LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 949957

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Aroma and physical characteristics of cakes prepared by replacing margarine with extra virgin olive oil
Anthia Matsakidou, Georgios Blekas, Adamantini Paraskevopoulou
abstract
The effect of margarine substitution by extra virgin olive oil on the quality of Madeira cakes was studied. Three cakes containing either extra virgin olive oil or extra virgin olive oil/margarine mixture or margarine were prepared. The use of extra virgin olive oil increased batter density and cake volume while decreased the weight loss (%) during baking. Texture profile analysis also showed that the replacement of margarine by extra virgin olive oil affected significantly hardness and cohesiveness of the cakes. Headspace solid phase microextraction was applied in order to analyze the aroma of the three cakes. The addition of extra virgin olive oil produced a wide range of volatile compounds, which were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and were originated either from extra virgin olive oil or were produced during the baking process. Hedonic sensory tests were also conducted revealing that the cake prepared with extra virgin olive oil/margarine mixture was highly appreciated by the consumers as it got scores similar to control. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece

article info
Article history: Received 7 January 2009 Received in revised form 12 January 2010 Accepted 2 February 2010 Keywords: Cake Extra virgin olive oil Margarine Texture Volatile compounds SPME Sensory evaluation

changes in some Paraskevopoulou

key

aroma

compounds

took

place,

while

1. Introduction
Bakery products constitute one of the most consumed foods in the world. Among them, cakes are particularly popular and asso-ciated in the consumers mind with a delicious product with particular organoleptic characteristics. Fat, sugar, egg and flour are the principal ingredients used in making a cake and each plays an important functional role in the structure and eating quality of the product ( Conforti, 2006; Shepherd & Yoell, 1976). More specifically, a cake batter represents a complex emulsion and foam system which is processed by being heat set. The baking of cakes leads to a light, aerated structure as well as to the formation of a great amount of volatile compounds, which play a major role in devel-oping their typical flavour. These compounds are mainly the result of the Maillard reaction, which occurs between reducing sugars and the -NH 2 function of amino acids, peptides and proteins. The selection of raw materials as well as alteration of the making process can modify cake structure and aroma composition. For example, Pozo-Bayon, Ruz-Rodrguez, Pernin, and Cayot (2007) have reported that changing the formula of a sponge cake by substituting eggs with a leavening agent, important

*Corresponding author. Tel.: 30 2 31 0997832; fax: 30 2 31 0997779. Email address: adparask@chem.auth.gr (A. Paraskevopoulou).

and Kiosseoglou (1997) observed that cakes prepared with low cholesterol egg yolk concentrates had harder textures compared to control ones. Gomez, Oliete, Rosell, Pando, and Fernandez (2008) found out that replacement of wheat flour by chickpea flour affected the quality characteristics of two kinds of cake. Other researchers also noticed an influence of hydrocolloids addition on cake quality ( Gomez, Ronda, Caballero, Blanco, & Rosell, 2007; Sahi & Alava, 2003). Dogan, Javidipour, and Akan (2007) used inter-esterified palm and cottonseed oil blends instead of hydrogenated cake shortenings in order to prepare layer cakes with characteris-tics close to the standard but with reduced trans fatty acid content, while Hartnett and Thalheimer

(1979) evaluated cakes containing soy oil in combination with commercial hydrated emulsifier systems. Yellow cakes made from commercial cake mix with various types and levels of soybean or safflower oil were judged equal in appearance, moistness, flavour and overall preference ( Berglund & Hertsgaard, 1986).
Cakes typically contain 1525% fat on a batter weight basis. Fat in cake is usually derived from shortening, which assists in the entrapment of air bubbles into the cake batter during mixing and helps to leaven the product ( Berglund & Hertsgaard, 1986; Khalil , 1998). In addition, shortening tenderizes the crumb, imparts moistness to the product and enhances mouthfeel ( Conforti, 2006; Khalil, 1998). Cake shortenings are usually formulated from blends of processed oils and fats, which may be derived from vegetable, marine or animal sources ( Shepherd & Yoell, 1976). Oils are

0023-6438/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.02.002

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primarily refined and may also undergo a partial hydrogenation before being processed. On the other hand consumers, because of diet and health concerns, have been advised to eat healthier. Within this framework, in this study, fat in Madeira-type cakes was replaced partially or totally with extra virgin olive oil. Extra virgin olive oil is the oil extracted from the fruit of the olive tree, Olea europea L. It comprises a key element in the daily diet of a large part of the Mediterranean population while its increasing consumption in other countries has been linked with a reduced incidence of coronary heart disease and low blood pressure levels. Contrary to other vegetable oils, extra virgin olive oil, produced by mechanical processes only (EC 2568/91), can be directly consumed without any further treatment. The absence of refining processes helps extra virgin olive oil to preserve its delicate aroma and nutritional properties that distinguish it from other edible oils ( Boskou, Blekas, & Tsimidou, 2006). The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of margarine substitution by extra virgin olive oil on the overall perceived flavour and texture of Madeira-type cakes. For that purpose, both instrumental and sensory analyses were carried out. Batter density, water loss during baking and cake volume was measured while texture profile analysis of the baked cakes was also carried out to assess product quality features. The volatile compound composition as well a screen of the odour active compounds was followed both in the crumb and crust of the cake matrices by means of headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) technique coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrom-etry (GC/MS) analysis and gas chromatography/olfactometry (GCO), respectively. A hedonic sensory test of appearance, odour, taste, texture and overall liking was also performed.

meq O2/kg of oil, K232 1.70 and K270 0.16).

