Fundamentals of Environment

Unit 04

Unit 04
Structure 04.1 Introduction Objective

Current Global Environmental Problems

04.2 Overview of global environmental issues 04.3 Globe warming and climate change impacts Forestry impacts Agricultural impacts Impacts on Energy sector Human health impacts 04.4 Ozone Depletion 04.5 Resource Depletion 04.6 Pollution Hazards including transboundary effects 04.7 Summary 04.8 Glossary 04.9 Terminal Questions 04.10 Answers

04.1. Introduction
In the previous unit, we discussed the trends in human populations and their impact on environment. In this unit let us learn about the current environmental issues like global warming, ozone depletion, resource depletion that can severely affect the lives of humans and the environment as a whole. Many early scientists such as Svante Arrhenius (the Swedish scientist 1896) predicted that human activities would interfere with earth physical process and may result in global warming and sudden change in climatic
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conditions. This prediction has become true. The instable climatic conditions are now disrupting the global environmental stability. Human interventions have caused environmental change such as land use and unintentional byproducts like pollutants. For example, climate change is caused by emission of different greenhouse gases, deforestation and land-use practices. The ability to create and transfer environmental pressures varies from one region to another. Affluent societies have high levels of production, consumption and trade. They tend to create more global and transboundary environmental pressures than the less affluent societies. Less affluent societies can also create environmental pressures but usually interact with the environment in a more direct fashion. Regardless of any particular country, region or race, environmental degradation affects all kinds of living being on a global scale. The entire world being a stakeholder raises issues on who has to do what to overcome environmental degradation. Objectives After studying this unit you will be able to discuss an overview of environmental and ecological problems across the globe list the impacts of climate change on agriculture, energy production and human health discuss impacts caused by ozone depletion in Southern Hemisphere explain different aspects of pollution related issues in the world

04.2 Overview of Global Environmental Issues

Climatic changes is intensely affecting human health, food production, food security and resource availability. Extreme atmospheric condition is affecting vulnerable and poor human communities. Many premature deaths are occurring due to indoor and outdoor pollution. Land degradation is reducing agricultural productivity. This has also lowered incomes and affected food security.

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Reduction in the supply of safe water is produces severe effects on human health and economic activity. Fish stocks are decreasing drastically. This has created economic losses and a loss of food supply. Increase in the species extinction rates are resulting in the loss of genetic pools that are unique in nature and are the potential sources for future agricultural and medical advances.

Table 04.1: Environmental Issues by region

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(Source: Geo Environment Outlook 3, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London Sterling, VA)

04.3 Global Warming and Climate Change Impacts

Global emission of greenhouse gases is expected to grow by 37% in the near future and may reach upto 52% by 2050 as shown in figure 04.1. This can increase the global temperature in the range of 1.7-2.4 Celsius by 2050. Increase in global temperature can cause droughts, heat waves, storms and floods, thereby damaging the key infrastructure and crops. Due to climate change and unsustainable use and management of resources the issue of water scarcity is expected to worsen. The number of people living in areas prone to severe water stress is likely to grow by 1 billion to over 3.9 billion. Air pollution is also expected to increase worldwide causing severe health impacts, premature deaths, etc. Developing countries, which are less equipped to manage and adapt to environmental issues, may probably face the greatest environmental impacts.

Figure 04.1: Green house gas emissions by region (Source: OECD environmental outlook to 2030) 04.3.1 Forestry impacts
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Climate can be considered as the important determinant of vegetation patterns throughout the world. It has a significant effect on the distribution, structure and ecology of forests. Studies conducted by the Third Assessment Report of IPCC (Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change) that the climate change can significantly impact the forest ecosystems in the near future. Global warming of 12C (the estimate is much less than the recent projection of warming) can also impact the ecosystems and landscapes causing changes in species composition, productivity and biodiversity. Thus, the people who depend on forest resource for their living can be seriously affected by the climate change. The future forest conditions can be determined based on the following climate factors: Air temperature Precipitation amount and seasonal distribution Carbon dioxide concentrations in atmosphere Frequency and intensity of wildfire events Climatic variability Frequency and intensity of extreme events Indirect effects on pollution levels such as tropospheric ozone

