HAND & MEASURING TOOLS, TOLERANCE AND FITS

CHAPTER 3 : HAND & MEASURING TOOLS, TOLERANCE AND FITS

High precision fitting is necessary in tool making (source: http://www.graphitediemold.com/) Diemakers fit parts of dies to each other. Assemblers fit different parts of machine together. Machinists fit parts such as wheels, pulleys, bearings, and shaft when repairing machines. All these works need high precision of fitting

INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers topics on fitting practice. Through a fitting project, students can apply the basic knowledge and skill in fitting practice to produce a product. They will learn on how to use hand tools to carry out processes involved in fitting such as marking, filing, sawing, tapping and reveting.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. FTK recognize the equipments or tools needed in fitting work; use the appropriate equipments or tools while performing the fitting work; demonstrate the operations involved in fitting work such as filing, sawing, threading. apply allowance especially to produce assembly parts; and read and translate a detail drawing into a product. 33 BTPU1133

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3.1

HAND TOOLS
Hand tools are devices for doing a particular job that does not use a motor, but is

powered solely by the person using it. Some examples of hand tools are explained as follow:

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR

Instructor may use the available tools in the workshop to show and explain to students about the tools. 1. Files Files (Figure 3.1) are hardened pieces of tool steel with slanting rows of teeth. They are used to shape and smooth metal parts. They can cut all metals except hardened steel. Making surfaces smooth by filing is more difficult than might be expected. Good results depend on using the right kind of file; using sharp, clean files, and holding the file and workpiece properly.

Figure 3.1: Files

2.

Hacksaw The hacksaw is a basic tool in almost metal work. It is used mostly for cutting

small pieces of unhardened metals that cannot be cut in a more efficient way. The process of sawing is shown in Figure 3.2.

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Figure 3.2: Cutting a rod with a hacksaw 3. Cold chisel Cold chisels (Figure 3.3) are used to cut cold metal. It is made of tough alloy tool steel and are made in several sizes and shapes.

Figure 3.3: Cold chisels

4.

Tap and die Tap is used to cut internal threads. It has threads like a bolt with two, three or

four flutes cut across the threads. Meanwhile a die is a tool for cutting external threads on a round rod, such as those on a bolt. These tools is shown in Figure 3.4.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 3.4: Tap wrench (a), tap (b) and die (c) FTK 35 BTPU1133

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5.

Bench vise As shown in Figure 3.5, bench vise is used to clamp parts together while they are

being assembled. The size of vise is determined by the width of the jaws.

Figure 3.5: A bench vise

6.

Scribers Scribers are hardened steel marking tools that have sharp needle-like points.

They are used to scratch or scribe lines on metal.

7.

Dividers Dividers (Figure 3.6) are two-legged steel instruments with hardened points.

They are used to scribe circles and arcs, to lay off distances and to measure distance.

Figure 3.6: A divider

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8.

Solid steel square Solid steel square (Figure 3.7) has a fixed blade. The uses of this square are to

test the squareness of any square, to mark a line along the edge of the blade with a scriber.

Figure 3.7: A Solid steel square 9. Punches There are two types of punches; prick punch and center punch (Figure 3.8). The prick punch is a sharply pointed tool of hardened steel. It is used to accurately define points to be center-punched a well as to put small punch marks on layout lines so they will last longer. The center punch looks like a prick punch. It is usually larger than the prick punch and has a 90 point. The center punch is used to make prick punch marks larger at the center of hole that is to be drilled.

Figure 3.8: Prick punch and center punch

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3.2

MEASURING TOOLS
In engineering, measurement is the activity of comparing physical quantities of real-

world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the measurement results in a given number for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring tools are the means by which this translation is made. Following are the examples of measuring tools: 1. Surface plate A surface plate (Figure 3.9) is a large iron or granite plate with a very flat surface. It provides an accurately flat surface on which to place the workpiece. Precision layout tools can then be used to accurately mark the layout lines needed on the workpiece.

