Bio Review

Unit 1 Diversity
1. Kingdom Animalia - multicellular eukaryotes that have no cell walls and and are heterotrophic (meaning that they consume their food, most often this occurs from digestion in an internal organ). The primary form of reproduction for kingdom animalia is sexual and they contain 2 layers of tissue (muscle and nervous) which cannot be found in any other kingdom of life. 2. Kingdom Plantae - multicellular eukaryotes which have cellulose-based cell walls. Organisms from this kingdom are autotrophic, and typically create energy for themselves by means of photosynthesis. These organisms develop from embryos protected by their parent plants and are primarily found on land. 3. Kingdom Fungi - single-celled eukaryotes which have Chitin-based cell walls. Fungi are heterotrophs as they live on or within their food, obtaining energy by decomposing decaying matter (called a Saprophyte). Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually through spore production which, being reproductive cells, are haploid and contain only 1/2 of the parent genetic material. 4. Kingdom Protista - single-celled eukaryotes which can be heterotrophic or autotrophic. Protists have been around for 1.5 billion years and are considered to an important organism for several reasons. For instance, protists are a large percentage of organisms which carry out photosynthesis (more so than plants) and many protists are used to produce many of the foods in human society. 5. Kingdom Eubacteria - the modern day bacteria which are single-celled prokaryotes that can be both heterotrophic and autotrophic. In addition, the Eubacteria can be aerobic or anaerobic. Eubacteria are a crucial element to the ecosystem because they are responsible in the aid of processes such as nitrogen fixation and carbon/oxygen cycling 6. Kingdom Archaebacteria - the ancient bacteria which are single-celled prokaryotes that can be both heterotrophic and autotrophic. Archaebacteria are anaerobic methanogens (release methane gas) and are the newest classified kingdom of life, despite being the oldest.

Unit 2 Genetics
PMAT PROPHASE: prophase is the stage in which the nuclear membrane brea down, the centrioles begin to move to opposite poles, and spindle fibers form. Chromosomes are formed from chromatin. METAPHASE: spindle fibers are attached to the centromere of the chromosomes, and the chromosome pairs line up at the equator of the line. ANAPHASE: spindle fibers retract, pulling apart the chromosome pairs TELOPHASE: chromosomes at opposite poles unwind back into chromatin, a nuclear membrane forms around them, and cytogenesis begins. In plants a cell wall appears and divides the cell, in animals a cleavage furrow appears and the cell is pinched apart.

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT is random alignment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase 1. Randomly assorted between the cells. *Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperm cells, oogenesis is the formation of the egg. MENDELS EXPERIMENTS The law of segregation states that members if a pair of alleles for a given trait are separated/segregated when gametes are formed. Mendels law of independent assortment states when considering 2 or more characteristics that are not linked, each characteristic shows dominance and segregation independent of others. TYPES OF INHERITANCE Incomplete Dominance: When neither allele express full dominance of the other (heterozygous are distinguishable from both of the homozygous). Linked Chromosomes: When 2 characteristics are linked to the same chromosome. The difference between AUTOSOMAL and SEX chromosomes is that autosomal has nothing to do with the actual determination of the sex of the organism, however sex chromosomes do. When determining SEX in humans there is ONE pair out of 23 pairs which are responsible for determining the sex of the embryo. There are two types of sex chromosomes, the X and the Y. In order to be female, the embryo would have to have XX genotype, in order to be male, it would have to have the XY genotype. Generally characteristics are found on the X chromosome. WHEN concerning characteristics.. *Females can be homozygous or heterozygous (XH XH, XH Xh, or Xh Xh) so if they are heterozygous, then they are considered to be carriers for the characteristic. *Males either have the characteristic or they dont, because these are X LINKED CHARACTERISTICS, meaning the characteristic cannot be passed down with the Y allele, only the X (so its either XH Y or XY). P | S-A-T-S | | P P | | S-A-T-S | | P P | | S-A-T-S | P WHAT IS A CHROMOSOME? Chromosomes are chromatin which are coiled up for cell division, chromosomes contain genes which are sequences of DNA which code a specific protein. The chemical name for DNA chemically is called Deoxyribonucleic acid and is a polymer (long molecule made up of smaller molecules). The 4 nitrogen bases of DNA are Adrenine, Thymine, Guamine, and Cytosine (ATGC). DNA forms together to form ladder-like structures called the double AT helix.

