neck, but the sand which has been gathering around it for so many centuries, is now cleared away. The body is one hundred and twenty-five feet long; and the fore-paws extend about fifty feet more. The face has been much disfigured by the arrows and lances of the Arabs, who are taught by their religion to hold all images of men or animals in detestation. Ques. What was the Phnix? Ans. A fabulous bird of which there never existed more than one at the same time. It excelled all other birds in beauty of plumage, and fed only on frankincense and sweet gums. When the Phnix had attained the age of five hundred years, it built a funeral pile of odorous wood, on which it was consumed. A new Phnix also immediately arose from the flames. The first care of the young bird was to collect the ashes of its parent, which it carried, enclosed in myrrh, to the temple of the Sun in Egypt.

Source : THE STUDENTS MYTHOLOGY - A COMPENDIUM OF Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian,

Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies BY C. A. WHITE. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/37380/37380-h/37380-h.htm

Text 9 Greek Myths

How Old Are Greek Myths?

Zeus and the other Greek gods on Mount Olympus, from Aphrodite to Poseidon, are familiar characters to many readers. The Greek stories of gods, heroes and monsters are told and retold around the world even today. The earliest known versions of these myths date back more than 2,700 years, appearing in written form in the works of the Greek poets Homer and Hesiod. But some of these myths are much older. Indeed, the Greeks borrowed some of their best material from other, more ancient stories.

Pegasus
Long ago, the young Greek hero Perseus set out on a seemingly impossible quest: to slay the hideous Medusa. With a head covered in snakes instead of hair, Medusa was so ugly that anyone who looked at her turned to stone. For many days, Perseus traveled in search of Medusa. Finally, he found her and her two sisters resting among the statues of other heroes, all turned to stone by Medusa's gaze. But Perseus had consulted the gods and knew how to defeat the monster. Looking only at Medusa's reflection in a polished shield, Perseus chopped off her horrible head with a sickle. The winged horse Pegasus sprang from Medusa's neck. Medusa's two sisters were furious and chased after Perseus. But Pegasus allowed the hero to climb on his back, and the two flew away to safety. -Adapted from ancient Greek myths

Loyal Companion
The white, winged horse Pegasus is only a minor character in Greek myths, serving as the loyal steed and companion to the heroes Perseus and Bellerophon as they battle with monsters. Although Pegasus doesn't show up in many myths, he was a favorite subject of Greek artists. Even today, Pegasus is among the most popular images from Greek myth, appearing on everything from corporate logos to figures on carousels. Indeed, Pegasus is so well known that today all winged horses are called "pegasi."

At a Glance: Pegasus
Pegasus was the son of the monster Medusa and Poseidon, the god of the seas and of horses. Pegasus was kind, helpful, and never greedy. The constellation named after him even shares a star with the constellation of Andromeda, a maiden he helped save. White horse with wings. Pegasus allowed only two mortals to ride him: the heroes Perseus and Bellerophon.

A Hero's Horse
A long time ago, the Greek hero Bellerophon set out to kill the fire-breathing Chimera, a beast with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail. The goddess Athena helped Bellerophon tame Pegasus, and with the winged horse's aid, Bellerophon killed the monster.

After this glorious victory, Bellerophon thought himself the equal of the gods and urged Pegasus to fly him to Mount Olympus. But Bellerophon's arrogance enraged the gods. Zeus sent a fly to bite Pegasus, causing him to rear back and sending Bellerophon hurtling to the ground. Pegasus remained at Olympus for the rest of his life, carrying Zeus's lightning bolts on his back. And when Pegasus died, Zeus transformed him into a constellation, which can be seen to this day. --Adapted from Homer's Iliad, c. 800-600 BC, and other ancient Greek myths

Coins
Stories of Pegasus were particularly popular in the ancient city of Corinth, Greece. The winged horse was used as the city's emblem and appeared on coins of the city for hundreds of years.

Carved Pegasus
A carved Pegasus figure, made by artist Joe Leonard for a private collector, is styled after the animals found on carousels. The statue's wings, however, would make it impossible for anyone to sit on the creature's back.

Greek Sphinx
Many years ago, the Sphinx sat in front of the gates to the ancient Greek city of Thebes. The Sphinx was a terrible monster with a lion's body and a woman's head -- and a fondness for riddles. She asked a question of everyone who passed, eating anyone who couldn't answer. "What has one voice and walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three legs in the evening?" No one had ever answered correctly, and the Sphinx was well fed. But one day a clever man named Oedipus came along and gave the answer "man." A person crawls on all fours as a baby, walks on two legs as an adult and uses a cane - a third leg -- in old age. Distraught over being outwitted, the Sphinx threw herself off her high perch and died on the road below. --Adapted from Oedipus Rex by the Greek playwright Sophocles (495 - 406 BC)

Where Do Greek Myths Come From?

Today, Greek myths are widely told outside of Greece--and the stories have left their mark on various cultures around the world. But many of the stories we think of as Greek myths actually have roots in other ancient cultures. For instance, at least 4,500 years ago -- more than 2,000 years before Sophocles wrote of the Sphinx -- Egyptian artists carved half-human, half-lion statues out of stone. And some 3,500 years ago, artists in Mesopotamia depicted similar creatures and may have transmitted the image to Greece.

At a Glance: Greek Sphinx

The Greek Sphinx was aggressive and hostile, often attacking and snacking on people who passed by. Head and torso of a woman.

Body of a lion. Wings of an eagle.

Egyptian Sphinx
The Great Sphinx of Giza has stood guard in front of the pyramids since around 2500 BC. Unlike the halflion, half-woman Sphinx of Greek myth, the Great Sphinx combines the body of a lion with the head of a man-King Khafre, the ruler of Egypt at that time. Other Egyptian sphinxes, however, have the heads of rams or falcons. And while the Sphinx of Greek myth is cruel and aggressive, Egyptian sphinxes are considered benign symbols of powerful rulers.

Source: http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/air-creatures-of-thesky/greek-myths

Text 10
Impact of Greek Mythology on Western Culture

Greek mythology 's impact on modern societies cannot be understated. Modern language, industry, arts and culture all demonstrate the impact of Greek mythology in today 's world. For example, most people who have no formal knowledge of Greek mythology still know that Hercules was a strongman and that Venus (the Roman version of the Greek Aphrodite) is the goddess of love. The Impact of Greek Mythology on Language

Very few people speak ancient Greek on a regular basis, but Greek mythology has shaped English and other languages on many levels. A "Herculean task, " for example, is one that requires great effort. This phrase comes from a myth about the Twelve Labors of Hercules.

The drug morphine takes its name from the Greek God of Sleep, Morpheus. "Venereal disease " is a rather unflattering reference to Venus. The goddess of love fares better in the term "aphrodisiac ", referring to any substance or circumstance that arouses sexual desire.

To this day, an unpleasant woman may be called a "harpy " (a winged monster with a woman 's torso and a bird 's feet). Alternately, a handsome man is an "Adonis, " the mortal man so beautiful that Aphrodite herself fell in love with him.

We call computer viruses "Trojans, " a rather unfair comparison with the Trojans, as we 're actually referring to the Greek-built Trojan horse, used by the Greeks to infiltrate Troy and end the Trojan War.

The impact of Greek mythology on western culture and language isn 't confined to individual words. Many expressions, proverbs and clichs are direct references to ancient Greek myths.

For example, the expressions "caught between a rock and a hard place " and "between the Devil and the deep blue sea " both come from tales about sailors being caught between the monsters Scylla and Charybdis of Greek mythology. Other common expressions that demonstrate Greek mythology 's impact on modern societies include: an Achilles heel (a single fatal vulnerability) having the Midas touch (everything turns to gold) lying in the arms of Morpheus (sleeping) opening Pandora 's Box (unlocking a world of trouble) rich as Croesus (Croesus was known for his wealth) the face that launched a thousand ships (a woman worth going to war for). Cultural Impact of Greek Mythology in the West

Greek mythology 's impact on modern societies is often seen in the arts and popular culture. In the 1980s, the all-female rock band The Bangles had a top ten hit with the single Venus.

Television shows and movies, such as Disney 's Hercules, have also reintroduced mythological figures to new generations, including characters such as Hades, the Lord of the Underworld. In fact, movies have been retelling versions of Hercule 's story since the 1950s.

Some of the most famous works of art and literature demonstrate the impact of Greek mythology on western culture. Botticelli 's The Birth of Venus is one of the world 's most recognizable paintings.

Operas often delve into Greek mythology, as well. Offenbach 's Orpheus in the Underworld is one of the most famous examples.

Great writers such as Dante, Shakespeare and Milton make frequent references to Greek mythology, so much so that an understanding of Greek myths is necessary to truly appreciate their works. American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne 's Tanglewood Tales is a collection of rewritten Greek myths. Science and Greek Mythology

Greek mythology 's impact on modern societies can be seen on any clear night. Many constellations are named after characters or monsters from Greek myths, including Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Hercules and Gemini.

All of the planets and most of the moons in the solar system are also named after Greek mythological characters, although the planets have been given Roman versions of the Greek names. Even our Earth was named after a Greek myth: Another name for our planet is "Gaia, " the name of the Greek earth mother. Signs of Greek Mythology in Modern Societies

The names of Greek mythology surround us today, sometimes in unusual places. Would Ajax, one of the great Greek heroes of The Iliad, be happy knowing he 's the namesake for a popular cleaning product?

Sometimes, references to Greek mythology are appropriate. The Aegis is the shield used by both Zeus and his daughter Athena. Today, the Aegis Group is an insurance company, and the U.S. navy uses Aegis cruisers. In both of these instances, the reference to Greek mythology is clearly valid in that the insurance company and Navy boats provide protection, just as the Greek shield.

At other times, the connection between Greek mythology and modern products is more tongue-incheek. A popular brand of condoms is named "Trojan, " slyly alluding to the Trojan horse that allowed the Greeks to safely penetrate Troy 's defenses.

Despite our sometimes questionable uses of Greek mythology in contemporary culture, its impact on modern societies cannot be understated. References to Greek myths abound. In fact, Greek myths even

influence our maps. A collection of maps is an Atlas, named for the titan who held up the earth. And Europe, seat of so many societies influenced by Greek myths, is named for Europa, the maiden carried off by Zeus, who had disguised himself as a bull to trick her.

Source : http://www.tree.com/lifestyle/impact-of-greek-mythology-on-western-culture.aspx

Romanian texts Text 1

Poveste si adevar in legenda sirenelor Mihaela Stanescu | 19.05.2009

In Antichitate si Evul mediu, cand cunostintele de zoologie erau departe de a fi atat de exacte ca in prezent, existau nenumarate legende despre animale fabuloase. Ne uimeste sa aflam, azi, cat de convinsi erau stramosii nostri de existenta unor astfel de creaturi. Sirenele, calugarii de mare, unicornul, dragonii, basiliscul si alte asemenea fiinte inflacarau imaginatia oamenilor din acele vremuri, iar asa-numitele bestiarii medievale carti cuprinzand descrieri si reprezentari ale animalelor sunt pline de imagini, desenate cu multa fantezie, ale acestor vietuitoare extraordinare. Pentru multe dintre ele au fost propuse, mai apoi, explicatii stiintifice. Astfel, vestitul monstru marin Kraken, din legendele nordice, este considerat a fi un calmar urias din

genul Architeutis (la Smithsonian Museum, din Washington, SUA, se afla un exemplar de cca. 10 metri lungime). Dar sirenele ce puteau fi?