Figure 3.9: A surface plate 2. Steel rules Steel rules (Figure 3.10) are made in many lengths, widths and thicknesses. The most commonly used steel rule is 150 mm long but lengths to 1200 mm. A steel rule is used to make a line and measure linear measurement of workpiece. To make a measurement with a steel rule, put the edge of the ruler against the workpiece so that the lines on the rule touch the workpiece. The graduation lines on the rule have a certain width. Always measure to the center of a line. Measure from the 1 mark or from the 10 mm mark, because the end of rule my be worn. The reading of measurement is directly taken from the rule scale.

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Figure 3.10: Steel rules 3. Vernier caliper Vernier caliper (Figure 3. 11) is an important tools for measurement process in fitting work. It is used to measure linear measurement of workpiece, measure outer diameter of bar, measure depth and internal diameter of a pipe (Figure 3.12).

Figure 3.11: A vernier caliper

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3.12: Measument of outer diameter (a), depth (b), and internal diameter (c)

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Basic principles when using a vernier caliper are described as follow: i. Close the jaws lightly on the workpiece to be measured. of the workpiece is perpendicular to the caliper. iii. Use the bottom scale, which is in metric units. iv. Notice that there is a fixed scale and sliding scale. v. The bold face number on the fixed scale are centimeters, meanwhile the tick marks between the bold face number are millimeters. vi. There are ten tick marks on the sliding scale. The left-most tick mark on the sliding scale will let you read from the fixed scale the number of whole millimeters that the jaws are opened.

ii. If youre measuring a workpiece with a round cross section, make sure that the axis

KNOWLEDGE ENHANCEMENT
Instructor may use a vernier caliper to demonstrate on how to obtain the reading of a measurement. Example: How to obtain a reading in a vernier caliper

i.

In the example above, the leftmost tick mark (look at 0) on the sliding scale is between 21 mm and 22 mm, so the number of whole millimeters is 21.

ii. Next we find the tenths of millimeters. Notice that the ten tick marks on the sliding scale are the same width as nine ticks marks on the fixed scale. This means that at most one of the tick marks on the sliding scale will align with a tick mark on the fixed scale; the others will missaligned. iii. The number of the aligned tick mark on the sliding scale tells you the number of tenths of millimeters. In the example above, the 3rd tick mark on the sliding scale is in coincidence with the one above it, so the caliper reading is (21.30 0.05) mm. iv If two adjacent tick marks on the sliding scale look equally aligned with their counterparts on the fixed scale, then the reading is half way between the two marks. In the example above, if the 3rd and 4th tick marks on the sliding scale looked to be equally aligned, then the reading would be (21.35 0.05) mm. v. On those rare occasions when the reading just happens to be a "nice" number like 2 cm, don't forget to include the zero decimal places showing the precision of the measurement and the reading error. So not 2 cm, but rather (2.000 0.005) cm or (20.00 0.05) mm. FTK 40 BTPU1133

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EXERCISE 3.1
Use the procedure described to read the following vernier calipers: 1.

2.

3.

Answers: 1. 34.60 mm 2. 37.46 mm 3. 8.12 mm

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4.

Vernier height gauge Vernier height gauge (Figure 3.13) is used either to scribe layout lines or to measure

heights. It is always used on a precision flat surface such as a surface plate. Hence, all lines drawn by its scriber as it is moved across the flat surface will be parallel to the that surface.

Figure 3.13: Vernier height gauges

KNOWLEDGE ENHANCEMENT
How to use a vernier height gauge? Instructor may use a vernier height gauge to demonstrate on how to use that equipment.

Procedures: i. ii. iii. Make certain the workpiece rests firmly on the surface plate. Set the vernier height gauge to the correct reading for the first line and scribe it. Reset the vernier to the reading required for the next line and scribe it. The line will automatically be parallel to the line already drawn. If more parallel lines are needed, continue as in Step iii.

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5.

Micrometer Micrometer (Figure 3.14), or sometimes called mikes for short, is instrument that make

very fine measurements. The full name is micrometer caliper. A micrometer has frame, sleeve, thimble, spindle, and anvil. The micrometer can be found in inch and metric units.

