DESIGN OF JOINTS Bolted Connections Introduction

In a steel structure there are different types of structural members. Each member has to be properly attached to the adjacent parts of the structure. This attachment is achieved using a joint or connection. There are different types of connections. For example in a steel frame buildings the main classes of connection are (1) Connection where a change of direction occurs, e.g. beam-to-column connections, beam-to-beam connections and connections between different members in trusses (2) Connection which ensure manageable sizes of steel members for transportation and erection e.g. columns are normally spliced every two or three storeys.(3) Connections provided where there is a change of component e.g. column bases, and connections beams or columns with walls, floors and roofs. Figure 1 shows the different types of connections in steel frame buildings.

Figure 1 Connections in Multi-storey Frame Difference between joints and connections as per EC3-1-8 Though connection and joints are regarded as the same, EC3-1-8 defines them slightly differently as follows. A connection is the location at which two or more elements meet. For design purposes it is the assembly of the basic components required to represent the behaviour during the transfer of relevant internal forces and moments at the connection. The joint is the zone where two or more members are connected. Example: A beam to column joint consists of a web panel and either one connection (single sided joint configuration) or two connections (double sided joint configuration).

General requirements of a joint: Clause 2.2 (1) of EC3-1-8 states that all joints shall have design resistance such that the structure satisfies all the design requirements of EC3-1-8 and EC3-1-1. The general recommended partial safety factors and values recommended by UK NAD M to be used in the design are given in Table 1. Table 1 Recommended partial safety factors for joints Partial factor General UK NAD value value 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.25

Type Resistance of members and cross sections

Symbols

Resistance of bolts Resistance of rivets Resistance of welds Resistance of plates in bearing Slip resistance at the ultimate limit state (category C) Slip resistance at the serviceability limit state (category B) Bearing resistance of an injection bolt Resistance of joints in hollow section lattice girder Preload of high strength bolts Resistance of concrete

M0 M1 M2 M2

M3
M 3, ser

1.25

1.1

M4
M5 M7 c

1.0 1.0

1.1

The design of joints subject to fatigue is dealt in EN 1993-1-9. The forces and moments acting on a joint at the ultimate limit state is to be determined using the principles of EC3-1-1. Requirements of a connection The principal structural requirement of a connection is that it be capable of safely transferring load from the supported members to the supporting member. This implies that three properties of the connection need to be considered: strength, stiffness, deformation capacity. Beam-to-column connections can be classified by their stiffness

as nominally pinned, semi-rigid or rigid. For their capability to transfer moments, they can be classified as nominally pinned, partial-strength and full-strength connections. The analysis of connections implies the assumption of a realistic internal distribution of forces that are in equilibrium with the external forces, where each element is capable of transferring the assumed force and the deformations are within the deformation capacity of the elements (Clause 2.5 EC3-1-8). In the analysis of connections, a number of basic load transfers mechanisms can generally be identified. Bolting and welding are the main methods for making structural steel connections. Riveting is not used nowadays. The advantages of bolted connections are very rapid field erection requiring less labour. Even though the cost of high strength bolt is several times that of a rivet; its overall cost is much lesser than that of a riveted connection due to reduced labour, equipment cost and lower number of bolts required to carry the same load. The principles of design using EC3 are basically same as that by BS 5950. The results of design are seen to be slightly more conservative in EC3 compared to BS 5950 largely because of the larger material safety factor for connection, M=1.25. Clause 2.6 recommends the type of joints to be used for a joint loaded in shear and subject to impact, vibration or load reversal. For a joint in shear subject to impact or significant vibration, welding, bolts with locking devices, preloaded bolts, injection bolts, rivets or other types of bolt which prevent movement of the connected parts should be used. Slip is not acceptable for joints subject to reversal of shear load. In this case, preloaded bolts in category B or C connections, fit bolts, rivets or welding is to be used. For connections for wind and stability bracings, bolts in category A connections are to be used. Effect of joint eccentricity: Clause 2.7 gives guidance on how the effect of joint eccentricity is considered in different types of structures. Joints and members should be designed for resulting moments and forces due to eccentricity at the joints. The effect of joint eccentricity can be neglected where it can be shown that it is not necessary to consider the joint eccentricity. For example clause 5.1.5 states that the distribution of axial forces in a lattice girder is determined on the assumption of pinned joints. For more details clause 5.1.5 should be referred. In the case of joints of angles or tees attached by a single line of bolts or two line of bolts, eccentricity should be considered. This is done by considering the relative positions of the centroidal axis of the member and the setting out lines of the bolts in the plane of the connection. For single angle in tension connected by bolts on one leg the simplified design procedure provided in clause 3.10.3 can be used. For design of angles used as web members in compression in triangulated and lattice structures, the effect of eccentricity is neglected and effect of end fixities considered by calculating an effective slenderness ratio. Connections with bolts, rivets and pins