Table 1 Cake formulations. Ingredients (g/100 g batter)

Cake batter prepared with Margari Margarine-extra ne virgin olive oil mixture

Extra virgin olive oil 17 .5 7. 5 2 5 2 5 2 5

Extra virgin olive oil Margarine Water Sugar Whole egg Self-rising wheat flour
a b b a

25 25 25 25

8.75 12.5 3.75 25 25 25

Water content 30% (w/w);

Leavening agents in the flour: sodium hydrogen carbonate and disodium dihydrogen pyrophosphate

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Madeira cake preparation 2.1.1. Batter preparation Cake flour, sugar, extra virgin olive oil, margarine and fresh whole eggs were purchased from the local market. Madeira cake batters were prepared according to the formulas listed in Table 1. Fat, water and sugar were first whipped for 7 min at 500 rpm in a household electric mixer (25 C) and the rest of the ingredients were then incorporated under constant mixing for 4 min. All ingredients had been previously equilibrated to room temperature for 30 min. In order to prepare the whole egg sample, three eggs were broken in a bowl; their yolks were pierced and mixed gently with the whites until a homogeneous mixture was obtained. The olive oil used for cake preparation was analyzed and found to pertain to the extra virgin commercial class according to the EU Regulations (EC 2568/91; EC 1513/2001; EC 796/2002) (acidity 0.48%, peroxide value 9.05
_

2.1.2. Baking conditions Three hundred and fifty grams (350 g) of cake batter were prepared and divided into 5 portions of 70 g each. These were placed in an aluminium-baking pan (5.5 cm _ 4 cm) and baked all at a time in a household electric oven at 180 _ C for 35 min. During baking each pan was _ rotated twice by 180 (after 15 and 22 min). Four cakes from the same batter were used for volume and texture measurements and one for volatile analysis. 2.1.3. Storage conditions After baking, the cakes were removed from the pans and left to cool at room temperature for 30 min. For texture and sensory evaluation, cake samples were wrapped in transparent film to prevent drying and stored at room temperature for 24 h. For volatile analysis, crust was very carefully separated from the crumb by using a kitchen knife in order to ensure that the crust crumb ratio would be rather constant throughout the experiments. Both of them were separately ground in a mill under cryogenic conditions with liquid nitrogen and stored at _20 C until analysis.
_

2.2.3. Baking loss Baking loss was determined by weighing cakes after 24 h. 2.2.4. Cake volume The cake volume was assessed from the cross sectional area in the middle of the slab ( Paraskevopoulou & Kiosseoglou, 1997). 2.2.5. Texture profile analysis Cylindrical cake crumb samples (2.2 cm diameter _ 2 cm height) were subjected to a double compression test (50% compression) at a constant speed of 1 mm/s at 20 C using the TAXT2i texture analyser (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 100 mm-diameter Aluminium plate. Texture parameters (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness) were calculated from force-time curves generated for each sample.
_

2.2. Physical measurements 2.2.1. Batter density Density of cake batter was expressed as the ratio between the weight of batter to the weight of the same volume of distilled water. 2.2.2. Batter microscopy A drop of each, freshly prepared, cake batter was placed between two cover slips on a microscope glass slide and the sample was then observed at a magnification of 100_ using a microscope (Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). Photographs were taken with the aid of a digital Canon camera.

2.3. Identification of SPME-extracted volatiles by GCMS 2.3.1. Chemicals Standards, employed for compounds identification (acetalde-hyde _99.5%; 2,3butanodione _97%; hexanal _99%; (E)-2-hexenal _97%; 1-hexanol _99%; (E)-2-hexenol _99%; (Z)2-hexenol _98%; (Z)-3-hexenol _99%; limonene _99.0%; 1-octanol _97%), were from Fluka (Munich, Germany) except 1-pentanol (_99.9%), 2-heptanone (_99.0%), 2-octanone (_99.0%) and 2-nonanone (_99.6%), which were purchased from Polyscience (Niles, USA). Absolute ethanol was purchased from Riedel-de Haen (Seelze, Germany).