"Intai si-ntai sosi-vei la sirene/ Acelea care-ademenesc pe oameni" (Homer, Odiseea; trad. G. Murnu)

Poetul antic Homer, in poemul Odiseea care istoriseste calatoria lui Ulise, dupa razboiul troian, inapoi spre insula-i natala, Ithaca, pomeneste de aceste femei ale marii, care traiau pe o insula si ademeneau, cu glasurile lor, calatorii care-si gaseau apoi moartea pe insula fermecata. Ulise si ceilalti navigatori de pe corabie au scapat cu viata urmand sfatul vrajitoarei Circe: Ulise a fost legat zdravan de catarg, pentru a nu putea parasi corabia, iar tovarasii sai si-au astupat urechile cu ceara, ca sa nu auda cantecul vrajit. Nu stim exact cum aratau aceste sirene in viziunea lui Homer; se pare ca, pentru grecii antici, sirenele erau niste femei cu coada de pasare! In schimb, doua mii de ani mai tarziu, in Evul Mediu, toata lumea stia ca sirenele sunt niste femei cu coada de peste si glas ademenitor, pe cat de frumoase, pe atat de primejdioase. (Dar nu era ceva nou: credinte despre fapturi jumatate om-jumatate peste existau si cu cinci milenii I. Hr. Babilonienii credeau intr-un zeu cu coada de peste, numit Oannes, iar mitologia greaca e plina de zeitati marine cu cozi de peste.) Chiar si in secolul al XIX-lea, oamenii inca mai credeau in existenta sirenelor. La balciuri, prin circuri, erau expuse asa-numite sirene niste falsuri dibaci alcatuite, din parti provenind de la animale diferite, de pilda capete si trunchiuri de maimuta la care erau atasate cozi de peste. Alteori, pesti precum pisicile ori vulpile de mare erau prelucrati astfel incat sa arate ca niste mumii ale unor fapturi ciudate, ce corespundeau reprezentarilor din imaginarul colectiv cu privire la sirene. Totusi, pornind de la ideea ca, intr-o legenda, ceva-ceva tot trebuie sa fie adevarat, multi s-au straduit sa descopere samburele de adevar din legenda sirenelor. Cel mai logic a fost sa se presupuna ca acei calatori care povesteau despre sirene vazusera cine stie ce animal ciudat, necunoscut europenilor, avand o oarecare aparenta de faptura feminina, iar imaginatia povestitorilor, dorinta lor de a-si ului ascultatorii si inevitabila distorsionare a informatiei trecute din gura in gura facusera restul. Dar ce animal putea fi acela? Pai, cel mai probabil, chiar o sirena. Numai ca zoologii de azi inteleg prin sirene altceva decat calatorii din Evul Mediu. E vorba despre sirenieni, un grup de mamifere acvatice care cuprinde azi numai patru specii, impartite in doua familii: Trichechidae sau Manatidae (cu trei specii - posibil patru, dar inca nu e stabilit cu precizie - numite lamantini, care traiesc in ape dulci) si Dugongidae, care mai

cuprinde, in ziua de azi, doar o singura specie: dugongul sau vaca de mare (Dugong dugon), o specie marina. O alta specie inrudita cu dugongul, numita vaca de mare a lui Steller, a disparut in urma cu cca. 200 de ani, exterminata de om. Sirenienii provin din mamifere terestre care, in urma cu milioane de ani, au patruns in mediul acvatic, dobandind treptat adaptari specifice. Isi duc viata in apele putin adanci din apropierea coastelor oceanice si in estuarele unor fluvii, in rauri si lacuri mari. Se hranesc exclusiv cu plante, avand in ecosistemele acvatice un rol echivalent cu cel al erbivorelor mari in ecosistemele terestre.
Sirenele marii

Dugongul, extrem de interesant pentru zoologi de vreme ce e singurul mamifer erbivor marin, nu are, din nefericire, o relatie prea pasnica cu oamenii; timp de secole, acestia l-au vanat intens pentru carne si grasime. Iata un scenariu propus de zoologi pentru a explica originea mitului sirenelor: aceste animale (dugongii) obisnuiesc sa se hraneasca sub apa, rontaind plante acvatice. Cand sunt deranjate de apropierea unor intrusi, se ridica la suprafata, scotand din apa capul si partea superioara a trunchiului, cu tulpinile plantelor acvatice atarnandu-le pe cap ca niste plete. Probabil, asa se explica faptul ca in multe versiuni ale legendelor despre oameni ai marii se spune ca acestia au parul verde. Femelele au mamelele situate in regiunea toracica, asa ca, aproape de pieptul mamelor, pot fi zariti uneori niste pui cea mai elocventa imagine care evoca feminitatea. Adaugati la asta faptul ca, pe vremea aceea, calatoriile pe mare puteau dura saptamani sau luni in sir... Dupa un atat de lung rastimp de singuratate, nu-i de mirare ca bietii marinari vedeau sau isi imaginau aceste fapturi greoaie ca pe niste femei ale apelor. (Parca si auzi comentariile pe care le faceau, in vreme ce se uitau, de pe puntea vasului ori de pe mal, la ciudatele sirene grasane care se balaceau la mica departare de ei!) Iar cum, la intoarcerea pe uscat, aceste povesti istorisite, pesemne, in special la carciuma - treceau din gura-n gura, fiecare le inflorea la randul lui, insistand asupra laturii spectaculoase, adaugand amanunte senzationale menite sa-i lase pe ascultatori cu gura cascata si uite asa, de la niste mamifere acvatice greoaie si cu ierburi ude pe cap, se ajungea la niste frumoase si ispititoare femei ale apelor. Era ca si cum ar fi jucat telefonul fara fir timp de mai multi ani si mai multe generatii.

Ce se intampla azi cu aceste sirene marine? Ca multe dintre animalele care s-au ciocnit cu oamenii si civilizatia lor, nu o duc foarte bine. Odinioara, dugongii populau aproape toate apele de coasta din Oceanul Indian, din Marea Rosie pana in estul Africii. Azi, populatiile s-au redus mult: habitatele preferate ale dugongilor (ape putin adanci, bogate in plante marine) au fost afectate de poluare; animalele au fost mult vanate pentru carne si grasime (si, dupa anumite opinii, inca mai sunt, in India si Sri Lanka), fiind o prada usoara pentru vanatori din pricina vitezei mici si a rezistentei scazute la efort. In plus, nasc doar cate un pui, odata la cativa ani, avand asadar un ritm de inmultire lent. Mai pot fi vazute grupuri de dugongi in apele Australiei

(unde sunt protejati), in Marea Rosie, in stramtoarea ce desparte India de Sri Lanka dar sunt putini si, in continuare, ameninatati. [...] Chiar daca stiinta moderna le-a dat un nume si le-a incadrat intr-o clasificare zoologica, sirenele noastre contemporane lamantini si dugongi sunt inca niste animale misterioase, tot atat de bizare si fascinante ca si legendarele fapturi cu cozi de peste, create de imaginatia oamenilor si carora sirenienii le-au servit drept model.

Sursa : http://www.descopera.ro/natura/4403671-poveste-si-adevar-in-legenda-sirenelor

Text 2 Mitologia greaca

Mitologia greac cuprinde povestiri fabuloase despre originea universului i a fenomenelor naturii, despre zei i eroi legendari. Grecii antici au artat un interes deosebit povetilor mitologice care au cunoscut diferite prelucrri literare ce ne permit astzi s avem o viziune a concepiei despre lume i despre existen, ce caracterizeaz n mod unitar i de neconfundat spiritul culturii lor. Este greu de neles cum au putut grecii antici s conceap o ntreag mitologie care intr n conflict cu spiritul lor att de raional (logos-ul). Explicaiile psihologilor moderni arat c miturile put fi puse pe seama dorinei omului de a pune n lumin conflictele sale secrete, ale subcontientului su.

Termenii de mit i mitologie au cunoscut, de-a lungul timpului mai multe teorii. Este deosebit de greu ca o singur definiie s poat cuprinde toate aspectele i toate funciile mitului avute n societile arhaice i tradiionale. Pentru a nelege interesul grecilor pentru mitologie, nu trebuie s cdem n capcana care const n a face o legtur ntre religie i mitologie. Dac unele miturile prezint nite scenarii care urmresc explicarea unor fenomene naturale provocate de anumii zei, totui, nu putem s extindem ideea la ansamblul mitologiei. Miturile pot fi explicate prin faptul c ele preced riturile. Riturile vechi sau de neneles compun istoria unor geneze, teogonii, cosmogonii, gigantomanii, epopei i naraiuni. Zeul este situat n timp i spaiu, primete variate epitete care reflect ateptrile oamenilor n diverse mprejurri. Mitologia este constrns de politeism i antropomorfism. Sunt create imagini care s permit oamenilor s neleag fenomenele misterioase (astronomice, meteorologice etc.) i s recunoasc structurile i raporturile sociale. Unele mituri au permis cetenilor greci s nvee i s revendice istoria ndeprtat a unei familii sau a unei instituii. De asemenea, organizaii civice au gsit suportul argumentrii vechimii sau valorii lor. Importana miturilor rezid din faptul c ele au adus gndirii umane posibilitatea de a mai elimina din teroarea adus de sacru, permind sufletului s se deschid spre reflecie. Grecii vechi puteau, i avea dreptul, s refuze s cread, ns erau condiionai de interzicerea unor fapte contrare riturilor religioase. Credinele pot fi puse la ndoial, ns nu i riturile cultice. Miturile sunt att de numeroase, nct este greu s poat fi cuprinse toate aici. Vom ncerca s prezentm cteva din fiecare categorie referitoare la : creaia lumii, zei, eroi i fiine fabuloase.

CENTAURII

Centaurii sunt un popor mitologic ce tria n pdurile muntelui Pelion, n Tesalia, i care erau cunoscui datorit corpului lor care era uman n jumtate superioar i cabalin n jumtate de jos. Numele lor pare a nsemna biciuitorii apelor fiind la origine, probabil, genii ale torentelor din munii Pelionului. Puterea lor mbina fora animal cu cea uman, iar ca arm se foloseau de trunchiul de brad. Tradiia mitologic vorbete despre acerba lupt cu lapiii, care a avut loc n timpul nunii lui Piritoos, regele lapiilor, cu Hipodamia, cnd centaurii au ncercat s rpeasc femeile lapiilor. Disputa dintre centauri i lapii a pornit de la purtarea centaurului Eurition (eventual i a altora), care, mbtat de vin, a ncercat s o violeze pe mireas i pe care lapiii l-au pedepsit retezndu-i nasul i urechile. Printre cei care au luptat alturi de lapii se afla Tezeu. n alt

variant a mitului, protagonistul luptei a fost eroul Ceneu, care era invulnerabil i care a fost nfipt n pmnt de centauri, aa cum se nfige un par, folosind trunchiuri de brad. Lupta dintre centauri i lapii, cunoscut sub numele de centauromahia, s-a terminat cu nfrngerea centaurilor, care au fost alungai din Tesalia i s-au refugiat pe muntele Pind, la grania cu Epirul. Alungarea i nfrngerea centaurilor de ctre lapii sunt interpretate ca victoria raiunii asupra barbariei, a inteligenei asupra animalitii primitive, a unei religioziti noi asupra unor credine mai vechi. Artitii greci au imortalizat n multe opere monumentale scene ale acestui conflict, reprezentative fiind sculpturile de pe frontonul templului lui Zeus din Olimpia i metopele Partenonului. [...]