Figure 3.14: A micrometer

KNOWLEDGE ENHANCEMENT
How to obtain a reading on micrometer? Instructor may use a micrometer to demonstrate on how to obtain the reading. Explanation: i. Note that the sleeve of a metric micrometer has both an upper and a lower set of graduations. The upper set consists of 25 graduations, one millimeter apart, with each fifth millimeter being numbered. The lower set of graduations divides each of the upper set in two, providing 0.5 mm graduations. Following is an example to obtain a reading on a 0 25 mm outer micrometer.

ii.

1. Upper sleeve reading (whole millimeter) 2. Lower sleeve reading (half millimeter) 3. Thimble reading (hundredths of a millimeter) Total Reading FTK 43

: 7.00 mm : 0.50 mm : 0.22 mm : 7.72 mm BTPU1133

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EXERCISE 3.2
Read the following micrometer setting. 1.

2.

3.

Answers: 1. 7.38 mm 2. 3.46 mm 3. 3.56 mm

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3.3

TOLERANCE AND FITS

In metalworking, fitting means preparing parts so they go together correctly. Mating

parts are assembled so that one part turns inside or slide upon another part; or, the parts are fastened tightly together so they cannot move upon each other. Most fitting is done when assembling precision machine tools and instruments. The methods to perform fitting are filing, scraping, grinding, or cutting by machines. Fitting mainly involved in automotive industry such as pulleys, shafts, bearing and others. In the other hand, the term fit is used to describe how tight two mating parts go together. The kind of fit that exists depends on the tolerances and allowances that were called for in the design of the parts.

3.3.1 ALLOWANCES FOR DIFFERENT FITS

When a shaft is fitted to a bearing for a running or sliding fit, the diameter of the shaft should be a little smaller than the diameter of the bearing to allow space for a film of oil between the surfaces and to allow the shaft to get larger from the heat caused by rubbing. The differences in the diameters is called the allowance for the fit. The amount of allowance depends on: 1. size of work; 2. kind of metal; 3. amount of metal around hole; 4. smoothness of hole and shaft.

Recommended allowances for different kinds and classes of fits are provided in handbooks for machinists and engineers. There are three different types of fits used in the workshop. There are interference fits (sometimes called press fits), force fits, shrink fits and loose fits. Interference fits are fastening between two parts which is achieved by friction after the parts are pushed together. In a force fits in cylindrical parts, the inner part has a greater diameter than the hole of the outer part; that is the metals of two parts interfere. Shrink fits are tight interference fit between mating parts made by shrinking-on, that is, by heating the outer part to expand the bore for easy assembly and cooling so that the outer part contracts. A force fit that has negative allowance; that is the bore in the fitted part is smaller than the shaft which is pressed into the bore. Loose fit is a fit with enough clearance to allow free motion of the joined parts. Figure 3.15 shows some examples of different types of fits.

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(a)

(b) Figure 3.15: Different types of fits: interference fit (a); loose fit (b)

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3.4

SCREW THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING

A screw thread is a ridge of uniform shape that winds at a constant angle around the

surface of a cylinder or a core. Threads on bolts and screw are external threads, meanwhile threads on the inside of a hole or a nut are internal threads. Threads may be right-hand or left-hand. A nut that is screwed clockwise onto a bolt has a righthand thread, meanwhile a nut that is screwed counter-clockwise onto a bolt has left-hand threads. Most threads are right-hand. The shaft on a grinder that has two grinding wheels has right-hand threads on the right side and left-hand threads on the left side. On working drawings, threads are assumed to be right-hand unless marked LH for left-hand. There several types of screw threads, among them are square thread, British Acme Thread, worm thread, butress thread, Metric Acme Thread, and knuckle thread. Square thread flanks are perpendicular to the axis of the thread. Crest and root are bevelled to 45. Depth of the nut is longer than the bolt. These threads are used for transmitting motion or power, for example screw jack, vice spindle, cross slide and compound slide screws. British Acme Thread is used in the lead screw of lathe. Worm thread is cut on the worm shaft which engages with worm wheel. The worm wheel and worm shaft are used in places where motion is to be transmitted between shafts at right angle. Butress thread is used on parts where force acts at one flank of the thread during transmition, for example carpentry vise, ratchet, etc. Metric Acme Thread is similar to British Acme, but angle of the thread is 30. Knuckle thread is used in railway carriage couplings. Type of screw threads are shown in Figure 3.16.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(d)