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assessed by two assessors, who sniffed the cakes four times. The assessors traced the time when they 2.3.2. HS-SPME For SPME analysis, 1 g of cake powder was detected the odour during the GCO run. placed into a 15 mL vial. A magnetic stirring bar was also added into the vial, which was then immediately 2.4. Sensory evaluation sealed with a Teflon-lined septum and screw cap. A minimum time of 60 min was determined for An untrained panel of 6 males and 14 females, equilibration, during which the samples were whose age ranged from 24 to 55, conducted hedonic _ incubated at 60 C. After equili-bration, the sensory tests. Panellists were members of the staff headspace of the samples was sampled using an and postgraduate students from our labora-tory. In SPME fibre coated with DVB/CAR/PDMS order for the panellists to become familiar with this (divinylbenzene/carboxen/poly-dimethylsiloxane, type of test, a series of preliminary trials took place thickness 50/30 mm). The fibre was manually exposed to the sample headspace for 60 min as during which the panellists were advised how to preliminary experiments displayed that a evaluate cake characteristics. DVB/CAR/PDMS fibre associated with a time of 60 min and a temperature of 60 C allowed obtaining the most representative cake odorant extracts. During the extraction process, the sample was continuously shaken with the magnetic stirring bar. Finally, the fibre was withdrawn into the needle holder and immediately introduced into the GC injection port, containing a 0.75 mm-i.d. liner (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA), at 250 C for 6 min. During the first 4 min of desorption the purge was off, and the last 2 min, with purge on, the fibre was further cleaned. Full desorption of the fibre was confirmed. All samples were analyzed in triplicate. 2.3.3. GC/MS analysis The identification of volatile compounds was performed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry using an Agilent 6890A gas chromatograph equipped with MSD 5973 mass spectrometer (Palo Alto, USA). Analytes were separated on a non polar fused silica capillary column BP-5 (30 m 0.25 mm, film thickness 0.25 mm, SGE, Ringwood, Australia) and on a polar capillary column FFAP (25 m 0.20 mm, film thickness 0.30 mm, Agilent J&W, Palo Alto, USA). Helium was used as carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1.8 _ mL/min. The oven temperature was 40 C for 5 min, _ _ followed by an increase of 3 C/min190 C and an _ _ increase of 10 C/min 250 C for BP-5 column or to _ 220 C for FFAP column, holding the final temperature for 5 min. The transfer line temperature _ was set at 240 C. MS was taken at 70 eV with a scan range between 35 and 350 amu at 2 scans/s. Compounds were identified by comparison of their retention indices relative to C 5C24 n-alkanes (Supelco, Bel-lefonte, PA, USA) obtained on both columns with those provided in the literature, by comparison of their mass spectra with those recorded in NIST library (Version 2.0d, 2005) and by co-injection of available reference compounds. The amount of the individual compounds was expressed as a peak area percentage obtained by automatic integration of the peak area of the compound/ S peak areas of all compounds identified in the chromatograms. 2.3.4. GCO The odour active compounds of the crust and crumb of the studied Madeira cakes were determined by gas chromatography/ olfactometry on an Agilent 6890 gas chromatograph equipped with a splitsplitless injector, a flame ionization detector (FID) and a sniffing port (ODO-I, SGE, Ringwood, Australia), using the same column and chromatographic conditions described earlier. GCO effluents, enriched with purified, humidified air, were
_ _

Freshly cut cakes were evaluated for their appearance, flavour, taste, texture and overall preference using a hedonic 5-point scale (1 very disliked, 5 very liked). Three coded quarters, one of each type of Madeira cake, were randomly

(1976), at this stage of cake making procedure all the air is held in the fat phase. Images of the cake batters illustrating the effect of different fat phase on the air bubbles formed are shown in Fig. 1. The microscopic appearance of batters showed that there is a marked _ presented to the panellists in covered trays at 25 C. decrease in the amount of incorporated air in the pres-ence of extra virgin olive oil. In the presence of Sensory evaluation was performed in triplicate. margarine the bubbles were mainly small and circle2.5. Statistical analysis Data obtained during batter and cake physical measurements, texture analysis and sensory evaluation were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncans test using the software program of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, edition 8.0), in order to assess significant differences among samples. Differences were considered significant when P < 0.05. 3. Results & discussion 3.1. Batter and cake physical characteristics like shaped (d3,0 9.8 mm; 91% of bubbles between 3 and 15 mm) ( Fig. 1a). Substitution of marga-rine with extra virgin olive oil resulted in, obviously fewer, large-sized bubbles of circular shape (d 3,0 29.4 mm; 47% of bubbles between 21 and 30 mm) ( Fig. 1c) while, in the case of partial margarine substitution, both small and large air bubbles coexisted (d 3,0 23.5 mm) ( Fig. 1b). It could have been expected that lower batter density would result in higher cake volume but, actually, the opposite was observed. The cake prepared with the extra virgin olive oil had the highest volume, as this is expressed by the cross sectional area,

In Table 2 the effect of fat phase type on batter density, cake volume and weight loss during baking Table 2 can be observed. The substitution of margarine by Physical properties of batter and Madeira cakes prepared with extra virgin olive oil increased batter density of varying fat phase. Madeira cakes suggesting that less air was a Batter density Cake cross sectional incorporated into the batter (P < 0.05). The control 2 b area (cm ) cake batter, prepared with margarine, had a density 0.94 _ 0.008 c 27.5 _ 1.30 b value of 0.94, whereas batters containing Margarine Margarine-extra virgin 0.96 _ 0.012 b 28.1 _ 0.95 a,b margarine/extra virgin olive oil mixture or solely extra olive oil mixture virgin olive oil had batter densities of 0.96 and 0.98, Extra virgin olive oil 0.98 _ 0.006 a 28.6 _ 0.96 a respectively. This increase in density with extra virgin Different letters in the same column are significantly olive oil addition could be attributed to inferior ability a different (P < 0.05). The values presented are the of the extra virgin olive oil containing batter to entrap average obtained from 9 replicates air in comparison to margarine containing batter ( b The values presented are the average obtained from 18 two cakes prepared with the same formula in 9 batters Conforti, 2006). This was further confirmed by replicates; c The values presented are the average obtained from 27 observing a small quantity of cake batter with the aid replicates: three cakes prepared with the same formula in 9 of a microscope. According to Shepherd and Yoell batters

Baking loss (% w/w)

c

_ 0.48 b 10.1 _ 0.61 a 8.9 8.8 _ 0.53 a

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Fig. 1. Photographs of Madeira cake batters prepared with (A) margarine (control); (B) extra virgin olive oil margarine mixture; (C) extra virgin olive oil. Magnification 100_.