GRIFONII

Grifonii sunt animale fabuloase ce avea trup de leu i cap i aripi de vultur. Ele triau n munii aflai ntre inutul hiperboreenilor i cel al arimaspilor, unde erau considerai pzitorii aurului din nord. Tradiia spune c deoarece arimaspii au venit s fure aurul clare, grifonii au dezvoltat o ostilitatea fa de cai. Unele versiuni mitologice arat c grifonii erau animalele sacre ale lui Apollon. n alte versiuni sunt pzitorii craterul plin cu vin al lui Dionysos sau ai lui Zeus. Tradiiile istorice spun c credina n grifoni era de origine oriental, ei la nceput fiind paznicii aurului Indiei. Grifonii, amintii adesea de poei, sunt descrii n special de Herodot i de Pliniu.

HARPIILE

Harpiile sunt creaturi mitologice ale cror nume nseman rpitoarele, Homer spunnd despre ele c sunt cele ce iau oamenii cu ele. La origine este posibil ca ele s fi fost nite zeie ale furtunilor (mai sunt numite i vijelii). Tradiiile literare spun c prinii lor au fost Thaumas i oceanida Elektra, sau ntr-o alt versiune Poseidon i Gaia. Harpiile (dou sau trei, n funcie de tradiie) au nume care difer la autorii antici : Aello i Ocipete (Hesiod), Podarge (Homer), Celeno (cea ntunecat). Vergiliu spune c harpiile au plecat n insulele Strofade dup ce au fost alungate de la Fineu. La Strofade ele i atac pe troienii care au acostat aici n urma unei furtuni, iar regina lor, Celeno, prezice c, nainte de a ntemeia cetatea promis, Enea i ai si vor trebui s road de jur-mprejur mesele. n final, s-au stabilit n adncurile pmntului, sub insula Creta.

Hesiod le descrie ca pe nite personaje feminine naripate, dou fecioare nespus de frumoase, cu pr lung i buclat. Harpiile fac parte din generaia divin primordial. n tradiia trzie sunt reprezentate ca nite montri naripai, cu cap de femeie btrn i cu o expresie nfometat, cu trup de pasre ce avea gheare lungi i ascuite. n jurul lor lsau un miros greu de suportat. Zeii le foloseau pentru a-i pedepsi sau chinui pe oameni i pe eroi, dup bunul lor plac. Trimise s-l chinuiasc pe prezictorul orb Fineu de zeia Hera, harpiile coborau din cer atunci cnd acesta primea mncarea, pe care s i-o luau sau s i-o murdreau, fcnd-o imposibil de mncat. Fineu a fost salvat de fiii lui Boreas, Calais i Zetes, doi dintre argonaui, care au reuit s le alunge. Potrivit tradiiei ele rpeau sufletele morilor i copii. Sunt amintite, n Odiseea, ca autoarele rpirii fiicelor lui Pandaros. Din relaia uneia dintre harpii cu zeul Zefir, au fost zmislii cei doi cai divini ai lui Ahile, Xanthos i Balie.

GORGONELE

Gorgonele n tradiia mitologic sunt reprezentate de trei fiine feminine monstruoase Steno, Euriale i Meduza, fiicele unor diviniti marine, Forcus i Ceto. Uneori ele mai sunt numite i Forcide. Localizarea lor este plast de autorii antici n inutul Libiei sau chiar n Extremul Occident. Iconografia le prezint cu un cap enorm, acoperit nu cu pr, ci cu erpi. Trupul lor avea dou sau patru aripi de aur i mini de bronz. Dintre cele trei gorgone, singura care avea o natur muritoare era Meduza. Tradiia spune c aceasta fiind o tnr nespus de frumoas a atras atenia lui Poseidon care s-a unit cu ea ntr-unul din templele nchinate Atenei. Pentru aceasta, zeia a pedepsit-o transformndu-i pletele n erpi. Potrivit izvoarelor, din unirea celor doi s-au nscut Crisaor i Pegas, venirea lor pe lume fcndu-se dup ce gorgona a fost decapitat, ei ieind din sngele ce nea din gtul ei tiat. Eschil spune c pedeapsa divin a fcut capul Meduzei s fie att de nspimnttor, nct oricine l privea n ochi se preschimba n stan de piatr. Perseu a reuit cu greu s o omoare, folosindu-se i de oglinda primit de la Athena i evitnd s se uite direct n ochii acesteia. n final, dup ce Perseu i-a dat Athenei capul Meduzei, zeia a pus aezat capul n centrul scutului su, unde acesta i-a meninut puterea de a-i transforma n stan de piatr pe toi cei care l priveau. ntr-o alt variant a mitului, capul a fost ngropat n Argos sau a devenit un ornament al scutului lui Zeus. Chipul gorgonelor a fost adesea expus pe faadele templelor sau la intrarea n diferite edificii, pentru c se credea c ferea de deochi. Sngele scurs din trupul gorgonei avea caracteristici contrastante. Sngele scurs dintr-o ven putea fi unul benefic, pe care zeul Asclepios l folosea pentru a readuce morii la via, pe cnd cel ce ieea din alta putea provoca moartea prin otrvire. Simbolistica mpletete, n figura

Meduzei, elementele benefice cu cel fatale. n perioada elenistico-roman figura gorgonei i pierde aspectul monstruos i este umanizat.

NIMFELE

Nimfele sunt zeiti feminine secundare din mitologia clasic. Anticii considerau c ele pot fi ntlnite peste tot n natur, n mare i n izvoare, n ruri i n peteri, n pduri, pe cmpii i n muni. Numai unele dintre nimfe au dobndit nemurirea n urma anumitor ntmplri. Hesiod spune c s-a pstrat o povestire singular despre vrsta pn la care poate tri o nimf. Sunt divinitile cele mai populare i cele mai binevoitoare cu oamenii. Sunt creaturi primitoare, vesele i graioase, ntotdeauna dispuse s danseze. Nimfele erau nzestrate cu virtui profetice, i se credea c i ele le puteau da oamenilor puteri supranaturale. Erau adesea invocate de oameni pentru a le oferi protecie. Uneori, n mod inexplicabil devin foarte periculoase, teribile pentru oamenii ce triesc n aer liber. Atunci cnd un om ncepe brusc s se comporte ca un nebun se spune c este luat de nimfe. La fel, se spunea despre clarvztori i poei c erau posedai de nimfe. Tinere i frumoase (nimfe nseamn femei tinere), nimfele au sedus numeroi brbai, mai ales zei (Zeus, Apollon, Hermes, Dionysos). Tradiiile literare povestesc de iubirea lui Heracle pentru nimfa Hylas, de iubirea nimfei Echo pentru tnrul Narcis, sau de cea a Galatei pentru tnrul pstor Acis. Nimfele erau clasificate n funcie de partea din natur pe care o reprezentau. Astfel, existau nimfele mrii, ale apelor, ale munilor i peterilor, ale trectorilor i copacilor, sau nimfe legate de anumite localiti : nimfele mrii purtau numele de oceanide (sau nimfele Oceanului, fiicele lui Oceanos) i nereide (nimfele din Marea Mediteran, fiicele lui Nereu). nimfele apelor sunt naiadele (nimfele izvoarelor, lacurilor, rurilor, praielor i cascadelor), potamidele, iriadele i creneidele ; exista credina c unele dintre izvoarele, n care se fcea simit prezena unei nimfe, ddeau puteri supranaturale celor ce-i potoleau setea cu apa lor. nimfele munilor, oreadele sau orestiadele, erau i nimfe ale peterilor; de multe ori originea numelor lor era luat din cele ale munilor i regiunilor n care triau; nimfele ce triau n trectori i n locurile nguste dintre stnci se numesc napee. nimfele copacilor numite driade i hamadriade, ori napee, i aveau sfritul odat cu arborele n care i aveau slaul i mpreun cu care veniser pe lume. Cele mai cunoscute erau meliadele, nimfele frasinilor. nimfele care aparineau unor localiti aveau numele lor derivat din acele locurilor cu care erau asociate : aheloidele, nisiadele sau niseidele, dodonidele, lemniile etc.

Cultului nchinat lor era un cult local, legat de regiunile unde se credea c triesc i care nu comporta mari celebrri. De multe ori, cultul era realizat de ctre preoi n peteri. Nimfelor li se aduceau ca ofrande miei i iezi, lapte i ulei, evitndu-se vinul. Nu cunoatem c ar fi existat un cult oficial nchinat lor ca diviniti individuale i autonome, n schimb avem mrturii despre veneraia de care se bucurau n cadrul privat i popular.

PEGAS

n mitologia greac, Pegas este un cal naripat, amintit ca fiul lui Poseidon i al Meduzei, din sngele creia s-a nscut, mpreun cu fratele lui Crisaor, atunci cnd a fost decapitat de Perseu. O tradiie scris arat c numele su se refer la un izvor nitor, iar naterea sa a avut loc n apropierea locului de unde izvora fluviul Oceanos. Alte surse vorbesc de izvorul Pirene, unde obinuia s se adape (n Acrocorint) i Hipocrene (izvorul calului) aprut sub loviturile copitelor sale. Pegas a fost prins de Belerofon n timp ce se adpa la izvorul Pirene. Eroul a reuit s-l struneasc cu ajutorul unui fru de aur primit de la zeia Athena. Clare pe Pegas, Belerofon s-a nlat n vzduh de unde a trimis sgeile care au omort-o pe Himera. Mai apoi, atunci cnd eroul a vrut s urce n cer n spinarea calului naripat ca s vad de aproape adunarea zeilor, Pegas l-a aruncat din spinarea sa. Belerofon a czut pe cmpia Aleia (cmpia rtcitorului), iar Pegas i-a continuat drumul spre cer, unde a fost transformat n constelaie i a fost primit printre caii divini.

PHOENIX

Phoenix este o pasre mitic, ce avea capacitatea de a renate din propria-i cenu dup ce se autoincendia. Asemntoare cu un vultur, are un penaj splendid i viaa foarte lung. Destinul su o transformat ntr-o imagine simbolic a renaterii. Originea sa este localizat n Arabia (sau Etiopia) i constituie obiectul unui cult particular n Egipt, la Heliopolis. Hesiod ne informeaz despre pasrea care triete foarte mult (927 de ani), ns Homer (n Istorii, 2.73) este primul care vorbete despre Phoenix descriind obiceiurile sale de via singulare. Pasrea Phoenix se difereniaz de aspectul unui vultur prin penajul splendid colorat, cu pete de purpur i aur (dou culori nobile), ce o face mai frumoas dect cel mai minunat pun.