Two types/classes of bolts are provided for use by EC3-1-8:2005 in Table 3.1 namely ordinary bolts and high strength bolts. The rules in EC3-1-8 are valid for 7 bolt classes 4.6, 4.8, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9. Ordinary bolts or ordinary grade bolts are put in bolt classes 4.6, 4.8, 5.6, 5.8 and 6.8 whereas High strength grip bolts or high strength bolts are put in classes 8.8and 10.9. They can be used for preloaded bolts which are characterized by a slip-type resistance in shear. EC3-1-8 provides the yield strength fyb and fub for the bolts classes which may be used as characteristic values in design (Table 2). Table 2 Bolt class and corresponding yield strength and ultimate tensile strength class N/mm2 N/mm2 4.6 240 400 4.8 320 400 5.6 300 500 5.8 400 500 6.8 480 600 8.8 640 800 10.9 900 1000

f yb f ub

Nominal diameters of bolts is given in mm. Bolts are designated as M12, M16, M20, M22, M24, M27, M30 etc where 12, 16, etc are diameters in mm (Table 3). Bolt holes are made by drilling or punching. Bolt holes are usually drilled. Punching may be full size or sometimes the holes are punched under size and then reamed to the required size. Using gas cutting for forming holes is not recommended since it is inaccurate and the heat may affect the local properties of steel. Punching of holes saves time and is less costly but results in distortion near the holes which causes reduced toughness and ductility leading to brittle fracture. Bolt holes are larger than the bolt diameter to take care of drilling tolerances. The drilling tolerances are given in EN 1090-2 Requirements for the execution of steel structures and is summarised in Table 3: Table 3 Drilling tolerances for bolt holes bolt diameter in mm Nominal clearance 12, 13 1 mm 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 2 mm 27, 30 3 mm

Nominal SIZE M12,M14 M16 to M24 M27 , M30 and above

The minimum and maximum spacing and end and edge distances for bolts are provided in table 3.3 of EC 3-1-8 (Table 4) and Figure 2. For maximum values, structures made from steels conforming to EN 10025 and not EN 10025-5 and structures conforming to EN 10025-5 are identified. In the former category, guidelines for steel are exposed to weather and corrosive influences or not are provided. For the latter, generally steel used is unprotected. Unlike BS 5950, EC3 has assumed that plates are machine cut. In the table, d0 is the hole diameter and t is the thickness of the thinner outer connected plate. The requirements for structures subject to fatigue are different and are provided in EC31-9 Design of Steel Structures: Fatigue. In the table 4 for more details of the terms e3 ,

e4 and other terms, reference to Figure 3.1 of the code is to be made.

Table 4 Minimum and maximum spacing, end and edge distances Distances and spacing Minimum Maximum Conform to EN 10025

Conform EN 10025-5 The larger of 8t or 125 mm

End distance

e1
Edge distance

1 .2 d 0

4t + 40mm

e2
Distances e3 in slotted holes Distances e4 in slotted holes Spacing p1

1 .5 d 0

2 .2 d 0

The smaller of

14t or 200mm

The smaller of 14t or 200mm

The larger of

14t min or 175

mm

Spacing p1, 0 Spacing p1,i Spacing The smaller of 28t or 400mm The smaller of 14t or 200mm

p2

2 .4 d 0

The smaller of 14t or 200mm

The larger of 14t min or 175 mm

Figure 7.2Symbols for spacing of fasteners (excerpted from EC 3-3-8) Design Resistance of Individual Fasteners The design resistance of individual fasteners subject to shear and or tension is given in Table 3.4 of EC3-1-8. Some important aspects are discussed below. The design shear resistance Fv , Rd is to be used where the bolts are used in holes with nominal clearances not exceeding those for normal holes given in Table 3. M12 and M14 bolts may also be used in 2 mm clearance holes provided that the design resistance of the bolt group based on bearing is greater or equal to the design resistance of the bolt group based on bolt shear. The code also states that in addition for class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and