while the lowest cake volume was obtained with the control batter (P < 0.05) ( Table 2). This behaviour is a piece of evidence that the final cake volume depends not only on the initial quantity of the air that has been incorporated into the batter. The amount of air that can be retained into the batter during the baking process is also of great importance. Another possible explanation could be the fact that the cake matrices differed in their viscosity as the extra virgin olive oil containing batter had a lower viscosity compared to the margarine containing one. Hartnett and Thalheimer (1979) also observed that cake batters containing liquid vegetable oils had increased fluidity compared to batters containing plastic fat. This could result in convective flow in the batter during baking and to the achievement of higher expansion ( Lillford & Judge, 1989). According to Sahi and Alava (2003), the viscosity is important in

physically retaining the air which is initially incorporated into the batter during mixing. However, if the viscosity is too low, the bubbles in the batter rise to the surface and are lost to the atmo-sphere. On the other hand, a very high viscosity may retain bubbles in the batter but it may also restrict expansion during baking. Likewise, Handleman, Conn, and Lyons (1961) stated that, although parameters like the quantity of air entrapped into the batter and the air kept during baking affected cake quality, a relationship between batter density, viscosity, surface tension and the resulting cake characteristics may exist. Concerning baking losses, the water retention capacity was affected by the substitution of margarine with extra virgin olive oil in Madeira cakes ( Table 2). The mean baking loss for the cakes prepared with extra virgin olive oil or extra virgin olive oil/ margarine mixture was 8.8% and 8.9%, respectively, and no signif-icant difference existed between them (P > 0.05). The highest baking loss, 10.1%, observed for the control cake could be attributed to the fact that this cake had a larger air-water contact area, since there was in its batter a greater number of small sized air bubbles ( Fig. 1), which are expected to form, during the baking process, more channels leading to greater water loss compared to the rest. The effect of margarine replacement by extra virgin olive oil on the texture profile parameters of Madeira cakes is shown in Table 3. Significant changes occurred in all texture attributes except adhe-siveness and springiness. Cakes prepared with extra virgin olive oil or extra virgin olive oil/margarine mixture showed higher hardness and cohesiveness values (P < 0.05). According to Lillford and Judge (1989), cakes are characterised as solid foams formed by heating of a complex emulsion and foam system, the cake batter. The structure of cakes depends to some extent on the ability of fat to entrap air bubbles during cake batter whipping ( Shepherd & Yoell, 1976), so this behaviour was probably the result of the ability of margarine to entrap a greater quantity of air, as it has already been shown from batter density measurements ( Table

2). According to Mizukoshi (1990), air cells primarily expand and then coalesce to form continuous channels. The formation of continuous air channels is found to be essential in maintaining the volume of the cake on cooling once removed from the oven. The unfortunate incident of cake shrinkage appears to be due to the absence of channelling ( Lillford & Judge, 1989). The larger the amount of the entrapped air is the greater number of air channels can be formed resulting in the creation of a less cohesive structure in the cakes prepared with margarine in comparison to extra virgin olive oil containing cakes. Similarly, Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) stated that cookies contain-ing sunflower oil had relatively harder texture compared to those containing bakery fat probably due to poor entrapment of air during creaming, while Kamel (1994) explained that although large amounts of air can be incorporated into liquid oil, it cannot be retained in the system and this might explain the hard texture of the cookies. An increase in gumminess and chewiness values with

Table 3 Texture parameters of Madeira cakes prepared with varying fat phase. Texture parameters Fat phase Margarine _ 18.74 c _ 0.39 a _ 0.02 a _ 0.03 b _ 12.79 c _ 11.04 c
a a

Margarine-extra virgin Extra virgin olive oil mixture olive oil _ 25.89 a _ 0.14 a _ 0.02 a _ 0.02 a _ 22.03 a _ 18.07 a

Hardness (g) Adhesiveness (g s) Springiness () Cohesiveness ()

229 0.6 41 0.8 15 0.5 92

263 _0.0 68 0.81 4 0.61 6

_ 16.06 b _ 0.12 a _ 0.02 a _ 0.02 a

319 _0.086 0.809 0.621

Gumminess (g)

135

162

_ 22.92 b

198

Chewiness (g)

110

132

_ 19.52 b

160

Different letters in the same row are significantly different (P < 0.05). The values presented are the average obtained from 36 replicates.

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oil addition was also observed (P < 0.05). As both of them depend on hardness, their values followed a similar to hardness tendency. 3.2. Madeira cake volatile compound analysis Another purpose of this study was the identification of the volatile compounds present in the headspace of the studied Madeira cakes. The GC/MS analysis of the volatile fraction of the cakes, isolated by means of solid phase microextraction, allowed the identification of 92 volatile compounds, accounting for more than 98% of total peak area in gas chromatogram ( Table 4). Thirtynine (39) of them were separated using both columns used while 24 and 29 volatile compounds were only eluted by BP-5 and FFAP column, respectively. Therefore, the two columns were comple-mentary and together provided a good representation of the volatile composition of the studied cakes. Also listed in Table 4, for most compounds, are retention indices found on the BP-5 capillary column except for those compounds identified only in FFAP, the retention indices of which are cited with an asterisk. The majority of volatile compounds in the cakes were produced during baking as a result of thermally induced reactions. They belonged to a number of chemical groups, such as hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, pyrazines, esters, etc. Two sub-samples (crust and crumb) were analyzed for each cake and two independent analyses were performed on each sub-sample. The total number of volatile compounds identified into the headspace of cakes (crumb and crust) prepared with margarine, margarine/ extra virgin olive oil mixture or extra virgin olive oil was, respectively, 63, 85 and 85. The results of the identification experiments revealed that among esters, (Z)3-hexenyl acetate and hexyl acetate were found only in extra virgin olive oil containing cakes. Hexyl acetate derives from the degradation of linoleic acid, while (Z)-3hexenyl-acetate results from the enzymatic degradation of linolenic acid ( Olas, Perez, Ros, & Sanz, 1993; Williams, Morales, Aparicio, & Harwood, 1998). In particular, (Z)3-hexenyl acetate, responsible for green banana and green leaves notes in virgin olive oil ( Morales, Aparicio, & Rios, 1994), was the dominant constituent of the volatile fraction of both crumbs and crusts of these cakes (15.04% and 30.28%, respectively, for crust and crumb of cakes prepared only with extra virgin olive oil and 10.53% and 24.01% for crust and crumb of cakes prepared with margarine/extra virgin olive oil mixture). This ester has been reported to be present in virgin olive oil samples ( Boskou et al., 2006; Morales et al., 1994), while it can also be the product of the reaction between (Z)-3-hexenol and acetic acid formed during cake batter baking. Hexyl acetate, contributing sweet, fruity notes in virgin olive oil, was the second main constituent of both crumb and crust of the cakes prepared with extra virgin olive oil (4.89% and 9.99%, respectively, for crust and

