MATHEMATICAL PROOFS

Existence
Prove is irrational
Definition: A number p is rational if p=m/n, where m,n Z and n0. Proof by contradiction: Assume that is rational, then =m/n where m,n Z and n0. We may assume (p,q)=1. Then 2 2 =m/n implies that 2 = m /n and 2n2=m2 hence n2=m2/2. But n2 Z since n Z. Then 2|m2hence 2|m that is since 2 is prime. It follows that if m is prime m=2 and m2=22. It follows that since n Z, then similarly n must be prime since n|m and n2|m2. It contradicts that |ab n|a or m|b Hence m=2k for some k Z, then k2 Z Since 4k2=m2, itfollows that 2|k and 2|m and n is even which contradicts (m,n)=1.

Prove

is irrational.

Definition: A number p is rational if p=m/n, where m,n Z and n0. Proof by contradiction: Assume that is rational, then =m/n where m,n Z and n0. Assume (m,n)=1. Since =m/n and it follows that 6=m2/n2 and m2/n2 Z and then 6n2=m2 and since n2|m and n|n2 then n|m and it contradicts (m,n)=1, is irrational. Prove pq (are distinct primes then is irrational.

Prove

is irrational.

Definition: A number p is rational if p=m/n, where m,n Z and n0. Proof by contradiction: Assume that is rational, then =m/n where m,n Z and n0. We may assume (p,q)=1. Then 2 2 =m/n implies that 2 = m /n and 2n2=m2 hence n2=m2/2. But n2 Z since n Z. Then 2|m2hence 2|m that is since 2 is prime. If m is prime m|ab n|a or m|b Hence m=2k for some k Z, then k2 Z Since 4k2=m2, itfollows that 2|k and 2|m and n is even which contradicts (m,n)=1. The number, , is irrational, ie., it cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers a and b. To prove that this statement is true, let us assume that is rational so that we may write = a/b for a and b Z. no two such integers can be found such that 3 = a /b or that 3b = a . If b is 2 2 2 2 odd, then b is odd; in this case, a and a are also odd. Similarly, if b is even, then b , a , and a are even. Since any choice of even values of a and b leads to a ratio a/b that can be reduced by canceling a common factor of 2, we must assume that a and b are odd, and that the ratio a/b is already reduced to smallest possible terms. With a and b both odd, we may write a = 2m + 1 and b=2n+1such that 3(4n + 4n + 1) = 4m + 4m + 1. It follows that 6n + 6n + 1 = 2(m + m) and obviously an odd interger can not equal an even one.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

There exists an a number.

and b an irrational number with ab as a rational

let b = 2, an irrational number then let a^2 = 2 therefore, a=2^(1/2) = 2^2 If 2^2 is irrational, then we are done. If 2^2 is rational, then let a=2 and b=2 and we are done, since 2^2 is rational. (It just so happens that 2^2 is irrational, but we dont need to prove that to prove the conjecture.)

CHAPTER 6: MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Well Ordering Principle: Assume A is not empty. Any subset A Ncontains at least one element Theorem (Principal of Mathematical Induction): For each n N, let P(n) be a statement. Suppose. 1. P(1) is true 2. If P(k) is true, then P(k+1) is true. 3. Then P(n) is true for all n N P(n): 1+2++n=(n(n+1))/2 P(1): 1=(1(1+1))/2 P(k): 1+2++k=(k(k+1))/2 P(k+1): 1+2++k+(k+1)=((k+1)(k+1+1))/2 Thus by the theorem, P(n) is true for all n. Proof: For n=1 then 1=1=(1(1+1))/2. It follows that P(1) is true. Suppose P(k) is true. Then 1+2++k=(k(k+1))/2 and 1+2++k+(k+1)=((k+1)(k+1+1))/2. Hence P(k+1) is true and by induction P(n) is true. 6.1 Exercises 1. Well-ordered sets. a. S={x Q: x>-10} is not well ordered b. S={-2,-1,0,1,2} is a well ordered set b/c the set contains a least element or a minimum. c. S={p:p is prime}={2,3,5,7,11} is a well ordered set. 2. If A is any well-ordered set of real numbers and B equals a nonempty set and B is a subset of A then B is also well-ordered. a. Proof: Assume A is a well-ordered set. It follows by Theorem 6.1 that A contains at least one least element. Since B belongs to A and B is a nonempty set and by definition since A is well ordered, then B contains a least element. Now choose an arbitrary set C a nonempty set belongs to B. The transitive property allows us to say that C belongs to A. Once again, by definition since A is a well ordered set whose subsets contain a least element. Since C has a least element, B is a well-ordered set. 3. Prove that every nonempty set of negative intergers has a largest element. a. Proof: Assume A is a nonempty set of negative intergers. b. 4. Prove that 1+3+5+.+(2n-1)=n2 for every positive interger n. 5. Use mathematical inductionto prove that 1+5+9++(4n-3)=2n2-n for every positive integer n a. n=k+1, then 1+3+5++(2(k+1)-1)=(k+1)2=[1+3+5++2k+1]+[2k+2-1]=[k2]+[2k+1]= (k+1)2 6. Induction