Lungimea vieii sale este extraordinar, variaz n funcie de izvoarele istorice, de la 500 la aproape 13.000 de ani. Fiind singurul exemplar din specia ei, ea nu se poate reproduce. Mitologia reproducerii sale arat c pasrea cnd simte c i se apropie sfritul, i face un cuib din ramuri de plante aromatice i tmie, pe care l incendiaz dup ce se pune pe el. Din cenua rezultat se formeaz o alt pasre. Noua pasre Phoenix o ngroap apoi pe cea precedent, punndu-i rmiele ntr-un nveli de smirn i tmie n form de ou i ducndu-le, cu un cortegiu format din alte psri ce zboar n jurul ei, la sanctuarul din Heliopolis, unde preoii lui Helios, zeul Soarelui, clebreaz un rit funebru solemn. Din Egipt, noua pasre Phoenix se ntoarce n Arabia (sau Etiopia), unde i duce lunga sa via solitar hrnindu-se cu perle de tmie, pn cnd va ncepe un nou ciclu al renaterii. Tradiiile egiptene vorbesc de un animal cu nsuiri asemntoare psrii Phoenix, numit Bennu, a crei imagine se poate vedea reprodus pe prora corbiilor egiptene.

SIRENELE

Sirenele sunt creaturi maritime legendare din mitologia greac, descrise ca nite fiine naripate, cu trup jumtate omenesc, jumtate de pasre, uneori cu gheare. Alte reprezentri le nfieaz ca avnd partea inferioar a corpului nlocuit cu un ou; nu rareori sunt nfiate cu barb. Reprezentarea sirenelor cu coad de pete este mai recent, din perioada medieval. Nimfe ale mrii, ele sunt capcane ale naturii care i atrag pe marinari cu corbiile lor n locuri stncoase n care acetia i puteau gsi moartea. Ele cer sacrificii omeneti. Numele lor se traduce prin cea cu voce splendid, cea care seduce, cea care ncnt. Tradiiile istorice dau mai multe versiuni asupra originii lor: n unele apar ca fiind fiicele lui Forcus, sau ale lui Aheloos i ale Steropei; n alte erau considerate drept fiicele Terpsihorei, Melpomenei sau Caliopei, datorit virtuilor lor muzicale care le apropiau de muze; n sfrit, alte le crediteaz ca fiind fiicele Pmntului, Gaia. Potrivit izvoarelor, este diferit att numele, ct i numrul lor: n unele apar dou Aglaofeme i Telxiepia , n altele trei Partenope, Ligeea i Leucosia sau Aglaope, Telxiepia i Pisinoe. Potrivit lui Hesiod, ele triesc pe insula Antemoessa (nflorit), iar Homer le-a localizat pe o insul din Marea Mediteran, aflat n apropierea coastelor sud-vestice ale Italiei, ntre Eea i stnca Scilei. Latinii situau insula lng coastele Campaniei. Tradiia mitologic ne-a transmis dou poveti celebre. Aventura lui Ulise pe mare cuprinde episodul n care sirenele au ncercat din rsputeri s-i atrag pe el i pe nsoitorii lui cu cntecul lor, spre insula unde acestea triau. Plaja de pe care ele cntau spre a-l seduce pe Ulise era plin de oase ale morilor i de trupuri umane n putrefacie. Ulise le-a cerut tovarilor lui de drum si pun cear n urechi ca s nu aud cntecul acestora, iar el, sftuit de vrjitoarea Circe, s-a legat de catargul mare al corbiei ca s nu se poat mica.

Sirenele i-au fcut simit prezena i n povestea argonauilor. Aflai la bordul corbiei Argo, eroii i personajele mitice participante la expediie, au fost cuprini de cntecul sirenelor, dar au fost salvai de Orfeu care a nceput s cnte mai frumos dect ele. Deoarece sirenelor le-a fost ursit s triasc numai atta vreme ct nimeni nu putea trece de ele fr s fie micat de muzica lor, acestea, nvinse de harul lui Orfeu, s-au aruncat n mare transformndu-se n stnci. Sirenele au avut legturi i cu de lumea de dincolo. Ele aveau misiunea ca prin cntecul lor s farmece sufletele tuturor morilor pentru a le aduce n faa reginei lumii subterane, Persefona, ndulcindu-le trecerea pe trmul cellalt. Tradiia scris arat c ele plngeau sufletele morilor i pe Persefona.

HIMERA

Himera este un animal monstruos fantastic ce avea trei capete, este fiica lui Typhom i a Echidnei. Trupul su avea nfiarea n partea din fa de leu, mijlocul de capr, iar partea din spate de arpe. Din cele trei guri nfricotoare arunca flcri. Una din tradiii arat c Himera a fost crescut de Amisodares, regele Liciei, care avea o capr cu acest nume. Prin incursiunile sale, Himera devasta cmpiile Liciei. A fost ucis de eroul Belerofon, care sftuit de zei, s-a nlat n vzduh pe calul su naripat, Pegas, de unde i-a trimis sgeile ctre ea. Pentru explicarea originii Himerei, n trecut nu au lipsit ncercrile de a o pune n legtur cu vulcanul din Licia care purta acelai nume. n arta antic Himera este reprezentat uneori ca un leu, dei de un tip aparte, care se regsea n fauna Liciei n epoca istoric.

HIDRA

Hidra este monstrul mpotriva cruia Heracle a luptat n cursul uneia dintre muncilor sale. Era fiul lui Tifon i al Echidnei i a fost crescut de Hera. El teroriza regiunea Lerna din apropiere de Argos. Deoarece avea nou capete, dintre care unul cel central era nemuritor, nu putea fi ucis. Heracle a ncercat s-l omoare cu ghioaga, dar n locul fiecrui cap pe care reuea s il zdrobeasc apreau alte dou. n final, Heracle a gsit modalitatea prin care s nving Hidra. Ajutat de prietenul su credincios Iolau, ei au ars capetele monstrului pe msur ce le dobora, iar pe cel nemuritor l-au ngropat sub o stnc. Din veninul Hidrei, Heracle i-a fcut o otrav n care a nmuiat vrful sgeilor, care au devenit fatale pentru oricine era atins de ele.

PYTHON

Python a fost un balaur i o divinitate htonic care a fost reprezentat ntotdeauna n arta vechilor greci ca un arpe. Tradiia spune c s-a nscut din mlul rmas pe pmnt dup ce s-au retras apele potopului lui Deucalion, care a ncheiat epoca de aur a omeniri din mitologia greac. Python tria n peterile de pe muntele Parnas unde avea sarcina s protejeze spaiul sacru al oracolului de la Delfi. Python a fost omort de Apollon ca rzbunare pentru c acesta a fost trimis de Hera s o urmreasc pe mama sa, Leto, i s o mpiedice s aduc pe lume pe cei doi copii ai lui Zeus : Apollon i Artemis. Apollon, n amintirea victoriei, sale a primit apelativul Pythaos i a iniiat jocurile numite pythice.

Sursa : http://istorie-edu.ro/istoriee/Ist_universala/Grecia/gr_04rel4.html

Text 3 Creaturi din mitologia greaca

Creaturile din mitologia greaca sunt printre cele mai misterioase si mai interesante fiinte fantastice, alaturi de zeitati si eroi. Mitologia greaca, in general, este una dintre cele mai fructuoase, fiind foarte des reprezentata in operele de arta, influentand culturile si civilizatiile care au urmat. Creaturile din mitologia greaca pot fi impartite in mai multe subcategorii, dupa cum urmeaza: monstrii mitologici, creaturi mitologice hibride, animale mitologice, giganti si dragoni. Mitologia greaca include numeroase creaturi fantastice, monstrii fiind unele dintre acestea. Cerberul este unul dintre cei mai cunoscuti monstri din mitologia elena. Se spune ca cerberul semana cu cu caine de vanatoare care are trei capete. Cerberul era folosit pentru a pazi portile Iadului, astfel incat acesta permitea doar sufletelor celor morti sa intre in Infern. Cerberul era folosit si pentru practici oculte, deoarece se presupune ca saliva sa era otravitoare si din aceasta a luat nastere o planta toxica numita omeag. Imaginea cerberului apare in foarte multe opere de arta, picturi si sculpturi, dar si in operele literare, cea mai importanta aparitie fiind in Divina comedie a lui Dante Alighieri, unde apare in cel de al treilea cerc al Iadului, scopul sau fiind acela de a-i sfasia pe cei care au cazut in pacatul caliceniei, unul dintre cele sapte pacate de moarte. Gorgona este un alt monstru care face parte din mitologia greaca. Are chipul unei femei infioratoare, care are capul acoperit cu serpi. Una dintre cele mai celebre gorgone este Medusa. Gorgonele erau trei la numar, doua dintre ele fiind nemuritoare si una muritoare, cea din urma fiind chiar Medusa.

Gorgonele sunt fiicele zeului marii, Phorcys, si al monstrului marin Ceto. Gorgonele au fost reprezentate chiar din cele mai vechi timpuri, in scrierile lui Homer. Datorita aspectului lor terifiant, simboluri ale gorgonelor au fost folosite pentru paza si protectia cladirilor impotriva fortelor raului. Mai mult decat atat, pietrele pe care erau gravate imagini ale gorgonelor, sau sculpturile care le infatisau, se presupune ca aveau puteri vindecatoare; se spune ca sangele luat din partea dreapta a unei gorgone poate readuce pe cineva la viata, pe cand cel provenit din partea stanga este letal. Legenda spune ca gorgonele aveau aripi de aur, colti si piele de sarpe. Tot in randul monstrilor din mitologia greaca intra si Lamia, o fosta regina a Libiei care s-a transformat treptat in devoratoare de copii. Numele sau provine din limba greaca si face referire la faptul ca obisnuia sa manance copii. In anumite legende, Lamia apare ca un capcaun, iar in altele se spune ca avea atributiile unui vampir, doar ca ii seducea pe cei tineri si se hranea cu sangele lor. Aceasta creatura mitologica apare in diverse opera de arta, in pictura si in literatura, imaginea sa fiind conturata si de poetul romantic John Keats, in poemul cu acelasi nume.

Alti monstri din mitologia greaca sunt: Caribda si Harpiile. In ceea ce priveste creaturile hibride, fiintele fantastice rezultate din incurcisari ciudate sunt numeroase in mitologia greaca. Una dintre cele mai populare creaturi hibride din mitologia elena este centaurul. Centaurii sunt fiinte hibride, cu bust de om si corp de cal. Centaurii sunt cunoscuti pentru temperamentul lor agresiv fata de oameni, pentru caracterul razboninic si pentru lupta cu lapitii, lupta in care au fost infranti. Se spune ca centaurii intruchipeaza salbaticia. Insa, pe langa centaurii barbari, exista Chiron, un centaur intelept si invatat, mentorul celor mai multi dintre eroii Greciei Antice. Chiron i-a invatat arta razboiului pe Ahile, Tezeu si Aiax, si era un vindicator desavarsit. Tot in randul creaturilor hibride din mitologia greaca intra si Himera. Himera este o creatura feminina, avand corpul unui leu, care se termina cu o coada in forma de sarpe, iar din mijlocul coloanei vertebrale rasare un cap de capra. Descrieri referitoare la aceasta fiinta fantastica nu prea exista, una dintre atestari apartinand lui Homer, in Iliada, care o descrie ca pe o ciudatenie, combinatie ciudata intre leu, capra si sarpe, care scoate flacari imense pe gura. Imaginea acestei creaturi apare foarte des in operele de arta, in special la sfarsitul secolului al VII-lea cand, in Corint, se dezvolta o adevarata arta care aduce in prim plan motivul Himerei. Manticorul este o creatura hibrida, asemanatoare Sfinxului egiptean, avand corpul unui leu, coada de scorpion si capul de om, cu trei randuri de dinti, ascutiti si asemanatori cu cei ai unui rechin. Legenda spune ca daca o persoana disparea, cu siguranta Manticorul a rapit-o pentru a o devora. Alte creaturi hibride din mitologia greaca: Sfinxul, sirenele, satirii. In ceea ce priveste categoria animalelor fantastice, in mitologia greaca exista anumite fapturi inzestrate cu puteri supranaturale. Una dintre acestea este Arion, un cal cu puteri extraordinare, nemuritor si care,

dupa spusele poetului Sextus Propertius, putea vorbi. Legenda spune ca Hercule i l-a daruit pe Arion lui Adrastus, celebrul rege al Argosului. Dragonii din mitologia greaca sunt creaturi asemanatoare serpilor, avand rolul de a pazi comori sau anumite locuri. Au puteri supranaturale. Cei mai importanti dragoni din mitologia greaca sunt: Ladon, Hidra, Phyton.