(f) worm

Figure 3.16: Type of screw threads: square thread (a); British Acme Thread (b); thread (c); butress thread (d); Metric Acme Thread (e); and knuckle thread (f)

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3.4.1 PROCEDURES TO CUT A THREAD WITH A DIE AND DIESTOCK

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR Instructor should demonstrate the process of threading to the students. A thread could be cut using a die and diestock according to the following steps:

Step 1 Bevel the end of the rod to be threaded. Bevel means to slant or taper the edge. This makes it easier for the die to start the thread. Step 2 Hold the rod tightly in a machinists vise so that it cannot turn. Step 3 Adjust the die to fit a standard bolt, that is, a bolt with threads of the same size you want to make.

Step 4 Mount the die in the diestock. Secure it with the tightening screw. Step 5 Placed the tapered, or starting side, of the die on the rod.

Step 6 Hold the diestock with both hands near the die. Keep the die as square as possible with the rod. Press down firmly and at the same time slowly rotate the die clockwise. Larger die size require more pressure to get the die started. After two or three threads have been cut, heavy pressure on the die is no longer necessary. The die will continue to screw itself onto the rod as it is rotated.

Step 7 Shift the position of your hands on the ends of the diestock, add a little cutting fluid, and continue to cut the thread. Back up the die a half-turn every two or more threads to break and clean away the chips. This helps keep chips from clogging the die and ruoghening up the thread.

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Note: Threading to a shoulder. A shoulder is a diameter larger than the thread diameter. When full threads are needed as close to a shoulder as possible, first cut the threads in the usual manner as described above. This will leave several partly cut threads near the shoulder. Then turn the die over and cut the partly finished threads up to the shoulder. Never cut full threads with the wrong side of the die, since the stress of cutting will usually result in broken die teeth.

3.4.2 PROCEDURES TO CUT INTERNAL THREADS WITH A TAP

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR Instructor should demonstrates process to cut internal threads to the students.

The following outlines the steps to cut internal threads with a tap: Step 1 Drill the hole with the proper size tap drill.

Step 2 Clamp the workpiece in a vise with the hole in an upright position. Step 3 Install a taper tap or a plug tap of the correct size in a tap wrench. (The T handle tap wrench is used for holding small tap).

Step 4 Insert the end of the tap in the hole, then grasp the tap wrench with both hands close to the tap. Press down firmly on the tap while turning it clockwise. Larger taps require more pressure to get the tap started. Step 5 It is very important that the tap be started parallel with the hole. If the hole is 90 degrees to the top of the workpiece, a square or steel rule can be used to check its alignment. A tap that is started at an angle to the hole is forced to cut a deeper and deeper thread on one side of the hole as it gets deeper. This often results in a broken tap. Step 6 Once several threads have been cut, it is no longer necessary to press down on the tap. FTK Lubricate the tap with an appropriate cutting fluid. Shift your hands to the ends of the BTPU1133 50

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tap until the threads are as deep as required. If a hand tap is being used, back the tap up every two or three turns to break the chip. It is not necessary to back up when using a gun, helical, or thread forming tap. Note: Tapping blind holes. If full threads to thebottom of a blind hole are desired, run the plug tap in as far as it will go. Clean out the hole now and then. In this way, the chips collecting in the bottom of the hole will not keep the tap from going to the bottom. Then change to the bottomming tap, and finish cutting the partially cut threads as the bottom of the hole.

