North HillsSignal Processing Corp.

Wideband Transformers
Wideband transformers couple signals magnetically from input to output terminals with optimum transmission fidelity over broad frequency ranges. Major objectives in their use are: 1. Impedance matching for maximum power transfer 2. Coupling between unbalanced and balanced circuits 3. DC isolation between input and output 4. Ground isolation for common mode rejection 5. Signal distribution and mixing Baluns are transformers designed to interface balanced and unbalanced circuits. In an "unbalanced" or "single ended" system the "LO" side is at AC ground. In a balanced circuit the mid-point between terminals is at AC ground; i.e., the voltages between either terminal and ground are 180 degrees out of phase. Unbalanced and balanced windings have identical schematic representations but differ very much structurally. It is, therefore, not possible to ground the "HI" instead of the "LO" side of an unbalanced winding or to convert a balanced winding into an unbalanced one by simply grounding one side without radically affecting the transmission characteristics of the transformer. North Hills designs and manufactures a wide variety of wideband transformers in unbalanced to unbalanced, balun, i.e. unbalanced to balanced, and balanced to balanced configurations. Balanced windings are usually center-tapped. INTRODUCTION Wideband transformers are so designated because of their flat transmission characteristics over relatively wide ranges of input frequency. This section defines and evaluates the important performance characteristics of wideband transformers and lists characteristics and applications of major categories. In its simplest application, the basic two-winding transformer, as shown in Fig. 1, serves as a so-called impedance matching device. With a secondary to primary turns ratio

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

Application Note # 151

equal to (RL /RS)1/2 and the transformer secondary terminated in R L, the transformer input impedance equals RS. The circuit is then said to be impedance-matched and maximum power is transferred from the source to the load.

Figure 1. Elementary Matching Transformer

Such practical matters as grounding the source or load and conditions of balance and unbalance of the individual windings are ignored for the moment, but will be given consideration later on. IDEAL TRANSFORMER The ideal transformer is insensitive to input frequency because it has, by definition, infinite inductance windings zero winding and inter winding capacitances zero power loss, i.e., zero winding resistances and loss less magnetic materials. Input and output powers will, therefore, be equal in an ideal transformer operating between a source impedance RS and load R L, i.e., (E l /2) /R S = VO /R PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS In a practical transformer the parameters enumerated above differ from the ideal, but are controlled by design or adjustment to produce acceptable characteristics over several decades of input frequency. The transfer characteristic, i.e., the ratio of output to input voltage, is usually shaped as shown in Figure 2. Bandwidth may be defined by the low and high "cut-off" frequencies FL and FH at which the response drops a specified amount, often 3 dB, with respect to the response at some reference
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2 2

North HillsSignal Processing Corp.

6851 Jericho Turnpike Syosset, NY 11791

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mid-band frequency. The mid-band insertion loss is known as the "flat-loss."

80 40 0

V1 = EI/2 = Vi EI = Source voltage

Phase (*)

and in the unmatched condition Z11 is unequal to RS, resulting in

V1 = Vi = Vr

-40 -80 Flat Loss

where Vr is the voltage change due to mismatch. The reflection coefficient, is defined as

AMPL Resp. (dB)

= Vr/Vi

5 FL

10

40

100

200

1000

Frequency (kHz)

4000 FH

10000

which in general, is a complex number and may be show to be related to the complex impedance Z11 and to RS as follows: = (Z11 - RS) / (Z11 + RS) and Z11 / RS = (1 + ) / (1 - ). EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT A useful physical picture of the voltage, current and power relationships in the transformer input circuit is offered by the equivalent circuit of Figure 4. There, the transformer input impedance, Z11, looking into terminals 1-1, is replaced by a generator x E l of internal impedance Rs and polarity as shown. The resultant loop current and voltage across terminals 1-1 will be the same as in the circuit of Figure 3, once is assigned the complex value computed from the equation relating it to Z11 and Rs. This voltage is then seen to be the sum of two components: an "incident" voltage, Vi, derived from generator E l and a "reflected" component Vr coming from the opposite direction, equal to x E l /2. We can associate this concept of voltages derived from opposite ends of the circuit with bi-directional power flow. In general, the power delivered to the load is considered to be the combination of two fictitious powers: "incident" power, Pi = El /4Rs "reflected" power, Pr = I I2 x Pi delivered power, Pd = Pi - Pr transmission ratio, Pd /Pi = 1 - I I2
2

Figure 2. Typical Transmission Characteristic.