AT CG GC TA

CG GC TA

AT CG GC TA

Unit 3 Evolution
Evolution is the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth. A species is defined as a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. Coevolution is the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution. KEY POINTS OF DARWINS NATURAL SELECTION 1.Organisms today are descendants from species long ago. 2.More organisms are produced than can survive; most die before reaching sexual maturity, and many that do survive fail to reproduce. 3.Physical characteristics within species can vary, many of these traits can be inherited through genes. 4.Some of these variants are better adapted to survive within the the environment. 5.Better adapted individuals are more likely to survive to reproduce. 6.New species can be created from pre-existing species from natural selection over periods of time. EVIDENCE OF NATURAL SELECTION 1.Embryological/Physical Similarities: Many close related organisms have similarities in their physical characteristic. Embryos have similar stages of development. 2.Homologous Structures: Similar structures with different jobs because of the individual environmental factor (human arm, cat leg, bat wing, horse leg). 3.Analogous Structures: Different structures with similar functions (penguin wing, dolphin fins, fish fins). 4.Vestigial Structures: Structures which were once useful but now serve no purpose (wisdom teeth, appendix). 5.Fossil Record: Allow us to draw connections between pre-existing organisms and organisms which exist today. SEXUAL AND NATURAL SELECTION TYPES Sexual Selection: the form of selection in which the female choose her mate through either male vs. male competition or by female choice. Three Types of Natural Selection: 1.Stabilizing Selection: Where the average expression for a trait is favored over the extremes of the trait. 2.Directional Selection: Where one extreme expression of a trait is favored over the average and the other extreme. 3.Disruptive Selection: Where both extreme expressions are favored over the average expression of the trait. HARDY-WEINBERG LAW Gene frequency will only remain constant providing: 1.Chance events do not effect gene frequency in a population. 2.Mutations do not occur, or if they do, they balance out. 3.All genotypes have equal reproductive success (no natural selection). 4.There is no net flow of genes in or out of the population (no net migration). 5.All mating is random (no sexual selection).

Genetic drift is the changes in allele frequencies as a result of chance and it can have a greater effect on small populations. The founder effect is a special form of bottleneck (catastrophes which cause decrease in population and allele frequencies) that occurs in the establishment of a new population. Pleiotropy is when one genetic characteristic has multiple phenotypic effects both beneficial and detrimental.

Definition Pre-Zygotic Any physical feature which prevent the sperm and egg from uniting.

Example Mechanical: Each species have specific sexual organs which are uniquely designed to only be used within the species.

Example Behavioral: Deals with courtship rituals, if the ritual is not performed properly, mating will not occur.

Example Gamete Incompatibility : Reproductive tract is inhospitable to the sperm, otherwise sperm and egg are unable to fuse. Hybrid Breakdown: In some cases the first generation hybrids can be fertile, but when they try to mate with one another or one of the parent species, the offspring are feeble or sterile.

Post-Zygotic

Any physical/genetic feature that either prevent embryo development, terminate birth, or prevent the hybrid from becoming established in nature.

Reduced Hybrid Vitality: Genetic incompatibility between two species may abort embryo development at some stage.

Reduced Hybrid Fertility: Even if the hybrid can be produced, the hybrid will be completely or largely sterile.

SPECIATION Speciation is any process to explain how a new species came to be from a pre-existing one. Allopatric speciation involves a group of individuals being separated from the original population by some geographics barrier. RIMs form within the two populations after long periods of natural selection taking its course. Parametric speciation involves organisms that live on the edge of an ecosystem. RIMS form between the species living on the edge, and those living in the centre of the ecosystem. Symparatric speciation is when a species splits into two separate gene pools, causing a RIM to occur.

Unit 4 Internal Systems

NUTRITION AND DIGESTION Macronutrients: 1.Carbohydrates are the most immediate form of energy, and they include starches, sugars, and cellulose. These a broken down into simple sugars. 2.Fats are the most concentrated form of energy and are the key to building cell membranes as phospholipids, and they also work as natural insulation for the body. They also store excess energy, and can be broken down into triglycerides. 3.Proteins act as enzymes, connective tissues, skin, hair and many other functions. They can be broken down into amino acids, the genetic code tells the body how to build them back up the way the cells need. Micronutrients: 1.Vitamins act as coenzymes (make enzymes work); fat soluble ADEK; water soluble Bs and C.