Sursa: http://dli.ro/creaturi-din-mitologia-greaca.html

Translations English texts

Fact and fiction the myth of the sirens

In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, when knowledge of zoology was far less exact than today, there were many legends about fabulous creatures. Nowadays, it amazes us to find out how strongly our ancestors believed in the existence of these beings. Sirens, sea monks, unicorns, dragons, basilisks and

others of the sort stirred the imagination of people at that time, and the so called Medieval bestiaries books containing descriptions and representations of the animals are full of imaginative drawings of such fabulous beasts. Later, scientific explanations were proposed for many of them. Thus, the Kraken, the famous sea monster from Norse legends, is considered to be a giant squid belonging to the taxon Architeutis (a 10 m specimen is preserved at the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, USA). But what could the sirens be? Youll first reach the sirens/ those who lure men Homer, The Odyssey In his epic poem The Odyssey, which recounts Ulyssess journey home to the island of Ithaca, after the Trojan war, the ancient poet Homer tells us about these maidens of the sea, who lived on an island and used their voices to lure travellers to their doom on the enchanted island. Ulysses and the other sailors escaped with their lives by following the advice of witch Circe: Ulysses was tightly tied to the mast to prevent him from leaving the ship and the sailors plugged their ears with wax to remain deaf to the enchanted song. We dont know exactly how Homer pictured these sirens; it seems ancient Greeks believed they were half-women and half birds! On the contrary, two thousand years later, in the Middle Ages, everyone knew sirens were fish-tailed women with enchanting voices, who were as beautiful as they were dangerous. (This was nothing new, as beliefs in human-fish hybrids dated back to 5000 BC; Babylonians believed in a fish tailed god called Oannes and Greek mythology is full of fish tailed sea deities) . Even as far as the 19th century, people still believed in the existence of sirens. So-called sirens were exhibited at fairs and in circuses: forgeries craftily made from parts belonging to different animals, such as heads and bodies of monkeys to which fish tails were attached. Sometimes, certain fish like manta rays and skates were shaped to look like mummies of weird being that resembled the common image of a siren. However, presuming that legends usually contain a grain of truth, many have tried to discover if there is any truth behind the myth of the sirens. The most sensible thing was to assume that the travellers that told stories about sirens had seen a weird animal that somehow resembled a woman, unknown to Europeans, and that their imagination, their desire to thrill their listeners and the various modifications suffered by a story that circulated by word of mouth did the rest. But what animal could that be? Well, it was most probably a siren. But modern zoologists use the term differently than Middle Age travellers. We are talking about the sirenians, a group of aquatic mammals that today incorporates only four species, divided into two families: Trichechidae or Manatidae (this includes three species, possibly four, though this is yet to be established these are called manatees, and live in fresh waters) and Dugongidae which today includes only one species: the dugong or sea cow (Dugong dugong), which is a marien species. Another species related to the dugong, Stellers sea cow, became extinct about 200 years ago, eradicated by humans.

Sirenians come from terrestrial mammals who, millions of years ago, adapted to life underwater. They live in the shallow waters of the coastal oceans, in estuaries, in rivers and in big lakes. They eat only plants, as they are to aquatic ecosystems what great herbivores are to terrestrial ones.

The Mermaids
As interesting as it may be to zoologists, being the only herbivorous marine mammal, the dugong and humans havent had a peaceful relation, unfortunately: for centuries, people hunted them relentlessly for their meat and fat. Heres how zoologists believe the myth of the sirens started: these animals (the dugongs) usually feed underwater, munching on seaweed. When they are disturbed by approaching intruders, they raise their heads and their upper bodies above water, sea plants hanging on their heads like tresses. This may explain why many legends about sea people say they have green hair. The females mammae are situated in the thoracic region, so sometimes cubs may be seen near the chest of their mothers the most eloquent image of womanhood. Add to that the fact that at the time voyages lasted for weeks or even months... After that much time spent in solitude, no wonder the poor sailors saw or imagined these bulky creatures as sea maidens. (You may almost hear their comments as they gathered on the deck or on the shore and watched the weird chubby sirens wallowing right in front of their eyes). And since, after returning on shore, these stories, which were probably told mostly in taverns, circulated by word of mouth, each teller embellished them, insisting on the spectacular elements, adding juicy details meant to leave the audience their mouths agape...this is how plump aquatic mammals with wet plants on their heads became beautiful and enticing sea maidens. It was like playing Chinese whispers for generations. How are these mermaids doing nowadays? Like many animals that have come into contact with humans and their civilization, they arent faring very well. Dugongs once populated all the coastal areas of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, all the way to Eastern Africa. Today, their numbers have dwindled: dugongs favourite habitats (shallow waters rich in seaweed) have been affected by pollution; they have been hunted intensively (and still are, in India and Sri Lanka, according to some), for their meat and their fat, since they are an easy prey for hunters due to their low speed and stamina. Moreover, they only give birth to one cub, once a few years, so they have a low reproductive rate. Groups of dugongs can still be seen in the waters of Australia (where they are protected), in the Red Sea, in the strait separating India from Sri Lanka, but they are few and still threatened. [...] Even though modern science gave them a name and classified them, our contemporary sirens manatees and dugongs still are mysterious creatures, no less strange and fascinating than the legendary fish tailed beings fashioned by the human imagination after the image of the sirenians

Greek mythical creatures

Greek mythical creatures are among the most mysterious and fascinating fantasy beings, along with gods and heroes. Greek mythology, in general, is one of the most prolific mythologies, as it is often represented in works of art and it served as a source of inspiration for cultures and civilisations that followed. Creatures in Greek mythology can be classified into a number of subcategories, as follows: mythical monsters, hybrid mythical creatures, mythical animals, giants and dragons. Greek mythology includes many fantasy creatures, a part of them being monsters. Cerberus is one of the most well-known monsters in Hellenic mythology. It is said to have resembled a three headed hound. Cerberus guarded the gates of Hell, and allowed passage only for the spirits of the dead. Cerberus was also used in occult practices, as it was believed that its saliva was venomous and that from it sprang a poisonous plant called aconite. Cerberus appears in many works of art, sculptures and paintings, and also in works of literature, the most famous of which is Dante Alighieris The Divine Comedy, where he appears in the third circle, his purpose being to rend to pieces those who have succumbed to gluttony, one of the seven deadly sins. The Gorgon is another Greek mythical monster. It has the face of a terrifying woman, with its head covered in snakes. One of the most famous of the Gorgons was Medusa. There were three Gorgons, two of which were immortal and one was mortal, the latter being Medusa. The Gorgons were the daughters of the sea god, Phorcys, and the sea monster Ceto. The Gorgons were first depicted in ancient times, in the writings of Homer. Due to their horrific appearance, symbols of the Gorgons were used to protect buildings from the forces of evil. Moreover, it was believed that stones with the image of the Gorgons graven on them and statues depicting the Gorgons had healing powers; also, it was thought that blood from a Gorgons right side would revive the dead while blood from the left side was lethal. Legend has it that the Gorgons had golden wings and snake-like fangs and skin. Another monster from Greek mythology is the Lamia, a former queen of Libya that gradually turned into a child devourer. Her name comes from Greek and is a reference to her child eating habits. In some legends, Lamia appears as an ogre, while others give her the attributes of a vampire, who seduced young men and drank their blood. This mythical creature appears in various works of art, in painting and in literature; her image was depicted by the Romantic poet John Keats, in an eponymous poem. Other monsters from Greek mythology are Charybdis and the harpies. As far as hybrids are concerned, fantasy creatures resulted from bizarre combinations abound in Greek mythology. One of the most popular hybrids in Greek mythology is the centaur. Centaurs are hybrid creatures, having the upper body of a human and the lower body of a horse. Centaurs are known for their

aggressive behaviour towards humans, their war-like nature and their lost battle against the Lapiths. It is said that centaurs were the embodiments of the wilderness. But, besides the barbaric centaurs, there is also Chiron, a wise and learned centaur, who mentored most of the heroes of ancient Greece. Chiron taught Achilles, Theseus and Ajax the art of warfare, and was also an accomplished healer. The chimera is another hybrid creature from Greek mythology. The chimera is a female creature, having a lions body that ended in a tail shaped like a snake and a goats head that protruded from the middle of the spine. There are not many descriptions of this fabulous beast, one of them being in Homers Iliad, where he describes it as a weird creature, a bizarre combination of lion, goat and snake that breathes huge flames. This creature is often depicted in works of art, especially by the end of the seventh century, when a true art trend revolving around the image of the Chimera evolves in Corinth. The manticore is a hybrid creature, similar to the Egyptian sphinx, having the body of a lion, the tail of a scorpion, the head of a human and three rows of sharp teeth, similar to those of a shark. According to legend, when a man went missing, it was believed he was taken by the manticore and devoured. Other hybrid creatures from Greek mythology are the Sphinx, the sirens and the satyrs. As far as fantasy animals are concerned, there are some that possess supernatural powers in Greek mythology. One of them is Arion, an immortal horse with extraordinary powers that, according to the poet Sextus Propertius, could talk. Legend has it that Hercules offered Arion to Adrastus, the famous king of Argos. The dragons in Greek mythology are similar to snakes and guard treasures or certain places. They have supernatural powers. The most important dragons in Greek mythology are Ladon, the hydra and Python.

Romanian texts

Fosile fabuloase
Oare creaturile mitologice au oase ?

Imaginai-v ca va plimbai pe o falez n Grecia antic i dai peste o tibie de cteva ori mai
mare dect a voastr. Ce ai crede ? Dar dac ai vedea un craniu umanoid uria, cu o singur gaur n locul in care ar trebui sa fie ochii ? Sau un schelet cu patru picioare si un cioc coroiat si ascuit. Ce fel de creaturi ar putea fi acestea ? Astzi, cercettorii tiu c aceste oase sunt rmiele mamuilor, dinozaurilor si ale altor animale disprute cu mult timp in urm. Dar pentru muli dintre vechii greci, aceste oseminte erau dovada existenei uriailor, ciclopilor si grifonilor descrii n legende i n povetile spuse de cltorii vremii.