crumb of cakes prepared only with extra virgin olive oil and 3.63% and 8.85% for crust and crumb of cakes prepared with margarine/extra virgin olive oil mixture). On the other hand, ethyl acetate and butyl acetate were found, in much smaller quantities, only in the control sample.
Regarding hydrocarbons, 3-ethyl-1,5octadiene isomers, a-copaene, a-farnesene and 1R-a-pinene as well as undecane and dodecane were found only in extra virgin olive oil containing cakes, whereas decane, tridecane, tetradecane, and D-limonene were present in all cake samples studied ( Table 4). Alpha-farnesene, a-copaene, undecane ( Angerosa, Camera, dAlessandro, & Mellerio, 1998; Vichi, Guadayol, Caixach, LopezTamames, & Buxaderas, 2007), dodecane ( Vichi et al., 2007) and 3-ethyl-1,5-octadiene isomers, derived from the enzymatic transformation of the fatty acids ( Angerosa et al., 1998), have been previously identified in the volatile fraction of virgin olive oil samples. Alpha-pinene was also

isolated and identified in extra virgin olive oil, while the presence of limonene has been related to high peroxide value ( Vichi et al., 2007). On the other hand, limonene has been also identified in the volatile fraction of white bread prepared with wheat flour, water, yeast and salt ( Mulders, Ten Noever De Brauw, & van Straten, 1973).
Concerning aldehydes, (E)-2-hexenal and (E)2-decenal were found only in extra virgin olive oil containing cakes, (E)-4-heptenal was found only in control samples, whereas decanal was found in cakes prepared with margarine or margarine extra virgin olive oil mixture. (E)-2-hexenal constitutes one of the major volatiles of virgin olive oil, resulting from the lipoxygenase pathway (enzy-matic degradation of linolenic acid) ( Olas et al., 1993; Williams et al., 1998), and it is inversely related to the oxidation degree of virgin olive oil ( Vichi et al., 2007). It contributes significantly to the green-fruity notes of its aroma ( Olas et al., 1993). More specifically, Reiners and Grosch (1998) correlated the attribute green apple like with this compound. On the other hand, 2-decenal, the odour of which is reported as fatty ( Boskou et al., 2006), is generated due to oleic acid hydroperoxides decomposition (mainly via b-scission of alkoxy radicals formed by the cleavage of oleic acid hydroper-oxides) ( Fullana, Carbonell-Barrachina, & Sidhu, 2004). The pres-ence of (E)-4-heptenal in the headspace of control cakes was connected to the use of margarine during their making (0.40% and 0.76% in crust and crumb, respectively). This aldehyde is probably product of the thermal decomposition of polyunsaturated fatty acid isomers, formed during the hydrogenation process followed for margarine production. Strecker degradation aldehydes, 2and 3-methylbutanal, found in all cake samples, were considerably higher in crust than in crumb (e.g. 3-methylbutanal: 4.98% and 1.01% in crust and crumb of margarine containing cakes, respectively). 3-Methylbutanal, responsible for malt and tallow notes in bread crust, was also reported to have a greater influence on flavour of

crust than crumb in rye bread ( Schieberle & Grosch, 1994). Phenyl-acetaldehyde, another commonly occurring Strecker degradation product, was also found mainly in the crust of the studied cakes. According to Pozo-Bayon et al. (2007), its presence in sponge cakes was associated with floral notes. The abovementioned aldehydes can also be derived from extra virgin olive oil since they have also been detected either in virgin olive oil ( Boskou et al., 2006) or heated virgin olive oil ( Overton & Manura,1995). In addition, crumb of the control cake showed a high content of hexanal and heptanal (13% and 25.27%, respectively, compared to 4.25% and 2.08% in cakes prepared with extra virgin olive oil). Hexanal, according to Pozo-Bayon et al. (2007), imparts positive characteristics to sponge cake flavour giving floral, fruity, herbal notes. Besides, aldehydes such as nonanal, octanal, 2,4decadienal, etc. were shown to be significantly correlated with the oxidative status of virgin olive oil ( Morales, Rios, & Aparicio, 199 7). 2Heptenal, 2-octenal, 2-nonenal and 2,4-decadienal appear as a result of fat oxidation and especially the oxidation of linoleic acid, while octanal and nonanal are derived from oleic acid oxidation ( Fullana et al., 2004). Finally, all samples showed a high content of benzaldehyde, which was found to impart positive characteristics to cake aroma giving a bitter almond note ( Table 4).