The transformer output power differs from the ideal as a result of two types of losses: the first comprises those primarily due to resistance of the windings, hysteresis and eddy currents in the magnetic materials, and dissipation in the insulating materials. These losses are usually minimal and may be approximated by shunt resistances across the transformer input and output. Of greater importance is the second type, in which the reactive series and shunt impedances of and between the several transformer windings bring about a circuit mismatch, reducing the power delivered to the load to below the maximum available. EFFECT OF MISMATCH The degree of deviation from the matched circuit condition is conveniently expressed in terms such as reflection coefficient, return loss, and voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) all borrowed from transmission line theory. Although, in a lumped circuit transformer there are no significant standing waves, as implied by "VSWR, the various terms, as defined below, are not only useful mathematically, but are also physically enlightening.

Figure 3. Transformer Circuit.

To establish quantitatively the effects of mismatch refer to Figure 3, where Z11 = transformer input impedance V1 = transformer input voltage Z11 = RS

Pi, is the maximum power the source can supply and is also known as the "available" power. The extent to which the power delivered to the load differs from the available power may be considered a power loss and expressed, in dB, as: transmission loss = -10 x log(Pd /Pi) = -10 x log(1 (I I2) The transmission loss figure in dB represents the power "loss" as well as the voltage response inasmuch as both

In the matched condition:

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6851 Jericho Turnpike Syosset, NY 11791

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the source as well as the load impedance are assumed to be purely resistive. The concept of bi-directional power flow originated in the study of long transmission lines, and terms, conventionally employed in that field, are also applicable when dealing with the mismatch problem in wideband transformers. The value of ranges from 1 for a shorted load to + 1 for the open circuit condition. The magnitude of may be expressed as a fraction, as a percentage or, in dB, as "return loss" = 20 x log(1/I I) Return loss is not power loss but the ratio, in dB, of incident to reflected voltage. It is termed "loss" because this ratio is always greater than one, i.e. the dB figure is always positive. VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) is another term borrowed from transmission line theory and often used as a measure of mismatch. It has only mathematical significance inasmuch as there are no standing waves in a lumped constant transformer. VSWR is related to the magnitude of

where

ED = voltage droop Epp = peak-to-peak amplitude of El /2 FL = the low-end cut-off frequency. f = frequency of the square wave. a = 2 x f/FL

Table 1 (pg. 6) lists data of low frequency response and square wave droop vs. f/FL. HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE At the high end of the frequency spectrum, the transformer may be represented, as an approximation, by the equivalent circuit of Figure 7. Cp is the primary capacitance, n2CS the reflected secondary capacitance, and LL the composite of the winding leakage inductances. High frequency core and copper losses are neglected. The circuit is essentially a low pass filter in which the circuit element values determine the transmission characteristics. Different responses resulting from specific relations between the element values are listed in Table 2 (pg. 6). Shown are "normalized values, i.e. L and C values corresponding to RS = wll = 1. Actual values, L and C, may be scaled from the normalized values L'and C' by means of the following formulas: L = (RS x L)/ H C = C'/(RS X H). To obtain a desired response, the required element values are realized by winding techniques as well as addition of external components. Because of the difficulty in controlling precisely the shape of the cut-off curve, it is preferable to specify the high frequency response limit in terms of maximum return loss rather than a 3 dB drop in the transfer characteristic. GROUP DELAY Another performance parameter of interest is a type of signal delay through the transformer variously known as group delay, envelope delay, and incremental time delay. It is defined as the negative of the slope of the transfer phase characteristic at the particular frequency of interest, i.e. group delay TG = d /d.

VSWR=(1 + I I)/(1 I I) and I I=(VSWR 1)/(VSWR + 1) Table 3 (pg. 6) lists corresponding values of , VSWR, return and transmission loss. LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE At the low end of the frequency spectrum, the inductance of the primary winding of the transformer, L p, has a shunting effect across the input, as shown in the equivalent circuit of Figure 5. The low end of the spectrum is usually defined by the "cut-off frequency" FL at which the reactance of L p, equals Rs/2. At FL the response is down 3 dB with respect to the nominal, matched value and at 45 degrees with respect to the source signal. The relative response at the transformer input at frequency f then varies as: 1/(1 + FL /f) .
1/2

Frequently, signals handled by a transmission system have flattop wave-forms which are not permitted to droop in excess of a specified percentage. A step voltage applied to the R-L circuit of Figure 5 will result in a current which rises exponentially with time. As illustrated in Figure 6, a repetitive, 50% duty cycle square wave source voltage will have a percentage droop ED /Epp= 100 x tanh(/a)

where TG is in seconds, in radians, and in radians/ second. Group delay is not to be confused with phase delay which is /.
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North HillsSignal Processing Corp.