10.9 bolts the shear resistance Fv , Rd is taken as 0.85 times the value obtained using Table 3.4. Clause 3.6.1 (10) states that in single lap joint with only one bolt row, the bolts are to be provided washers under both the head and the nut. The expression for design bearing resistance Fb , Rd for each bolt is limited to

Fb , Rd

1.5 f u dt

M2

Also the code cautions from using single bolts in single lap joints. Types of bolted/ riveted joints based on geometry Bolted or riveted joints may be classified as lap joint and butt joint. When two members are overlapped and connected, the joint is called as a lap joint (Figure 3a). Figure 3b shows a single bolted lap joint and figure 3c shows a double bolted lap joint. Figure 3d shows how the centre of gravity of loads in the two members are not in one line. This produces a couple which causes undesirable bending moments in the joint. To minimise this atleast two rows of bolts must be provided.

(a) 3D view of single riveted lap joint

(b) Top view and sectional elevation of single riveted lap joint

(c) Top view and sectional elevation of double riveted lap joint

(d) Eccentricity of loads in lap joint

(e)

Rivet in single shear in a lap joint Figure 3 Bolted Lap Joint

(f)

When two members are placed end to end and connected using cover plates, it is called a butt joint. When plate is provided on one side only, it is called single cover butt joint (Figure 4a). If the cover plates are provided on both sides, it is called double cover butt joint (Figure 4d). Figure 7.4b shows single bolted single cover butt joint. Figure 4c shows double bolted single cover butt joint. Figure 4e shows single bolted double cover butt joint. Figure 4f shows double bolted double cover butt joint.

(a) Single cover butt joint

(b) Single bolted single cover butt joint

(c) Double bolted single cover butt joint

(d) Double cover butt joint

(e) Single bolted double cover butt joint

(f) Double bolted double cover butt joint

(g)

(h) Bolt in double shear in butt joint Figure 4 Double cover butt joints

Double cover butt joints are preferred due to two reasons. The shear force transmitted by the members acts on two planes whereas in lap joint it acts on only one plane. Therefore the shear carrying capacity in double cover butt joint is twice that in a lap joint. Also in double cover butt joint, there is no eccentricity of force and thus bending is eliminated.

Clause 3.6.1 (12) gives reduction factors to be used when packing plates are used bolted joints.

Types of joints based on force transfer Simple joints can be classified based on the nature of force transfer as follows Direct shear joints Direct tension joints Eccentric connections: There are two principal types of eccentric loaded connections namely: Bolt group in direct shear and torsion Bolt group in shear and tension These are explained below. Direct shear joints In direct shear joints, the bolts are arranged to act in single or double shear. A bolt may be considered as a simple pin inserted in holes drilled in two or more steel plates or sections to prevent relative movement. Figure 5 shows a joint in which the bolt is in single shear.

Figure 7.5

Shearing strength If the loads are large enough, the bolt may fail by shearing as shown in Figure 6:

Figure 6 The area resisting this failure is the circular area of the bolt shank. The shear resistance per plane is calculated using equation given in table 3.4 of BS EN 1993 -1-8:

 v f ub A M2 where the value of v is given in table 5

Fv, Rd =
Table 5 Condition When the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt (A is the tensile area of the bolt) Value of

When the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the bolt (A is the gross cross section of the bolt)

For classes 4.6, 5.6, 8.8 v =0.6 For classes 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 v =0.5 v =0.6

The shear type of failure assumes that fairly thick plates are used. Where it can be shown that the threads do not occur in the shear plane As may be taken as the shank area, A. These areas are based on BS 3692:2001 and BS 4190:2001. Table 6 shows the gross areas and tensile areas of standard diameter bolts. Table 6 Gross area Tensile stress area mm2 At mm2 50 36 78 58 113 84 201 157 254 192 314 245 380 303 452 353 573 459 707 561 1017 817

Bolt diameter mm 8 10 12 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 36

Bearing strength When relatively large diameter bolts are used to connect two thin steel plates, then failure will take place by tearing of plates by bolt. This type of failure is known as bearing failure. The area of contact of bolt with the plates on one side is actually semi-cylindrical (figure 8), but since the variation of stress around the perimeter of hole is indeterminate, the strength of bolt in bearing is determined using equation in table 3.4 of EC3 -1-8

Fb , Rd =
Where a b is the smallest of

k1 ab f u dt

M2

d ;

f ub or 1.0. fu

b is

evaluated in the direction of load transfer for end bolts and inner bolts using

following expressions.

e1 3d 0 p1 1 For inner bolts: d = 3d 0 4 k1 is evaluated perpendicular to the direction of load transfer separately for edge bolts
For end bolts:

d =

and inner bolts by expressions:

e2 1.7 or 2.5 d0 p2 1.7 or 2.5 For inner bolts: k1 is the smallest of 1.4 d0
For edge bolts:

k1 is the smallest of 2.8

Note that the value of k1 depends on the end distance and the value of b depends on edge distances. The value of fu is the lesser of the bolt grade or the adjacent plate grade.