All identified ketones were found in both crust and crumb of all cake samples except of 1hydroxy-2-propanone, which was found only in control cakes as well as in the crusts of the other two cakes ( Table 4). Butane-2,3-dione was previously reported as odorant in sponge cakes ( Pozo-Bayon et al., 2007), in rye bread crust and crumb ( Schieberle & Grosch, 1994) and Altamura bread ( Bianchi, Careri, Chiavaro, Musci, & Vittadini, 2008) while 2,3-pentanedione was mainly correlated with bread crust flavour ( Bianchi et al., 2008; Poinot et al., 2008; Rychlik & Grosch, 1996). 1-Hydroxy-2-prop-anone has previously been reported by Rega, Guerard, Delarue,

954 Table 4

A. Matsakidou et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 949957

Volatile composition and odour descriptors of the Madeira cakes. Madeira cake prepared by using Margar Margarineine extra virgin olive oil mixtur e C ru st Cr um b

RI

Volatile

ID Extra virgin olive oil

Odour note

Crust Esters 613 801 997 Ethyl acetate Butyl acetate (Z)-3-Hexenyl acetate _ _
d

Crumb

Crust

Crum b

_ _ 1 0. 5 3 3 . 6 3
e

MS/RI MS/RI 24. 01 8. 8 5 15.04 30. 28 9 . 9 9 MS/RI Green apple

1003

Hexyl acetate

4.89

MS

Hydrocarbons 781 879 884 919 924 929 983 985 987 1016 1051* 1094 1192 1298 1375 1397 1511 Aldehy des Octane 3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer A) 3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer B) 1-R-a-pinene 3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer C) 3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer D) 3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer E) 3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer F) Decane
D-Limonene

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 . 1 5 2 . 4 6 _ 13. 00 4 . 1 1 0 . 9 3 2 . 1 7 _ 3 . 4 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ 6. 6 6 1. 5 1 12. 92 _ 1. 3 6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS/RI/ST D MS MS

_ _

3-Ethyl-1,5-octadiene (isomer G) Undecane Dodecane Tridecane

_ _ _ _ _ 0 . 2 5 0 . 2 8 4 . 2 5 1 . 8 1 2 . 0 8 _ 1 . 1 7 _ _ _

MS MS MS/RI MS MS/RI

a-Copaene
Tetradecane

a-Farnesene

638

2-Methyl-butanal

3.13

0. 6 5 1. 0 1

0. 4 4 0. 4 1

1.14

MS/RI

645 698*

3-Methyl-butanal Acetaldehyde

4.98 _

1.54 _

MS/RI MS/STD MS/RI/ST D MS/RI/ST D

784

Hexanal

5.78

3.73

Cut grass, green

838

(E)-2-Hexenal 25. 27 _ 1. 8 5 _ _ _

1.47

889 945

Heptanal 2-Heptenal

4.16 _

1.60 _

MS/RI MS/RI Sweet, bitter almond Orange peel Flowers, sweet Fried, fatty

949 991 1036 1050

Benzaldehyde Octanal Phenylacetaldehyde (E)-2-Octenal

4.91 _ _ _

2.55 _ _ _

MS/RI MS/RI MS MS/RI

1099 1156 1202 1220* 1261

Nonanal (E)-2-Nonenal Decanal (E)-4-Heptenal (E)-2-Decenal

_ _ _ _

_ _ _ _

_ _ _

_ _ _

_ _

_ _

MS/RI MS/RI MS/RI MS/RI

_ 0. 9 0

1317 Ketone s 596 692 877 974 976 1394* 1086 1189 1271* 1294* 1294 1714* Alcohol s 752 756

(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal

0.79

0 . 7 0

_ 0. 5 8

MS/RI 0 . 3 1

0.60

MS/RI

Fried potato, fatty

2,3-Butanedione 2,3-Pentanedione 2-Heptanone 2-Methyl-3-octanone 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 3-Octen-2-one 2-Nonanone 2-Decanone 2-Octanone 1-Hydroxy-2-propanone 2-Undecanone 2-Dodecanone

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

MS/STD MS/RI MS/STD MS MS MS MS/RI/ST D MS/RI MS/STD MS

_ _

_ _

_ _

MS/RI MS

Pentanol (Z)-2-Pentenol

_ _ 0 . 7 3

_ _ 1. 6 8 _

_ _

_ _ 2 . 3 9 _

MS/STD MS/RI MS/RI/ST D MS/STD MS/STD MS/RI MS/RI MS/RI MS MS 2 . 3 3 Cut grass, green

842 853 856 960 969 1019 1092 1151*

(Z)-3-Hexenol (E)-2-Hexenol 1-Hexanol Heptanol 1-Octen-3-ol 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol 2,6-Dimethyl-2,7-octadien-1,6-diol 1-Penten-3-ol _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

1.31

_ _ _ _

_ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _

1397* 1561*

(Z)-2-Hexenol 1-Octanol _ _ _

1 . 3 9 _

1. 9 6

1.79 _ _

MS/RI/ST D MS/RI/ST D 9 5 5

A. Matsakidou et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 949957

Table 4 (continued ) Madeira cake prepared by using Margar ine Margarine- extra virgin olive oil mixtur e Cr um b _

RI

Volatile

ID Extra virgin olive oil

Odour note

Crust 1883* 1920* 2035* Pyrazine s 723 899 903 905 Benzyl alcohol Phenylethanol Nerolidol _