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The two are identical if the phase characteristic is perfectly linear and goes through the origin, which is rarely true. To illustrate the difference between the two types of time delay, consider an amplitude-modulated wave. The carrier will be delayed by the phase delay, while the modulation frequency envelope will be delayed by the group (hence envelope) delay.

where ERMS = applied voltage in rms volts, f = frequency in hertz, q = volt-second rating of the transformer input winding. TRANSFORMER CATEGORIES The foregoing discussion was not directed toward specific uses of wide-band transformers. Depending on applications, practical devices may be classified in one or more of the following categories: A. Impedance converters which may be a. Unbalanced to balanced, b. Unbalanced to unbalanced, c. Balanced to balanced, d. DC isolated, e. DC coupled. B. Isolation transformers, which may be a. DC isolated b. Common mode chokes (Humbuckers). C. Bridging transformers. BALANCED VS. UNBALANCED TRANSFORMERS A balanced circuit is one in which the two conductors are symmetrical with respect to ground. Baluns are transformers with winding configurations designed to interface balanced and single-ended (i.e. unbalanced) circuits of given impedance levels. Figure 8 shows balun T1

Figure 4. Equivalent Circuit of Figure 3.

Figure 5. Low Frequency Equivalent Circuit.

Figure 6. Waveforms in circuit of Figure 5.

Figure 7. High Frequency Equivalent circuit of Transformer.

SATURATION By Faraday's Law, flux change, N x , is proportional to the area under the curve of applied voltage vs. time, i.e. t2 N x = exdt t1 Applying a unit step voltage of amplitude E to a coil wound around a magnetic core material in which there is initially zero flux, will result in a linear increase of flux density with time to a point when the material begins to saturate. There exists, therefore, a maximum Et rating for each transformer which depends on the nature of the core material, its dimensions and the number of turns of the winding. The volt-second content of each half of a sine wave of amplitude Em is 2*E m /. The maximum sinusoidal voltage level that may be applied to the input winding of a transformer while avoiding saturation is given by

Figure 8. Single-ended generator EI, drives balanced Transmission Line via Balun T1.

coupling single-ended generator E l of source impedance Rs to a balanced long line, terminated in its characteristic impedance RO. The winding, serving the unbalanced side of the circuit, has, by definition, one of its terminals, designated LO, at ac ground, i.e. connected to system ground either by a direct short or by a by-pass capacitor of sufficiently low impedance at the signal frequencies of interest. The balanced winding, on the other hand, has both terminals floating with respect to ac ground. Its center tap, if one is brought out, would usually be at or near ac ground, i.e.
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ERMS = 2.22 x f x q

North HillsSignal Processing Corp.

6851 Jericho Turnpike Syosset, NY 11791

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connected to system ground either by a direct short or by a by-pass capacitor of sufficiently low impedance at the signal frequencies of interest. The balanced winding, on the other hand, has both terminals floating with respect to ac ground. Its center tap, if one is brought out, would usually be at or near ac ground potential, even if no direct or by-pass capacitance connection to ground exists. To assure this condition of balance, the winding configuration must be such as to provide equal magnetic coupling from each half of the balanced winding to the unbalanced one. In addition, the winding capacitances of the two halves of the balanced winding must be equal. The most important application of baluns is in transmission systems designed to discriminate against unwanted external fields and ground currents. In the truly balanced system, these common mode signals will induce equal currents in each leg of the balanced circuit and equal voltages from each side to ground. As a result, little or none of the common mode signal appears across the load terminals nor will the balanced signal generate common mode. The longitudinal balance of the transformer is a measure of its symmetry with respect to ground. Definitions and test methods may be found in CCITT Recommendations G.117 and O.9. ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS Isolation transformers are usually unbalanced to unbalanced with equal input and output impedances, i.e. one to one turns ratios. Their purpose is to discriminate against spurious voltages resulting from the flow of undesired currents between the LO sides of the source and a remote load. Figure 9 illustrates a condition which exists quite frequently when a signal is transmitted from location A to a remote location B via a coax cable. If the LOs of the transmitting and receiving apparatus are connected to the local power

termination R L at location B. Figure 10 shows two possible isolation transformer configurations. In 10a, we have a shunt connection which severs the short between the LOs and transmits the desired signal by transformer action. With this circuit very high values of EN can be accommodated. However, the low frequency transmission characteristic is compromised by the response limitations of the transformer.