Figure 7 When the plates are pulled, the left plate moves to left, causing the bolt to press against the plate as shown. Similarly for right plate.

Figure 8

Where thicknesses of plates connected are not equal, the thickness of the thinner plate is used. Principal provisions of positioning of holes for bolts is given in section 3.5 of BSEN 1993-1-8:2005 A shear joint can fail in 5 modes namely (1) Mode 1: by shear on the bolt shank (2) Mode 2: By bearing on the member or bolt (3) Mode 3: By shear at the end of the member (4) Mode 4: By tension in the member and (5) Mode 5: By block shear. Failure in shear joints for the different modes can be prevented by the following methods. Mode 1 and 2 failure can be prevented by providing sufficient number of bolts of suitable diameter. Failure by mode 3 can be prevented by providing sufficient end distance. Mode 4 failure can be prevented by design tension members for its effective area. Mode 5 failure is observed in a shear joint involving a group of bolts as shown in figure 9. To prevent such failure check the effective shear area as per the code provisions. Design for block tearing/ block shear Block tearing or block shear is a potential failure mode in bolted connections for tension members, coped beams and gusset plates. Typically this failure mode is characterised by tearing out of a block of steel with a combination of tension and shear failures through the bolt holes. Clause 3.10.2 provides the guidelines for design for block tearing. Block tearing consists of failure in shear at the row of bolts along the shear face of the hole group accompanied by tensile rupture along the line of bolt holes on the tension face of the bolt group. Figure 9 shows different cases of block tearing gusset plates (Figure 9d and e), beam web shear connections with and without coped I-beams(Figure 9a,b and c) and angles connected by one leg(Figure 9f). Figure 7.9a,b and c shows bolt group subject to eccentric loading. The design block shearing resistance Veff , 2 , Rd is given by

Veff , 2, Rd =

05 f u Ant

M2

1 f y Anv 3 M0

Figure 7.9d and e shows symmetric bolt group subject to concentric loading. The design block shearing resistance Veff ,1, Rd is given by

Veff ,1, Rd =

f u Ant

M2

1 f y Anv 3 M0

Note that in the above expressions, for tension rupture net area is taken whereas for shear yielding the gross area is used.

(a) I-beam with no coping

(b) I-beam with single coping

(c) I-beam with double coping

(d) Plate under concentric loading

(e) Plate under concentric loading (f) Angle section Figure 9 Block tearing Direct Tension joints The code has two categories for connections loaded in tension as per clause 3.4.2 BS EN 1993-1-8: Category D: Non preloaded: (clause 3.4.2(1) a) Bolt classes 4.6 to 10.9 should be used. No preloading is required. Where connections are subject to variations in tensile loading, this type of connection is not to be used. However, they can be used in connections subject to normal wind loads.

Category E: Preloaded: (clause 3.4.2(1) b) Bolt classes 8.8 and 10.9 are used with controlled tightening as per reference Standards 1.2.7: Group & to be applied. The design tension resistance is given by the expression:

Where Table 3.2 provides the design checks to be carried out for tension connections. The design punching shear resistance is given in Table 3.4:

M2 k 2 =0.63 for countersunk bolt; otherwise k 2 =0.9

Ft , Rd =

k 2 f ub As

B p , Rd =

0.6d m t p f u

M2

Figure 10 Eccentric connections There are two principal types of eccentric loaded connections namely: Bolt group in direct shear and torsion Bolt group in shear and tension Bolt group in direct shear and torsion Case 1:

Figure 11 shows a bracket subject to a load P at a distance e from the centroid of the bracket connection. The bolt group is subject two actions namely a direct shearing action as well as a moment.

Figure 7.11

Pb =

P e z1
noofbolts

z
n =1

Direct shearing action: Figure 12 shows the effect of the direct shearing action. The effect of the action on each bolt is determined by the equation:

PDS =

P n

Figure 12