Oase de grifon
Oase de grifon ? Ne-am oprit pe o creast joas dintre dealuri. nainte de a putea scoate cheile din contact, Mark a strigat entuziasmat...La mic deprtare, aproape chiar de vrful crestei, erau craniul perfect conservat si scheletul parial al unui Protoceratops, un individ masiv al crui cioc si degete ncovoiate erau ndreptate spre vest, ctre micul nostru afloriment, asemenea unui grifon care ne arta calea ctre o comoar pzit...specimenele valoroase au continuat sa ne ias n cale cu o consecven uimitoare...De cum striga Mark Craniu ! , aproape ca la un semnal, gseam i eu unul. Suprafaa coastelor line i a rigolelor era presarat cu petice albe de fosile, ca i cum cineva ar fi stropit-o la ntamplare cu vopsea. Michael Novacek, paleontolog al Muzeului American de Istorie Natural, povestete despre expediia din 1993 n deertul Gobi, cnd a descoperit fosile de Protoceratops mreuna cu colegul su paleontolog Mark Norell.

Paznicii aurului din Gobi n urm cu mai bine de doua mii de ani, mineri viguroi cutau aur in vastul deert Gobi din Asia central, pentru a se mbogi. Aceti mineri erau scii, un popor de clrei care a controlat mare parte din Asia centrala i nordul Orientului Mijlociu ntre 800 Hr. i 200 dHr. Bazndu-se pe povetile spuse de cltori, autorii greci relateaz c, n dogoarea deertului Gobi, minerii nu se luptau numai cu soarele arztor, dar i cu teribilul grifon : o cumplit creatur hibrid, jumtate vultur, jumtate leu, care pzea comori fabuloase de aur.

Dovezi peste tot

In multe regiuni ale lumii, fosilele de dinozauri sunt incredibil de rare si greu de gsit dar nu i n anumite pri ale deertului Gobi. Timp de mii de ani, fosile de Protoceratops, (precum cea din imaginea alaturata), puteau fi adesea vazute iesind in afara din coastele dealurilor. In ultimii ani, multe dintre ele au fost colectate, devenind astfel oarecum mai rare. Desertul Gobi Potrivit legendelor, grifonii i construiau cuiburile n apropierea minelor de aur din deertul Gobi. Locul de odihn al dinozaurilor Cu milioane de ani nainte ca oamenii sa ajung n deertul Gobi, unele regiuni ale acestuia erau populate de animale ciudate care preau s combine caracteristici specifice vulturilor si leilor. Dar nu erau grifoni, ci dinozauri. Anumite pari ale deertului Gobi sunt presarate cu oase de dinozauri, unele dintre ele aparinnd Protoceratopsului, un dinozaur cu patru picioare si cu cioc. Este posibil ca aceste oase sa-i fi inspirat pe minerii din Antichitate atunci cnd i-au descris pe grifoni.

Protoceratops scurta prezentare In anul 2000, Adrienne Mayor, specialist in folclor clasic, a susinut c este posibil ca numeroasele asemnri dintre fosilele de Protoceratops si grifoni s stea la baza descrierilor creaturii mitologice. Protoceratops a trait in perioada cuprinsa intre 145.5 65.5 milioane de ani .e.n. Avea cioc, exact ca grifonul Avea patru picioare, exact ca grifonul Creasta subire si osoas a fosilelor de Protoceratops se rupe adesea, din ea rmnnd doar cioturi care puteau fi vzute ca urechile unui grifon Omoplaii foarte lai ai Protoceratopsului ar putea explica de ce se spune c grifonii aveau aripi

Pri ale corpului mprumutate Multe fosile ale unor dinozauri diferii care se gsesc in deertul Gobi puteau servi drept surs de inspiraie pentru diferitele descrieri ale grifonilor. Printre acestea se numr ghearele uriae ale Therizinozaurului si ale Deinocheirusului, care se aseamana cu ghearele grifonilor din anumite reprezentri. n lupt cu fosilele

Grecii antici sunt apreciai pentru realizrile lor in matematic, filosofie si art dar nu i pentru descoperirea de fosile. Dar tim c grecii au gsit osemintele conservate ale unor animale necunoscute i au ncercat s le gseasca o explicaie. O imagine de pe un bol ceramic, datnd din cca 550 Hr., l nfieaz pe eroul Hercule luptndu-se cu legendarul monstru din Troia, reprezentat doar ca un craniu alb si colos ce iese din coasta unui deal negru. Adrienne Mayor susine c aceast reprezentare a monstrului este inspirat de craniul fosil al unei rude preistorice a girafei, Samotherium, care iese din coasta unui deal.

Moartea unui dinozaur n anii 1920, ntr-o expediie n deertul Gobi, Roy Chapman Andrews de la Muzeul American de Istorie Naturala a descoperit un specimen de Protoceratops care ieea din coasta unui deal. Grifonul Locul n care triesc grifonii i n care se gasete aurul este un deert dezolant i cumplit. n nopile fr lun, cuttorii de comori vin cu lopei si saci si sapa. Daca reuesc s se fereasc de grifoni, victoria le e ndoit, caci scap cu viat i se ntorc acasa cu sacii plini cu aur o rsplat generoas pentru pericolele pe care le nfrunt. Aelian, scriitor grec, cca 200 dHr. Grifonul scurta prezentare Se spune c grifonii i fac cuiburile in muni. Cap, trunchi si gheare de vultur sau, uneori, alt pasare cu cioc ascuit, cum ar fi punul Corp de leu, terminat, uneori, cu o coada de arpe Au blana fie rocata, precum leul, fie ptat, fie au un penaj colorat n majoritatea descrierilor grifonilor se menioneaza prezena aripilor, dar nu n toate Au patru picioare

Lumea vasta a grifonilor Creaturi asemanatoare cu grifonii apar in legendele multor culturi din nordul Africii, din Orientul Mijlociu si din Europa. Dar grifonii nu au aceeai semnificaie peste tot. n anumite cazuri, grifonul a devenit un simbol al lcomiei. n alte cazuri, era maiestuos si nobil, precum leii si vulturii.

De la arta antic la media moderna Exist reprezentari minunate ale grifonilor care dateaz nca din 3300 Hr. Unele imagini apar foarte des in arta multor culturi si sunt mai ales ntlnite pe blazoanele europene din Evul Mediu. Astzi, copiii pot vedea grifoni n filmele populare si in cri precum Alice in Tara Minunilor.

Statueta roman Artitii antici i asociau deseori pe grifoni cu Nemesis, zeia greac a rzbunrii.

Pocal grecesc Pocalele sau coarnele de but erau deseori modelate n form de cap de animal.

Statuia unui grifon Creaturile mitologice puternice sunt adesea folosite ca embleme pentru coli, companii sau chiar pentru cluburi sportive. Cioplitorul n lemn Joe Leonard a executat aceast statuie a unui grifon n timp ce lucra la una asemanatoare pentru un liceu din Pensylvanya al crui mascot este un grifon.

Mitologia greac

Mitul are 2 funcii scria n 1955 poetul i savantul Robert Graves. Prima este de a da un raspuns acelui gen de ntrebari bizare pe care le pun copiii, cum ar fi Cine a creat lumea ? Cum se va sfri ea ? Cine a fost primul om ? Unde ajung sufletele dupa moarte? ... A doua funcie este de a justifica un sistem social existent i de a explica existena unor ritualuri si obiceiuri tradiionale. n Grecia antic, povetile despre zei i zeie, despre eroi si montri, jucau un rol important n viaa de zi cu zi. Ofereau o explicaie pentru orice, de la ritualuri religioase la vreme, i ddeau un sens lumii aa cum o vedeau oamenii.

Mitologia greac : Surse

Pentru mitologia greac nu avem un text original singular cum sunt Biblia cretin sau Vedele hinduse, care s prezinte toate personajele i povetile mitologice. n schimb, miturile greceti timpurii fceau parte dintr-o tradiie oral nceput n epoca bronzului, iar aciunea i temele lor s-au dezvoltat treptat n literatura scris din perioada arhaic i din cea clasic. De exemplu, Iliada i Odiseea, epopeeile scrise de poetul Homer n secolul al VIII-lea Hr, spun povestea Rzboiului Troian ( eveniment mitic), un razboi al zeilor ct i al oamenilor. Dar nu se deranjeaz s prezinte personajele principale, zeii si zeiele, deoarece cititorii i asculttorii erau deja familiarizai cu ei. n jurul anului 700 Hr., Teogonia poetului Hesiod devine prima cosmogonie scris, sau mit al creaiei, din mitologia greac. Teogonia spune povestea apariiei universului din nimic ( din Haos, un gol primordial) i ofer detalii despre un arbore genealogic foarte complex incluzand elemente, zei si zeie care sau dezvoltat din Haos i au fost descendenii Geei (Pmntul), ai lui Uranus (Cerul), ai lui Pontus (Marea) i ai lui Tartaros ( Lumea subpmntean). Scriitorii i artitii greci ce au urmat s-au folosit i au mbogit aceste surse n operele lor. De pild, n secolul al V-lea, n piesele lui Eschil, Sofocle si Euripide i n poemele lirice ale lui Pindar apar personaje i evenimente mitologice. Scriitori cum ar fi mitograful grec Apollodorus din Atena, n secolul al II-lea Hr., i istoricul roman Gaius Julius Higynus, n secolul I Hr., au compilat vechile mituri i legende pentru publicul contemporan.

Mitologia greac : Olimpienii

n centrul mitologiei greceti se afl un panteon format din zeii despre care se credea c locuiesc pe muntele Olimp, cel mai nalt munte din Grecia. Din naltul lui, controlau toate aspectele vietii oamenilor. Zeii si zeiele olimpiene artau la fel ca oamenii ( dar se puteau transfoma n animale sau n alte lucruri) i erau, conform multor mituri, supui defectelor i patimilor umane. Cei mai importani 12 zei olimpieni sunt: Zeus (Jupiter n mitologia roman) : regele zeilor (i tatl multora dintre ei ) i zeu al vremii, al legii i al sorii

Hera (Iunona) : regina zeilor si zeia a femeilor i a csniciei Afrodita (Venus) : zeita frumusetii si a iubirii Apolo (Apolo) : zeul profeiei, al muzicii, al poeziei i al cunoaterii Ares (Marte) : zeul rzboiului Artemis (Diana) : zeia vntorii, a animalelor i a naterii Atena (Minerva) : zeia ntelepciunii i a aprrii Demetra (Ceres) : zeia agriculturii i a grnelor Dionisos (Bachus) : zeul vinului, al plcerii i al petrecerilor Hefaistos (Vulcan) : zeul focului, al metalurgiei i al sculpturii Hermes (Mercur) : zeul cltoriilor, al ospitalitii i al comerului i mesagerul personal al lui Zeus Poseidon (Neptun) : zeul mrii

Alti zei si zeie incluse uneori in randul olimpienilor sunt: Hades (Pluto) : zeul lumii de dincolo Hestia (Vesta) : zeia cminului i a familiei Eros (Cupidon) : zeul sexului, subordonat Afroditei

Mitologia greac: Eroi si montri

Mitologia greac nu e compus doar din poveti despre zei si zeie. Eroii, cum ar fi Hercule, care a ndeplinit 12 sarcini imposibile pentru regele Euristeu ( i a fost venerat ca zeu ca urmare a reuitei sale); Pandora, prima femeie, a crei curiozitate a adus rul in lume; Pigmalion, regele care s -a ndrgostit de o statuie de filde; Arahne, estoarea care a fost transfomat ntr-un pianjen pentru arogana sa; chipeul prin troian Ganimede care a devenit paharnicul zeilor; Midas, regele care transforma tot ce atingea n aur; i Narcis, tnrul care s-a ndrgostit de propria reflecie sunt la fel de importani. Montrii i creaturile hibrid (ce aveau att trsturi umane cat i animale) sunt, de asemenea, des ntalnite n poveti : calul naripat Pegas, centaurii (jumtate oameni jumatate cai), Sfinxul (jumtate femeie jumtate leu) si harpiile (jumtate femei jumtate psri), ciclopii (uriai cu un singur ochi), automaii ( creaturi metalice nsufleite de Hefaistos), manticori si unicorni, gorgone, pigmei, minotauri, satiri i dragoni de tot felul. Multe dintre aceste creaturi au devenit la fel de cunoscute ca zeii, zeiele i eroii alturi de care apar n poveti.