Figure 10. Two Isolation Transformer Configurations.

In 10b, the two windings of the isolation transformer are connected in series in the signal circuit, the so-called humbucking configuration. With respect to the normal input signature, currents through the windings are equal and opposite, resulting in zero net flux at the signal frequency in the transformer core. However, the spurious power line frequency voltage EN, impressed across the LO winding, which would normally appear in the signal circuit, is now virtually cancelled by the voltage across the Hl winding due to transformer action. To assure undistorted signal transmission, the two transformer windings are designed to act as a transmission line of the proper characteristic impedance. The series connection has the advantage that its frequency response extends down to dc. However, an important drawback compared to the shunt configuration is the problem of core saturation when EN exceeds a few volts. The power line frequency ground potential differences in a given installation must, therefore, be determined to ascertain whether the series-connected transformer will perform satisfactorily. Bridging Transformers Bridging transformers are employed to feed signals from and into a transmission line bus which may be either balanced or unbalanced. Its major requirement is to do so with minimum loading of the line.
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Figure 9. Ground Loop current in Coax Transmission Line Circuit.

grounds as is often the case any potential difference, at the power line frequency, between these grounds (designated as EN) will generate a ground loop current IN in the coax shield. The resultant power line frequency drop, E N, will appear, in addition to the desired signal, across cable

North HillsSignal Processing Corp.

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The bridging transformer is different from other signal processing types in that it operates, at least in one direction, in an unmatched environment. Figure 11 illustrates the use of bridging transformers in the MIL STD-1553 data bus for military aircraft. The transformers are balanced to balanced with input impedances greater than 3,000 ohms over the frequency range 75 kHz to 1 MHz. Series resistors protect the bus against accidental transformer shorts.