Crust _ _

Crumb _ _

Crust _ _ _

Crum b _ _ _ MS MS/RI MS

Pyrazine 2,5-Dimethylpyrazine Ethylpyrazine 2,6-Dimethylpyrazine

_ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _

_ _ _ _

MS/RI MS/RI MS/RI MS/RI Walnut, praline

907 1073 1095 1250* 1436* 1372* 1391* 1631*

2,3-Dimethylpyrazine 2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine 2-Methyl-5-(2-propenyl)-pyrazine Methylpyrazine 3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine 2-Ethyl-6-methylpyrazine Trimethylpyrazine Acetylpyrazine

_ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _

MS/RI MS/RI MS

_ _ _ _

MS/RI MS/RI MS MS/RI MS Roasted, burned Roasted, cake

Furan derivatives 6. 7 8 3 . 6 9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 . 4 4

980 1056 1470* 1679* 1764*

2-Pentyl-furan 2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone Furfural 2-Furanmethanol 2(5H)-Furanone

3.97 _ _ _ _ _

1.67 _ _ _ _

1.36

MS/RI MS/RI MS MS MS

Earthy, vegetal Caramel-like

Pyran derivatives 1140 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one 1995* >2100* Maltol Tetrahydro-6-pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ MS MS Caramel, sweet _ _ _ MS

Sulfur compounds 895 1653* Acids 1465* 1858* 2049* Acetic acid Hexanoic acid Octanoic acid _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ MS/RI MS/RI MS Methional 2-Acetyl-thiazole _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ MS/RI MS/RI Hazelnut, pop corn

Other heterocyclic compounds 1520* 1735*

a

Pyrrole N-Acetyl-4(H)-pyridine

_ _

_ _ _

MS MS Walnut, pop corn

Retention indices calculated from GC/MS results on BP-5 column, except for those followed by an asterisk which correspond to the compounds that were only identified on FFAP column.
b

Identification method: MS, identification by comparison with mass spectra stored in NIST library; RI, identification by comparison with published GC retention index

( http://www.pherobase.com; http://www.flavornet.org,); STD, identification supported by co-injection of standard compounds.

c d

Detected by GC-Olfactometry. Only odours detected more than three times are reported. Peaks > 5% of the major peak. Percentages obtained by peak area normalization (n 6).

Maire, and Giampaoli (2009) to be present in sponge cakes. 2-Octanone and 3-octen-2-one have also been detected in bread crumb ( Bianchi et al., 2008), whereas 6-methyl-5-hepten2-one, identified in bread volatile fraction ( Bianchi et al., 2008), may also be derived from virgin olive oil ( Morales et al., 1994). Finally, decan-2-one and nonan-2-one have been reported to be generated upon heating of egg containing sponge cakes due to unsaturated fatty acid oxidation ( Pozo-Bayon et al., 2007). Additionally, according to Morales et al. (1994), nonan-2-one can also be found in virgin olive oil volatile fraction contributing to a fruity note. Fifteen alcohols were identified ( Table 4). Six of them, (Z)-2-pentenol, (Z)-3-hexenol, (E)-2hexenol, (Z)-2-hexenol, phenyl-ethanol and nerolidol, were found only in the extra virgin olive oil containing cakes, whereas 1-penten-3-ol was detected only in control cakes. Hexenols are important constituents of virgin olive oil and they are related to green-type description ( Morales et

al., 1994) while 2-phenylethanol was detected in sponge cakes, contributing a honey-like odour ( Pozo-Bayon et al., 2007). The 1-

penten-3-ol has also been found in rye bread, white bread and French bread dough ( Frasse, Lambert, Richard-Molard, & Chiron, 1993). 1Pentanol and 1-hexanol were found both in crust and crumb of all studied cakes. According to Pozo-Bayon et al. (2007), their presence in sponge cakes was associated with unpleasant descriptors even though they may or may not be significant at the levels present in the samples. In addition, hexan-1-ol and pentan-1-ol were found in bread indicative of lipoxygenase and aldehyde oxidoreductase activities ( Poinot et al., 2008), whereas the presence of 1-heptanol could be

associated to the reduction of the corresponding aldehyde. 1-Octen-3-ol has also been identified in sponge cakes contributing to a mushroom flavour ( Pozo-Bayon et al., 2007) as well as in Altamura bread crumb ( Bianchi et al., 2008). Additionally, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol and benzyl alcohol have been detected in French bread dough ( Frasse et al., 1993). Regarding pyrazines, it has been shown by several researchers that they affect the aroma of bakery products such as bread, cakes,

956

A. Matsakidou et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 949957

Appearance
4.8 4.6 4.4
4.2 4

Odour

Overall liking

3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 3

Margarine;

Margarine/extra virgin olive oil

Texture
mixture; Extra virgin olive oil. Number of replications: n 3.

Taste

Fig. 2. Hedonic sensory evaluation of Madeira cakes prepared with different fat phase (1 very disliked, 5 very liked). Keys:

cookies etc. ( Poinot et al., 2008; PozoBayon et al., 2007). Most of the pyrazines found in the studied cakes were detected in crust than in crumb as a result of Maillard reactions. According to Pozo- Bayon et al. (2007), 2,6dimethylpyrazin e, trimethylpyrazin e, vinylpyrazine, and 6-methyl-2vinylpyrazine were likely the most important contributors in characteristic roasted sponge cake aroma. Additionally, 2ethyl-3,5dimethylpyrazin e and 2-ethyl3,6dimethylpyrazin e appeared to be important alkylpyrazines to the aroma of rye bread crust ( Schieberle & Grosch, 1994).