Mitologia greac: trecut i prezent

Personajele, povetile, temele i leciile din mitologia greac au influenat arta i literatura timp de mii de ani. Apar in picturi renascentiste cum ar fi Naterea lui Venus a lui Boticelli sau Triumful Galateei a lui Rafael, i n opere cum ar fi Infernul lui Dante, n poezia romantic si ntr-o mulime de romane, piese de teatru si filme mai recente.

Teogonia
Hesiod

Thaumas s-a nsoit cu Electra, fiica adncului Ocean, i aceasta a adus-o pe lume pe sprintena Iris i pe harpiile cu plete bogate, pe Aello ( iute ca fulgerul) i pe Ocypetes (cea ce zboara ca gndul), care se iau la ntrecere cu vnturile i cu psrile purtate de aripile lor iui; cci ele zboar repede ca timpul. Apoi Ceto i-a nascut lui Phorcys pe frumoasele graeae, surori nscute cu prul crunt, pe care zeii nemuritori i oamenii de pe pmnt aijderea le numesc Graeae: Pephredo cea frumos nvetmntat i Enyo cea cu vetminte de culoarea ofranului, i pe gorgone ce slluiesc dincolo de mreul Ocean, la hotarul de apus unde stau Hesperidele cu voce de cristal ele se numeau Stheno, Euryale si Meduza care a avut o soart vrednic de plns: era muritoare, pe cnd surorile ei nu cunoteau nici moartea nici btrneea. Cu ea s-a culcat Poseidon cel cu plete negre pe o pajite moale printre flori de primvara. Cand Perseu i-a retezat capul, de acolo a rsrit mreul Chrysaor si calul Pegas care se numete astfel pentru c s-a nscut aproape de izvoarele (pegae) Oceanului; iar cellalt s-a numit aa pentru c purta o sabie de aur (aor) in mini. Pegas s-a avntat n vzduh i a prsit pmntul, printe al turmelor, i a venit n faa zeilor nemuritori: i slluiete n casa lui Zeus i i aduce neleptului Zeus fulgerele i tunetele. Dar Crysaor s-a nsoit cu Callirrhoe, fiica mreului Ocean, de la care l-a primit pe Geryon cel cu trei capete. Pe el l-a rpus viteazul Heracle n Erythea cea scldata de ape, lnga boii si ce mergeau agale, n acea zi n care a mnat boii cu fruntea lat spre sfnta cetate a Tirintului, dup ce trecuse mreul Ocean prin vad i i ucisese pe Orthrus si pe pstorul Eurytion. ntr-o petera ea a dat natere unui alt monstru, de nenfrnt, fr seamn n lumea oamenilor i a zeilor si zeielor nemuritoare: cumplita Echidna, o artare pe jumatate nimf cu ochi scnteietori i chip fermector i pe jumtate arpe, uria i nfiortor, cu piele trcat, ce se hrnete cu carne cruda n mruntaiele ascunse ale binecuvntatului pmnt. Acolo are o peter adnc sub o stnc, departe de

zeii nemuritori i de oameni. Acolo i-au druit zeii o cas mrea n care s stea: acolo n Arima, sub pmnt, st de paz nemblnzita Echidna, nimfa nepieritoare i venic tnr. Se spune c groaznicul Typhon cel cumplit i nelegiuit s-a unit cu ea, fecioara cu ochi scprtori. Astfel a rmas grea i a adus pe lume copii nfiortori: mai nti l-a nascut pe Orthrus, cinele lui Geryon, dup care a urmat un alt monstru invincibil i care nu poate fi descris, Cerberul mnctor de carne crud, cinele cu cincizeci de capete i cu voce rsuntoare al lui Hades, nendurtor i aprig. A treia odrasl a fost malefica hidr din Lerna, care a fost hrnit de Hera, zeia cu brae albe, care era furioas peste msur pe viteazul Heracle. Heracle, fiul lui Zeus, din casa lui Amphitryon i rzboinicul Iolau au trecut-o sub nemiloasa sabie, ajutai de sfaturile neleptei Atena. Echidna a dat natere i himerei scuiptoare de foc, un monstru nfiortor, sprinten i puternic, care avea trei capete: unul de leu cu o privire cumplit, n spate unul de arpe iar la mijloc unul de capr care scuipa flcri ingrozitoare. Pe ea au rpus-o Pegas i nobilul Belerophon; dar Echidna s-a mpreunat cu Orthrus i a adus pe lume Sfinxul ngrozitor care i-a nimicit pe cadmeeni i pe leul din Nemeea, pe care Hera, buna soie a lui Zeus, l-a crescut i pe care l-a pus s hlduiasca prin dealurile din Nemeea i s-i ngrozeasca pe oameni. i vna pe oamenii din acele locuri i din regiunile Tretus si Apesas, dar a fost dobort de puternicul Heracle. Ceto s-a nsoit cu Phorcys i a dat natere celui mai mic fiu al ei, arpele ngrozitor care pzete merele de aur pe meleagurile netiute de la hotarele ndepartate ale ntunecatului pmnt. Acesta este odrasla lui Ceto si al lui Phorcys.

Glossary

English
Amphisbaena Argus Basilisk Centaur Cerberus Charybdis Chimera

Romn
Amfisben Argus Basilisc Centaur Cerber Charybdis Himera

Cyclops Dryad Echidna Gigantes Gorgon Griffin Harpy Hecatonchires Hippocampus Hydra Ladon Manticore Minotaur Naiad Nereid Nymph Oceanid Orthrus Pegasus Phoenix Python Satyr Scylla Siren Sphinx Titan Typhon Unicorn

Ciclop Driad Echidna Giganti Gorgon Grifon Harpie Hecatonchiri Hipocamp Hidr Ladon Manticor Minotaur Naiad Nereid Nimf Oceanid Orthrus Pegas Pasre phoenix Python Satir Scylla Siren Sfinx Titan Typhon Inorog

English
Term 1 Definition Amphisbaena A serpent in classical mythology having a head at each end and capable of moving in either direction http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/amphisbaena?sho w=0&t=1352377586

Romana
Amfisben arpe monstruos cu dou capete, care se putea deplasa i nainte, i napoi (dup cum arat semnificaia numelui grecesc al animalului). http://www.scribd.com/doc/77531074/AnnaFerrari-Dictionar-de-Mitologie-Greaca-SiRomana

Definition source Grammatical

information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Noun, plural amphisbaenae

Substantiv

Term 2 Definition

Argus A hundred-eyed monster of Greek mythology http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/argus?show=0&t= 1352392666 Noun, uncountable

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Argus (n mitologia greac), monstru cu o sut sau o mie de ochi, din care jumtate rmneau de veghe atunci cnd dormea http://dexonline.ro/definitie/argus

Substantiv propriu

Term 3 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Basilisk (Classical Mythology) A creature, variously described as a serpent, lizard, or dragon, said to kill by its breath or look. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bas ilisk Noun, plural basilisks

Basilisc Reptil mitic, creia i se atribuie capacitatea de a omor cu privirea. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/basilic

Substantiv comun, masculin

Term 4 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Centaur In Greek mythology, one of a race of creatures, part horse and part man, living in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/centaur Noun, countable, centaurs Hippocentaur

Centaur (n mitologia greac) Fiin imaginar, cu trup de cal i cu bust omenesc http://dexonline.ro/definitie/centaur

Substantiv comun, masculin, centauri Hipocentaur (rar)

Term 5 Definition

Cerberus Classical Mythology . a dog, usually

Cerber (n mitologia greac) Fiin imaginar

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

represented as having three heads, that guarded the entrance of the infernal regions. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Cer berus?s=t Noun, plural Cerberi

reprezentat n chip de cine cu trei capete, care pzete poarta infernului. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/cerber

Substantiv, masculin, Cerberi

a sop to Cerberus - a bribe or something given to propitiate a potential source of danger or problems

Term 6 Definition

Charybdis A whirlpool off the coast of Sicily personified in Greek mythology as a female monster http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/charybdis?show=0 &t=1352462228 Noun

Definition source

Charybdis Fiic monstruoas a lui Poseidon i a lui Gaea, care slluia odinioar pe coasta Siciliei, n apropiere de Messina. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/charybdis

Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Substantiv propriu

between Scylla and Charybdis = between two equally hazardous alternatives

Term 7 Definition

Chimera A fire-breathing she-monster in Greek mythology having a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/chimera Noun, plural chimeras

Himera Monstru n mitologia antic greac, nchipuit ca un animal cu cap de leu, cu corp de capr i cu coad de arpe http://dexonline.ro/definitie/himera

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Substantiv comun, feminin, himere

Term 8 Definition

Cyclops Classical Mythology. a member of a

Ciclop Figur mitic de uria antropofag, cu un singur

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

family of giants having a single round eye in the middle of the forehead http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cyc lops?s=t Noun, plural cyclopes

ochi mare n mijlocul frunii. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/ciclop

Substantiv comun, masculin, ciclopi

Term 9 Definition Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Dryad Greek Mythology A divinity presiding over forests and trees http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Dryad Noun, plural dryads Wood nymph

Driad Nimf a pdurilor n mitologia greac

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/driada Substantiv comun, feminin, driade Nimfa de padure

Term 10 Definition Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Echidna Monster of Greek mythology, half woman, half serpent. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ech idna?s=t

Echidna Creatur jumtate femeie, jumtate arpe n mitologia greac http://www.scribd.com/doc/54477997/GEORG E-LZRESCU-DICIONAR-DEMITOLOGIE Substantiv propriu

Noun, uncountable

Term 11 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms

Gigantes In Greek mythology, the Gigantes or, commonly, Giants, were a race of giants, children of Gaia or Gaea, who was fertilized by the blood of Uranus when Cronus castrated him. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/ gigantes Plural noun Giants

Giganti (n mitologia greac), fiine monstruoase, uriae, zmislite de Geea din sngele lui Uranus