2.Minerals (calcium, iron, sodium, and potassium) act as ions in transport within the nervous system, and aid in bone formation (including teeth). 3.Water is vital for chemical reactions (all bodily reactions occur within water) and is the means for transporting all materials. Digestive Enzymes: *Amylase (secreted by the salivary glands) is used to break down complex carbs into simple sugars. *Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme used to break down foods in the stomach. *HCl is another stomach acid. *Trypsinogen (pancreas) which is one of the pancreatic enzymes, helps to break down proteins. Digestive System Components: Teeth-are used to mechanically digest food by grinding and tearing into smaller particles. Epiglottis-closes over the trachea so that food cannot enter the breathing airway. Stomach-where the main chemical digestion of the bolus occurs, here pepsin and HCl are released by the stomach to break down the food. At the end of this, the bolus is now called the chyme. Liver-is the second larges organ in the body and is responsible for breaking down fat globules, and regulating all blood in the body by extracting nutrients and toxins from the blood stream. Pancreas-lies beneath the stomach, the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which aid the absorption of nutrients in digestion in the small intestine. Duodenum- the beginning of the small intestine and is responsible for receiving the chyme and enzymes from the stomach. Jejunum-the jejunum is in between the duodenum and the ileum and is responsible for the majority of the the digestion and chemical absorption. Ileum-absorbs nutrients. Large Intestine-begins at the ileocecal valve, to the caecum (which receives material from the small intestine), into the colon (absorption of water and vitamins), and finally into the rectum (where waste awaits to be excreted). RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Four Stages: 1.Breathing-inhalation of air and exhale from internal. 2.External Gas Exchange-in lungs (gas exchange with external and blood system). 3.Internal Gas Exchange-exchange gases with capillaries and body cells. 4.Cellular respiration-the breakdown of sugars with O2 and CO2 waste, diffusion occurs. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Unit 5: Plant Biology

Root: 1.Storage of nutrients 2.Absorb nutrients and water from the soil 3.Stabilizes and supports the plant Root Cross Section:

Epidermis: Dermal Tissue protects the plants inner tissues Cortex: Ground Tissue Storage of excess sugars and support Endodermis and Casparian Strip: Meristematic Tissue New secondary roots grow from here and water proofs the inner parts of the root. Xylem: Transports water and minerals up to leaves and stem Phloem: Transports sugars food Sap Root Cap: Set of dead cells that protect the root Zone of Cell Division: Region of growth in the root Apical Meristem: Found in the zone of cell division. All new root cells grow from here Zone of Cell Elongation: New cells grow bigger Zone of cell Specialization: New cells specialize into the different tissues Stem: Function of the stem: Connect the leaves and the roots Provide support for the plant Transport water and nutrients

There are two types of stems in angiosperms, Dicot (right) and Monocot (left)

External Stem Features: Internodes connect nodes Nodes Where leaves and branches attach Axillary Buds Underdeveloped tissue that becomes leaves and branches Terminal Bud Protective covering for the Apical Meristem Leaf

The function of the leaf is to perform photosynthesis for the plant. Cuticle waxy layer produced by the epidermis to protect the leaf from water loss Epidermis layer of cells that protects the leaf from the external environment Pallisade Mesophyll located at the top of the lead just below the epidermis. Tightly packed cells that contain high levels of chloroplasts Spongy Mesophyll The rest of the lead ground tissue that surrounds the vascular bundle. Filled with lots of spaces to allow for the movement of gases and water Bundle Sheath Protective layer surrounding the vascular bundle (vein) Stomata Tiny opening found on the bottom of the leaf in the epidermis. The stomata open and close based on a group of cells called guard cells. The function of the stomata is to allow CO2 to enter the plant so that it can perform photosynthesis, and allow excess oxygen to leave the plant. These guard cells open and close based on levels of H20 in the plant. If H20 levels are high, osmosis causes H20 to move into the guard cells and swell up to open the stomata. When water levels in the plant drop, osmosis causes H20 to leave the guard cells causing the stomata to close. Water enters the roots because the cortex is maintained as hypertonic (low concentration of water). This means that water will move into the cortex. Once water is in the cortex its actively transported across the Casparian Strip and into the xylem. Water moves up through the xylem through two separate processes: Capillary action allows water to climb up in the vessels due to the adhesion of H20 to the sides of the cells, and the cohesion of water particles to each other. Transpiration is the evaporation of H20 from the leaves. This water leaving creates a pulling motion within the xylem like the plunger on a syringe. Xylem: Runs from the roots up into the stem Its made up of two types of cells:

Tracheids are elongated cells as they mature dies and all that is left is a series of interconnected tubes made of cell walls. Each of the cell walls has a series of tiny pores called pits. Water moves through these pores into the different tracheids. Vessel elements are very similar to tracheids but the pores are elongated into slits. Phloem: Made up of a series of sieve tubes. Each tube has its nucleus and other organelles removed so that its essentially dead (like the xylem) however its maintained alive by a cell that is attached to sieve tubes called a Companion cell. The companion cell maintains metabolic functions for the sieve tubes. Sap Travels through the phloem by pressure floe hypothesis. Based on movement of sugars from sources to sinks. Sources are areas that are high in sugars or areas where sugars are made sinks are areas in which sugars are needed. What is the Apical Meristem? Found in the zone of cell division and it is the place where all new root cells grow from. What is Secondary Growth? Secondary Growth is the increase in diameter of the stem, increase in Girth. Occurs in dicot stems. This growth comes from new tissue formed in the Lateral Meristem or the Vascular Cambium. The Vascular Cambium is located between the xylem and phloem in the dicot. Each year these plants grow new vascular tissues. This causes an increase in the diameter of the stem.