a. We have seen that 12+22+.n2 is the number in an nxn square composed of n21x1 squares. What does 13+23++n3 represent geometrically. i. Let 12+22+.n2= n21x1 And let n=1, then 1=(1)1x1=1 ii. Let n=k, then 12+22+.k2 is the number in an nxn square composed of k21x1. iii. Since 13+23++n3 =[n2(n+1)2/4] Now assume for n=k+1 and we show that iv. 13+23++(k+1)3=[(k+1)3(k+2)2]/4, so observe that v. 13+23++(k+1)3=[13+23++k3]+[ (k+1)3]= [k2(k+1)2/4] ]+[ (k+1)3]= vi. =[(k+1)3(k+2)2]/4 for every positive interger n.

Section 6.4 The Strong Principle of Mathematical Induction

The Principle of Mathematical Induction asserts that P(k) being true implies P(k+1) is true. However, sometimes we need to look further back than 1 step to obtain P(k+1). Thats where the Strong Form of Mathematical Induction comes in useful. Let P(n) be a predicate defined for integers n; a and b be fixed integers with ab. Suppose the following statements are true: 1. P(a), P(a+1), , P(b) are all true 2. For any integer k>b, (inductive step) (basis step)

if P(i) is true for all integers i with ai<k, then P(k) is true.

Then P(n) is true for all integers na.

6.4 Exercises 42. A sequence {an} is defined recursively by a1=1,a2=4, a3=9 and an=an-1-an-2+an-3+ 2(2n-3) for n4. Conjecture a formula for an and prove that your conjecture is correct. Assume P(a)=a2 is true. For any interger k4, P(i)=i2 is also true with 4i<k s.t. P(k) is also true. Let P(k+1)=(k+1)2, then P(k+1) should also equal (k+1)2=(k)2-(k-1)2+(k-2)2+2(2(k+1)-3)=k2+2k-1-4k+4+4k2=k2+2k+1=(k+1)2. It follows that the conjecture is true. 44. Consider the sequence F1,F2,F3where F1=1,F2=1,F3=2, F4=3,F5=5,F6=8. The terms of this sequence are called Fibonacci numbers. (a) Define the sequence of Fibonacci numbers by means of a recurrence relation an=an-1+an-2 xn = xn-1 + xn-2 (b) Prove that 2|Fn 3|n. 45. Use the strong principle of mathematical induction to prove that for each interger n 12, there are nonnegative integers a and b s.t.n=3a+7b. 49. Prove that 4n>n3 for every positive interger n.

Midterm
1. Direct proof 2. Indirect proof a. Contradiction b. Contrapostitve 3. Induction 4. Problems a. 6.1, 6.2, 6.5, 6.6 Section 8.1 Relations 1. Let A={a,b,c} and B={r,s,t,u}. Furthermore, let R={(a,s),(a,t),(b,t)} be a relation from A to B. Determine dom(R) and range (R). a. Since by definition the domain would be in the first part of R and the range in the 2 nd ( ) ( ) part of R. The dom(R)={a ( ) ( ) . The ran(R)= R)={s ( ) ( ) . 2. Let A be a nonempty set and BP(A). Define a relation R from A to B by x R Y if x Give an example of two sets A and B that illustrate this. What is R for these two sets? 3. Let A={0,1}. Determine all the relations on A. 4. Let A={a,b,c} and B={1,2,3,4}. Then R1={(a,2), (a,3),(b,1),(b,3),(c,4)} is a relation from A to B, while R2={(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(3,c),(4,a),(4,c)} is a relation from B to A. A relation R is defined on A by x R y if there exists z 1z zR2y. Express R by listing its elements. 5.