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/giganti

Substantiv, masculin Uriasi, Gigantes

Collocations Gorgon Monstru din mitologia greac, nchipuit ca o femeie cu erpi n loc de pr, a crei privire mpietrea orice fiin

Term 12 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Gorgon Classical Mythology . any of three sister monsters commonly represented as having snakes for hair, wings, brazen claws, and eyes that turned anyone looking into them to stone. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gor gon?s=t Noun, plural gorgons

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/gorgon Substantiv comun, feminin, gorgone

Term 13 Definition Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Griffin A fabulous beast with the head and wings of an eagle and the body of a lion http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Griffin

Grifon Animal fabulos cu trup de leu i cap si aripi de vultur. http://www.scribd.com/doc/77531074/AnnaFerrari-Dictionar-de-Mitologie-Greaca-SiRomana Substantiv comun, masculin, grifoni Gryps (rar)

Noun, plural griffins

Term 14 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Harpy Greek Mythology One of several loathsome, voracious monsters with the head and trunk of a woman and the tail, wings, and talons of a bird. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/harpy

Harpie (n mitologia greac) Monstru fabulos, reprezentat sub forma unei femei naripate, cu trup i cu gheare de vultur, personificnd furtunile i moartea. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/harpie

Noun plural harpies

Substantiv comun, feminin harpii

Term 15 Definition

Hecatonchires
The Hecatonchires, or Hekatonkheires Greek: ( ), were three gargantuan figures

Hecatonchiri Cu acest nume, ce nseamn literal cu o sut de mini" (sau

of an archaic stage of Greek mythology.

cu o sut de brae"), n latin centimani, erau indicate n Grecia trei fiine monstruoase igigantice, Cotos, Briareu (sau Egeon) i Gies (sau Giges), cu o sut de brae i cincizeci de capete, care aveau o statur i o for fizic extraordinar.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/77531074/Anna-FerrariDictionar-de-Mitologie-Greaca-Si-Romana

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hec atoncheire Noun

Substantiv comun, masculin

Term 16 Definition

Hippocampus a mythological sea creature with the forelegs of a horse and the tail of a fish http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hip pocampus?s=t Noun, plural hippocampi

Hipocamp Animal fabulos, din mitologie, cu cap de cal, cu dou picioare i cu coad de pete, care trgea carul lui Neptun. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/hipocamp Substantiv comun, masculin, hipocampi

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Term 17 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Hydra A many-headed serpent or monster in Greek mythology that was slain by Hercules and each head of which when cut off was replaced by two others http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/hydra Noun, plural hydras or hydrae
Lernean Hydra

Hidra (Mit.) arpe fabulos, nchipuit cu apte capete care creteau la loc dup ce erau tiate i despre care legenda spune c a fost rpus de Hercule. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/hidra

Substantiv, feminin hidre

Hidra din Lerna

Term 18 Definition

Ladon A dragon having 100 heads and guarding the garden of the Hesperides: killed by Hercules.

Ladon Fiul Echidnei i al lui Typhon, era balaurul cu o sut de capete care pzea merele de aur din Grdina Hesperidelor. A fost ucis de ctre

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lad on?s=t Noun propre

Heracles. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/ladon

Substantiv propriu

Term 19 Definition

Manticore
a legendary animal with the head of a man, the body of a lion, and the tail of a dragon or scorpion http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/manticore

Manticor o creatura hibrida, asemanatoare Sfinxului egiptean, avand corpul unui leu, coada de scorpion si capul de om, cu trei randuri de dinti, ascutiti si asemanatori cu cei ai unui rechin.
http://dli.ro/creaturi-din-mitologia-greaca.html

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Noun, manticores

Substantiv comun, manticori

Term 20 Definition

Minotaur

Minotaur

A monster who was half man and half bull, Monstru mitologic, nfiat cu cap de taur i to whom young Athenian men and women trup de om. were sacrificed in the Cretan labyrinth until Theseus killed him. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/minotau r Noun, plural minotaurs http://dexonline.ro/definitie/minotaur

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Substantiv comun, masculin, minotauri

Term 21 Definition

Definition source Grammatical

Naiad Any of the nymphs in classical mythology living in and giving life to lakes, rivers, springs, and fountains http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/naiad

Naiad Nimf a izvoarelor, a fntnilor i a apelor curgtoare. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/naiad

information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Noun, plural naiads or naiades

Substantiv comun, feminin, naiade

Term 22 Definition

Nereid (Greek mythology) any of the 50 sea nymphs who were daughters of the sea god Nereus http://www.thefreedictionary.com/nereid Noun, plural nereids Sea nymph

Nereid Fiecare dintre cele 50 de fiice ale zeului marin Nereus i ale lui Doris, ele nsele diviniti marine. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/nereida Substantiv comun, feminin, nereide Nimfa a marii

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Term 23 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Nymph One of a numerous class of lesser deities of mythology, conceived of as beautiful maidens inhabiting the sea, rivers, woods, trees, mountains, meadows, etc., and frequently mentioned as attending a superior deity. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ny mph?s=t Noun, plural nymphs

Nimf (n mitologia greac) Fiecare dintre zeiele apelor, ale pomilor, ale crngurilor i ale munilor, personificnd forele naturii

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/nimf

Substantiv comun, feminin, nimfe

Term 24 Definition

Oceanid Any of the ocean nymphs that are daughters of Oceanus and Tethys in Greek mythology http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/oceanid Noun, plural oceanides or oceanids

Oceanid Nimf a mrii, n mitologia greac. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/oceanid

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Substantiv comun, feminin, oceanide

Term 25 Definition

Orthrus
In Greek mythology, Orthrus (Orthros) or Orthus (Orthos) (Greek: ; ) was a two-headed dog and a doublet ("brother") of Cerberus, both whelped by the chthonic monsters Echidna and Typhon. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/orth us

Ortros
Cinele cu doua capete al lui Gerion.

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

http://www.scribd.com/doc/77531074/Anna-FerrariDictionar-de-Mitologie-Greaca-Si-Romana

Noun proper

Substantiv propriu

Term 26 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Pegasus (Classical Mythology) A winged horse, created from the blood of Medusa, that opened the spring of Hippocrene with a stroke of its hoof, and that carried Bellerophon in his attack on the Chimera. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/peg asus?s=t Noun

Pegas (n mitologia greac) Cal miraculos, naripat, nscut din sngele Meduzei ucise de Perseu. (fig.) simbol al inspiraiei poeilor

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/pegas Substantiv, masculin pegasi

A incaleca pe pegas = a face versuri

Term 27 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Phoenix A legendary bird which according to one account lived 500 years, burned itself to ashes on a pyre, and rose alive from the ashes to live another period http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/phoenix?show=0& t=1352417704 Noun, uncountable

Pasare phoenix Pasre mitic, ce rentea din propria-i cenu, asemntoare cu un vultur, cu pene splendide i via foarte lung http://www.scribd.com/doc/77531074/AnnaFerrari-Dictionar-de-Mitologie-Greaca-SiRomana Substantiv comun, masculin

Term 28 Definition

Python Classical Mythology

Python Balaur fabulos, zmislit din mruntaiele

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

A large dragon who guarded the chasm at Delphi from which prophetic vapors emerged. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pyt hon?s=t Noun, uncountable

pmntului pe vremea lui Deucalion i a potopului, i nzestrat cu darul profeiei. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/Python

Substantiv propriu

Term 29 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Satyr Greek Mythology A woodland creature depicted as having the pointed ears, legs, and short horns of a goat and a fondness for unrestrained revelry. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/satyr

Satir (n mitologia greac) Personaj imaginar, prezentat ca un monstru pros, cu coarne mici, urechi mari i ascuite i cu picioare de cal sau de ap, personificnd brutalitatea. http://dexonline.ro/definitie/satir

Noun, plural satyrs

Substantiv comun, masculin, satiri

Satyr play = a burlesque or ribald drama having a chorus of satyrs, usually written by a poet to follow the poet's trilogy of tragedies presented at the Dionysian festival in ancient Greece.

Term 30 Definition

Scylla A nymph changed into a monster in Greek mythology who terrorizes mariners in the Strait of Messina

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/scylla Noun proper

Scylla ntruchipare monstruoas, cu nfiare de femeie i cu partea de jos a corpului format din mai muli cini, zmislit de Phorcys i de Ceto (dup o versiune, dup o alta de ctre Typhon i Echidna). http://dexonline.ro/definitie/Scylla

Substantiv propriu ntre Scylla si Caribda = o situaie fr ieire

between Scylla and Charybdis = between two equally hazardous alternatives

Term 31

Siren

Sirena

Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Any of a group of female and partly human (n mitologia greac) Fiin fabuloas cu cap i creatures in Greek mythology that lured corp de femeie, cu picioare i aripi de pasre, iar mariners to destruction by their singing mai trziu cu coad de pete, care, prin cntecele ei, ademenea navigatorii n locuri periculoase, unde acetia i gseau moartea http://www.merriamhttp://dexonline.ro/definitie/siren webster.com/dictionary/siren Noun, plural sirens Substantiv comun, feminin, sirene
Cntec de siren = un mijloc de seducie pe ct de puternic pe att de primejdios.

Siren song = an alluring utterance or appeal; especially : one that is seductive or deceptive

Term 32 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Sphynx A winged female monster in Greek mythology having a woman's head and a lion's body and noted for killing anyone unable to answer its riddle http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/sphinx Noun, plural sphinxes or sphinges

Sfinx Monstru fabulos cu corp de leu, cap de om i aripi de vultur, care ucidea cltorii, cnd nu rezolvau enigma pe care le-o propunea http://dexonline.ro/definitie/sfinx

Substantiv, masculin, sfincsi

Term 33 Definition Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Titan
any of a family of giants in Greek mythology born of Uranus and Gaea and ruling the earth until overthrown by the Olympian gods http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/titan

Titan
(Mit.) Fiecare dintre cei doisprezece copii ai lui Uranus care s-au rsculat mpotriva lui Zeus pentru stpnirea Pmntului http://dexonline.ro/definitie/titan

Noun, titans

Substantiv comun, masculin, titani

Term 34 Definition

Typhon
a monster with a tremendous voice who according to classical mythology was father of Cerberus, the Chimera, and the Sphinx

Typhon un mostru nspimnttor, cu o sut de capete i cu trupul uria, presrat cu erpi.

Definition source

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/Typhon http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/typhon?show=0&t=13 57238848

Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Noun proper Typhoeus

Substantiv propriu Typhoeus

Term 35 Definition

Definition source Grammatical information Synonyms Antonyms Collocations

Unicorn A mythical animal generally depicted with the body and head of a horse, the hind legs of a stag, the tail of a lion, and a single horn in the middle of the forehead http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/unicorn Noun, plural unicorns

Inorog Animal fantastic cu corp de cal i cu un corn n frunte.

http://dexonline.ro/definitie/inorog

Substantiv comun, masculin, inorogi Unicorn, licorn

Bibliography

Hesiod, The Theogony -TRANSLATED BY H. G. EVELYN-WHITE Fritz Graf, Greek Mythology An Introduction C. A. White, THE STUDENTS MYTHOLOGY - A COMPENDIUM OF Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures Anna Ferrari, Dictionar de Mitologie Greaca si Romana Guus Houtzager, Mitologia Greaca - Enciclopedie completa