TABLE3
VSWR, Return and Transmission versus Reflection Factor % 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11.0 11.2 11.4 VSWR Return Transm. Loss-dB Loss-dB 1.002 60.000 0.000004 1.004 53.979 0.000017 1.006 50.458 0.000039 1.008 47.959 0.000069 1.010 46.021 0.000108 1.012 44.437 0.000156 1.014 43.098 0.000213 1.016 41.938 0.000278 1.018 40.915 0.000352 1.020 40.000 0.000434 1.022 39.172 0.000526 1.024 38.416 0.000625 1.026 37.721 0.000734 1.028 37.077 0.000851 1.030 36.478 0.000977 1.033 35.918 0.001112 1.035 35.391 0.001255 1.037 34.895 0.001407 1.039 34.425 0.001568 1.041 33.979 0.001738 1.043 33.556 0.001916 1.045 33.152 0.002102 1.047 32.765 0.002298 1.049 32.396 0.002502 1.051 32.041 0.002715 1.053 31.701 0.002937 1.055 31.373 0.003167 1.058 31.057 0.003406 1.060 30.752 0.003654 1.062 30.458 0.003910 1.066 29.897 0.004449 1.070 29.370 0.005023 1.075 28.874 0.005632 1.079 28.404 0.006276 1.083 27.959 0.006954 1.088 27.535 0.007668 1.092 27.131 0.008416 1.096 26.745 0.009200 1.101 26.375 0.010018 1.105 26.021 0.010871 1.110 25.680 0.011759 1.114 25.352 0.012682 1.119 25.036 0.013641 1.123 24.731 0.014634 1.128 24.437 0.015663 1.132 24.152 0.016727 1.137 23.876 0.017825 1.141 23.609 0.018959 1.146 23.350 0.020128 1.151 23.098 0.021333 1.155 22.853 0.022572 1.160 22.615 0.023847 1.165 22.384 0.025158 1.169 22.158 0.026503 1.174 21.938 0.027884 1.179 21.724 0.029301 1.183 21.514 0.030752 1.188 21.310 0.032240 1.193 21.110 0.033763 1.198 20.915 0.035321 1.203 20.724 0.036915 1.208 20.537 0.038545 1.212 20.355 0.040210 1.217 20.175 0.041911 1.222 20.000 0.043648 1.227 19.828 0.045421 1.232 19.659 0.047229 1.237 19.494 0.049074 1.242 19.332 0.050954 1.247 19.172 0.052870 1.252 19.016 0.054822 1.257 18.862 0.056811 % 11.6 11.B 12.0 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.2 13.4 13.6 13.8 14.0 14.2 14.4 14.6 14.8 15.0 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16.0 16.2 16.4 16.6 16.8 17.0 17.2 17.4 17.6 17.8 18.0 18.2 18.4 18.6 18.8 19.0 19.2 19.4 19.6 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0 36.0 37.0 38.0 39.0 40.0 41.0 42.0 43.0 44.0 45.0 46.0 47.0 48.0 49.0 50.0 VSWR Return tRANSM. Loss-dB Loss-dB 1.262 18.711 0.058835 1.268 18.562 0.060896 1.273 18.416 0.062993 1.278 18.273 0.065126 1.283 18.132 0.067296 1.288 17.993 0.069502 1.294 17.856 0.071744 1.299 17.721 0.074023 1.304 17.589 0.076338 1.309 17.458 0.078690 1.315 17.329 0.081079 1.320 17.202 0.083505 1.326 17.077 0.085967 1.331 16.954 0.088466 1.336 16.833 0.091002 1.342 16.713 0.093575 1.347 16.595 0.096185 1.353 16.478 0.098832 1.358 16.363 0.101516 1.364 16.250 0.104238 1.370 16.138 0.106997 1.375 16.027 0.109793 1.381 15.918 0.112627 1.387 15.810 0.115498 1.392 15.703 0.118407 1.398 15.598 0.121354 1.404 15.494 0.124338 1.410 15.391 0.127360 1.415 15.289 0.130420 1.421 15.1$9 0.133519 1.427 15.090 0.136655 1.433 14.992 0.139829 1.439 14.895 0.143041 1.445 14.799 0.146292 1.451 14.704 0.149581 1.457 14.610 0.152909 1.463 14.517 0.156275 1.469 14.425 0.159680 1.475 14.334 0.163124 1.481 14.244 0.166606 1.488 14.155 0.170128 1.500 13.979 0.177288 1.532 13.556 0.195875 1.564 13.152 0.215456 1.597 12.765 0.236042 1.632 12.396 0.257647 1.667 12.041 0.280287 1.703 11.701 0.303977 1.740 11.373 0.328734 1.778 11.057 0.354575 1.817 10.752 0.381519 1.857 10.458 0.409586 1.899 10.173 0.438796 1.941 9.897 0.469172 1.985 9.630 0.500736 2.030 9.370 0.533513 2.077 9.119 0.567529 2.125 6.874 0.602811 2.175 8.636 0.639389 2.226 8.404 0.677292 2.279 8.179 0.716554 2.333 7.959 0.757207 2.390 7.744 0.799289 2.448 7.535 0.842837 2.509 7.331 0.887891 2.571 7.131 0.934495 2.636 6.936 0.982693 2.704 6.745 1.032530 2.774 6.558 1.084070 2.846 6.375 1.137350 2.922 6.196 1.192440 3.000 6.021 1.249390

Figure 11. Bridging Transformer across MIL-STD-1553 Data Bus.

TABLE 1 f/FL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 Transm. Droop Loss-dB % 3.010 1.761 1.249 0.969 0.792 0.669 0.580 0.512 0.458 0.414 0.348 91.72 65.58 48.05 37.37 30.42 25.60 22.07 19.39 17.28 15.58 13.02 f/FL 14 15 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Table 2 Transm. Loss-dB 0.300 0.280 0.263 0.235 0.212 0.170 0.142 0.122 0.107 0.095 0.086 Droop % 11.17 10.43 9.79 8.70 7.84 6.27 5.23 4.48 3.92 3.49 3.15

Normalized Element Values for High-Frequency Response

Response Butterworth Chebyshev 0.01 dB Ripple 0.1 dB Ripple

(Maximally flat delay)

Cp 1 1.181 1.433 0.337 0.433

LL 2 1.821 1.594 0.971 1.043

n 2C s 1 1.181 1.433 2.203 2.254

Bessel

Linear Phase
(.05 error)

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North HillsSignal Processing Corp.

6851 Jericho Turnpike Syosset, NY 11791

Phone: 516-682-7700 Fax: 516-682-7704

A Leading Provider of Measurement and Connectivity Solutions www.northhills-sp.com

NH-WB-APP-151