3.5

RIVETS AND RIVETING

Rivets (Figure 3.17) are metal pins that look like bolts without threads. They are made

of different metals, such as soft iron or steel, aluminum, copper and brass. They are available in many different sizes and shapes of heads. The size of a rivet is measured by the diameter and length of the body. The head is not included in the length except on those designed to be countersunk. Rivets may be either solid or they may be of tubular or other special forms.

Figure 3.17: Various types of rivets

Riveting is the fastening of pieces of metal or other materials together with rivets. This process is used to hold pieces together permanently. The rivets are put through holes in the pieces to be fastened together.

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3.5.1 PROCEDURES TO PERFORM RIVETING PROCESS

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR Instructor should demonstrates process to perform riveting to the students. The following are the procedures to perform rivet process: Step 1 Punch or drill holes through the metal pieces. The holes should provide a snug fit for the rivets. On thin sheet metals, the holes are punched, meanwhile holes in thick sheet metals and metal bars are usually drilled. Countersink one of the holes if a countersunk rivets are to be used. Step 2 Put the rivet through the holes, and place the head of the rivets on something solid, such as a steel block. A round-headed rivet can be kept from flattening by using a rivetting block. A rivetting block is made of steel and has a hollow to fit the rivet head. Step 3 Press the two pieces of metal together by placing the rivet set over the rivet and striking it a sharp hammer blow. Step 4 Strike blows on the end of the rivet with either the face or the peen of a ball-pen hammer or a rivetting hammer until the end of the rivet is spread out a little. Step 5 Then strike it with the peen until it is quitte round on top like a mushroom. Step 6 Next, smooth out the rivet head by placing a rivet set on the rivet and striking it sharply with the hammer.

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EXERCISE 3.3
1. What does fitting mean? 2. List the parameters that should be considered to determine allowance. 3. How is the size of a bench vise determined? 4. What is the difference between hammer and mallet? 5. What is the riveting process? 6. List the applications of rivets in fitting work.

ANSWER 3.3
1. In metalworking, fitting means preparing parts so they go together correctly. Mating parts are assembled so that one part turns inside or slide upon another part; or, the parts are fastened tightly together so they cannot move upon each other. In the other hand, the term fit is used to describe how tight two mating parts go together. 2. Parameters should be considered to determine allowance are as follow: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) size of work; kind of metal; amount of metal around hole; smoothness of hole and shaft.

3. Bench vise is determined by the width of the jaws.

4. Hammer is made of steel, and rubber is used to make a mallet. Usually hammer is used for heavy work, meanwhile a mallet is applied for sheet metal work.

5. Riveting process is fastening of pieces of metal or other materials together with rivets. This process is used to hold pieces together permanently. The rivets are put through holes in the pieces to be fastened together.

6. Applications of rivets in fitting work include: (i) (ii) to join two metals. to close a hole.

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3.6

PROJECT EXAMPLE: ASSEMBLY OF T AND U PARTS

Using knowledge on tolerance and fits, students have to produce an assembly product

which is called T and U assembly, as shown in Figure 3.18. The project must be carried-out using fitting principles, that involve sawing, filing, threading and other processes. The raw material of the product is mild steel with dimensions 110 mm x 70 mm x 8 mm.

Figure 3.18: Assembly of part T (top) and U (bottom)

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Tools: The tools required to carry-out this project are listed as follow: ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. Hand saw Files L square Vernier caliper Vernier height gage (digital) Scriber Prick punch Surface plate Tap and tap wrench Anvil Chisel Bench vise Press drill machine and drill bit (diameter of 3.3 mm) Hammer Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) such as gloves and goggles.

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR

1. Make sure all necessary tools are sufficient and in good condition. 2. During practical, instructor should monitor students to ensure them perform the project properly. 3. For drilling process, make sure students set the spindle speed correctly and vise is clamped tightly. 4. Safety precautions must be given priority, such as students must be provided with goggles, and they also should not allowed to wear gloves while drilling process.