Among furan derivatives, 4hydroxy-2,5dimethyl-3(2H)fur-anone, 2(5H)-furanone and furfural were just detected in the crust of the studied cakes. 4-Hydroxy-2,5dimethyl-3(2H)furanone has been reported as the most important caramel-like odorant of rye and wheat bread crust ( Schieberle & Grosch, 1994) while Rychlik and Grosch (1996) attributed a strawberry-like odour in toasted wheat bread to its presence. In addition, larger amounts (>2fold) of 2-pentyl furan and 2furanmethanol were found in the crumb and crust of the control cake (e.g. 3.97% of 2pentyl furan in control cakes crust in comparison to

1.36% in extra virgin olive oil cakes crust). Poinot et al. (2008) attributed the origin of 2pentyl furan in bread to Maillard reaction as well as to lipid oxidation. 2-Pentyl furan has been reported as a product of linoleic acid oxidation being present in cooking oils ( Overton & Manura, 1995). Pyrrole was found only in margarine containing cakes whereas N-acetyltetrahydropyridine was detected in the crust of all studied samples. Compounds of this type have an odour character frequently referred to as popcorn-like. Three pyran derivatives were also indicated as occurring in the crust of the cakes. The sweet aroma compound maltol and 2,3dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one were detected in all cake samples. Among sulfuric compounds, methional was found only in the crust of extra virgin olive oil containing cakes, while 2-acetyl-thia-zole in both crust and crumb of the samples. Methional, according to Pozo-Bayon et al. (2007), was among the compounds with the highest frequency of detection in egg containing sponge cakes probably produced by the Strecker degradation of methionine. Low levels of acids, namely acetic acid, hexanoic acid and octanoic acid, were also identified in cake samples. Hexanoic and

octanoic acid were detected only in the case of extra virgin olive oil addition. Poinot et al. (2008) has attributed the presence of hex-anoic acid to fermentation as well as to lipid oxidation. Although a roasted note is a typical odour characteristic of cakes, other volatile compounds present in the cake also possess typical odour characteristics. Therefore, it is likely that the overall aroma of cakes depends on a complex mixture of odour active compounds. The most prevailing descriptors of the studied cakes were roas-ted, walnut, hazelnut, green, citrus, fruity, fatty, herbal, sweet and caramel ( Table 4). Responsible for the aroma of the cakes were aldehydes (hexanal, benzaldehyde, octa-nal, phenylacetaldehyde and E,E_2,4-decadienal), furan derivatives (2-pentylfuran and 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)furanone), pyrazines (2,6-dimethylpyrazine, 2ethyl-6-methylpyrazine and trimethylpyrazine), the ester (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, the alcohol (Z)-2pentenol, maltol, N-acetyl-4(H)-pyridine and 2acetyl-thiazole. It is important to notice that some compounds that showed impor-tant odorant impact for the extra virgin olive oil containing cakes such as (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and (Z)-2pentenol were not detected in the control cake made with margarine. 3.3. Cake sensory evaluation The mean scores of hedonic sensory evaluation of Madeira cakes varying in the fat phase used for their preparation are shown in Fig. 2. As can be seen, margarine substitution by extra virgin olive oil did not affect the appearance as well as the odour of the studied cakes (P > 0.05). In texture and taste sensory evaluation the cakes, prepared only with extra virgin olive oil, got the lowest scores (P < 0.05) between the three cakes evaluated. However, these values were very close to those obtained for the control cake. Attending overall liking, the cake prepared with extra virgin olive oil/margarine mixture was the most highly preferred by the pan-ellists (score 4.17), whereas the cake prepared solely with extra virgin olive oil the least (score 3.73) (P < 0.05). The control cake received intermediate appreciations (score 4.07). Duncans test revealed that control and extra virgin olive oil/margarine contain-ing cakes were not significantly different (P > 0.05), whereas they

A. Matsakidou et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (

both differed from the extra virgin olive oil containing cake. It should be noted here that the interpretation of hedonic results covers inter-individual differences in sensory preferences. In fact, only three of the twenty panellists graded the cakes prepared with extra olive oil by unpleasant. However, the hedonic test was considered the best sensory test to apply to the present study because it could give a clearer view of margarine substitution by extra olive oil in the acceptance by the consumers. 4. Conclusions Margarine substitution by extra virgin olive oil produced Madeira cakes that exhibited higher volume and lower baking loss compared with the control. Considering texture attributes, cakes prepared with extra virgin olive oil or extra virgin olive oil/ margarine mixture showed higher hardness and cohesiveness values. Regarding volatile composition, some important changes were observed. Some alcohols, such as (Z)-2-pentenol, (Z)-3-hex-enol, (E)-2hexenol, (Z)-2-hexenol, phenylethanol and nerolidol, hydrocarbons such as 3-ethyl-1,5octadiene isomers, a-copaene and afarnesene, the esters (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and hexyl acetate as well as the aldehydes (E)-2hexenal and (E)-2-decenal were identified only in the extra virgin olive oil containing samples. In view of consumer appreciation results, a Madeira cake of accept-able organoleptic character could be produced by partial substitution of margarine by extra virgin olive oil. The use of extra virgin olive oil/margarine mixture improved cake characteristics and revealed sensory scores similar to those of the control cake.

Wissenschaft und Technologie, 26, 126132. Fullana, A., Carbonell-Barrachina, A. A., & Sidhu, S. (2004). Volatile aldehyde emissions from heated cooking oils. Journal of the Science of Food and Agricul-ture, 84, 20152021. Gomez, M., Oliete, B., Rosell, C. M., Pando, V., & Fernandez, E. (2008). Studies on cake quality made of wheatchickpea flour blends. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 41, 17011709.

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