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An example of the steps to carry out the project is given: Step 1 Clamp the workpiece using bench vise firmly in position. Step 2 Use flat file to carry out filing process on two sides of workpiece. Always use a L square to ensure the surface of filed sides are flat (90). Step 3 After flat sides are obtained, use a digital height gage to perform dimensional marking on the workpiece. Step 4 Place vertically the workpiece on the surface plate and use a vee block to support the workpiece. Step 5 Clamp the workpiece tightly using a bench vise. Based on the drawn line, cut the workpiece into two parts using hacksaw. On both parts, carry out filing process on two sides of workpiece using flat file. Always use a L square to ensure the surface of filed sides are flat (90). Step 6 To obtain Part A, place the workpiece vertically and draw two harizontal lines with dimensions of 20 mm and 50 mm from the bottom of workpiece. Then, place the workpiece horizontally to perfom dimensions of 20 mm, 40 mm and 60 mm respectively. Hatch the part to be cut using a scriber. A complete dimensions of Part A is shown in Figure 3.19.

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Figure 3.19: Complete dimensions of Part A Step 7 To obtain Part B, place another workpiece vertically and draw two harizontal lines with dimensions of 10 mm and 40 mm from the bottom of workpiece. Then, place the workpiece horizontally to perfom dimensions of 20 mm, 40 mm and 60 mm respectively. Hatch the part to be cut using a scriber. A complete dimensions of Part B is shown in Figure 3.20.

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40 mm

10 mm

60 mm

Figure 3.20: Complete dimensions of Part B Step 8 Clamp Part A tightly using a bench vise and cut the hatched part using a hacksaw.

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Step 9 After sawing process completed, use a flat file to remove surplus part until reach required dimension. Figure 3.21 shows the semi-finished of Part A .

Figure 3.21: Obtained part after Step 9 Step 10 For Part B, clamp it tightly using a bench vise and cut the hatched part vertically using a hacksaw. It is impossible to remove the unnecessary part when it at the middle of workpiece. Another option is using a chisel. Before chiseling process take places, the unnecessary part has to be drill. Using center punch, mark 4 points along the bottom line to locate a drill bit. Step 11 Clamp Part B tightly with vise in press drill to perfom drilling process. Use drill bit 5 mm of diameter to drill protrude holes corresponding to 4 marked points.

Step 12 After that, use a flat chisel to remove the unnecessary part. The rough surface due to chiseling process can be smoothen using a flat file. Then, file all parts until reach the required dimension of Part B and obtain U shape, as shown in Figure 3.22.

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Figure 3.22: Obtained part after Step 12 Step 13 After both parts are obtained, try to fit them together, as shown in Figure 3.23. In case, they are not fix with each other, check and file necessary parts to make them fit as shown in Figure 3.24. At the bottom of part B, mark a center point at middle to locate drill bit.

Figure 3.23: Both parts are try to fit together

Figure 3.24: Both parts are succesfully assemble

Step 14 Combine together both Part A and Part B, and clamp tightly them in press drill vise. Based on marked center point, drill a hole dimension of 3.3 mm with depth of 20 mm to create internal thread size of m4 x 0.7.

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Step 15 To perform threading process in the hole, select a set of tap sized m4 x 0.7 and apply threading technique as mentioned in previous section. The complete assembly of Project 3.1 is shown in Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.25: Complete assembly of Project Example Step 16 Finally, students are requested to perform finishing processes such as deburring and chamfering. Students may use a flat file or round file to remove burrs.Suggested chamfering is 2 mm x 2mm. TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR Oil should be applied to the finished project to avoid oxidation

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3.7

PROJECTS 3.7.1 SPANNER AND NUT

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3.7.2 VEE BLOCK

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3.7.3 CLAMP

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3.7.4 C SPANNER

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REFERENCES
Bawa, H. S (2004) Manufacturing process-II, New Delhi: Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publication. Bawa, H. S (2004) Manufacturing process-I, New Delhi: Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publication. Kalpakjian, S. (2003) Manufacturing processes for engineering materials, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Tlusty and Jiri (2000) Manufacturing processes and equipment, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Schrader and George F. (2000) Manufacturing processes and materials, Dearborn, Michigan: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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