Forest location, composition and productivity are expected to vary due to the changes in global temperature. Tree species are likely to migrate due to the variations in climatic condition, causing changes in the geographic distribution of forest types further having new combination of species in the forests. In North America, many tree species are likely to move towards north or to higher elevations. Climate change can cause forest disturbance such as fire or disease. This can produce a significant impact on the future of forests and the market for the forest products such as timber. Many areas or regions have become drier due to climate change. These areas are more susceptible to the slight increase in temperatures, causing the risk of fire in those drier areas. Climate change can also contribute to the rapid increase of diseases and pests that harm the tree species. These kinds of disturbances also can be
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harmful to forests. However, this may have less impact at the market level due to salvage operations, which include harvesting timber from the dying forests. The impact of climate change can be seen everywhere. For example, the snows of Kilimanjaro are shrinking and are expected to disappear within next few decades. Glaciers and sea ice are gradually shrinking and by the end of this century, there may be no Arctic sea ice in summer. The Antarctic ice sheet is less likely to lose mass as it is in a very colder climate. Existing areas that are preferred for vegetation and crops may move towards the poles to adapt to the farming practices and ecosystems. However, there is limited scope for many species and ecosystem to move due to a wide variety of barriers. The most recent study estimates that approximately a quarter of the world's known animals and plants (more than a million species) are likely to die because of global warming, which is expected to increase in the next fifty years. 04.3.2 Agricultural impacts The impacts of climate change on agriculture depend on the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, rising temperatures and availability of water and nutrient resources. Increased levels of carbon dioxide can fertilise plants and crops. This is referred to as carbon dioxide fertilization effect. Rising temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis in the plants, thereby increasing the rate at which plant releases carbon dioxide. A slight increase in the level of temperature increases growth. However an extreme increase in the level of temperature can decrease the growth rate of plants. As the temperature rises, the rate of evaporation also increases, causing the soils to dry out. This results in insufficient water supply, which adversely affects the plant growth. Climate change produces extreme weather conditions such as high temperature, heavy rainfall, floods, drought, etc., that directly affects the agricultural yield. It also produces some indirect effects on agricultural yield mainly through changes in soil quality, pests, and diseases. As the temperature increases, pest population also increases, resulting in pest related problems in the agricultural fields. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), food production is expected to decline in low-latitude regions (particularly in the seasonally dry tropics) as even a mild
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increase in temperature decreases the agricultural yields in these areas. It is also expected that crop yield in tropical countries like India, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc., will reduce by at least 30% by 2050, causing severe impact on the country's food security. Today, many developing countries in Asia are facing a high risk of food shortage due to decline in crop production, rapid population growth and urbanisation. The IPCC projections indicate that in Africa, the land area suitable for agriculture is significantly reduced. Drought-prone areas of Africa are more vulnerable to food shortage. Some rain-fed yields are also expected to decline as much as 50% by 2020. African coral reef and mangroves is likely to degrade, producing negative effects on fisheries. Fish supplies in Africa may also reduce due to the rising lake temperatures and over fishing. In the higher latitudes, the winter season will be shorter and the growing season will be longer. Hence, rise in temperature generally benefit the agriculture in these areas. With the local average temperature ranging from 2 to 5F (1 to 3C), regions such as Northern Europe, North America, New Zealand, and parts of Latin America benefit from increased growing season length, depending on the crop. Generally, these areas expect more flooding. If the local average temperature goes beyond this range, then agricultural yields can reduce in some of these regions.

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Box 1. Climate Change likely to affect adversely in Bangladesh The climate all over the world is becoming more unsustainable. In recent years, many countries like the United States and the United Kingdom have been struck by unexpected floods, hot days and snow falls. This indicates that our climate is changing at a rapid rate, causing many changes in our lives and communities. Scientists predicted that in Bangladesh, the impact of climate change will be in the form of floods, salinity and droughts, causing severe affect on crop productivity and food security. The costal zones of Bangladesh might face the risk of rise in sea water level, lack of fresh water and river erosion. During the raining season, Bangladesh faces flooding of different scales. Climate change might increase the intensity and duration of such floods, producing devastating effects on society and economy of the country. Bangladesh is a densely populated country with over 1000 people per square kilometre. It has a low per capita income. More than 40 percent of the population lives in poverty while a significant percentage is hard core poor. This densely populated country is facing many natural problems such as cyclones, floods, droughts, etc as well as socioeconomic problems such as poverty, poor health, high unemployment, etc. In future, Bangladesh might also have to face adverse effect of climate change. (Source: The Financial Express, Dhaka, Monday, October 10, 2011)

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Box 2. Europeans fear climate change more than financial turmoil According to the new Euro barometer poll, Europeans consider that the impacts of climate change on environment is more serious than the current financial turmoil. The poll suggests that a large number of people in the European Union consider global warming as one of the world's most serious problems. Among these one-fifth considers it as the single most serious problem. Overall respondent consider climate change as the second most serious problem in the world, after poverty. This survey also showed that the Europeans do not consider the economic challenges as the only problem faced by the country. Majority of Europeans expect political as well as business leaders to deal with the serious challenges of climate change. According to poll, the number of people considering climate change as a very serious problem has increased from 64% in 2009 to 68% in 2011. People ranked the seriousness of the problem as 7.4 out of 10, which was slightly high compared to the score of 7.1 two years ago. People also believed that the country can gain economic benefits by tackling issues created from climate change. Eight out of 10 people considered that by addressing the serious climate challenges, country can boost its economy and create jobs. Two years ago, just two-third of the people considered climate change as serious problem. Around 68% of people across the European Union supported for imposing taxes to penalise the one involved in greenhouse gas emissions, thus encouraging energy efficiency. Many Europeans claimed that they took appropriate action like recycling household waste to combat climate change and minimise greenhouse gas emission in the past six months. However, this measure ranks fairly low with regard to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. European commission hailed the results of the Eurobarometer poll as an evidence so that people across member states support the measures to deal with problems caused due to climate change. Source: The Guardian, Friday 7, October 2011 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment)
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Projected impacts of climate change on Indian agriculture Increase in carbon dioxide to 550 ppm increases the production of crops such as rice, wheat, legumes and oilseeds by 10-20%. The production of crop decreased even with slight increase in temperature. A 1oC rise in temperature reduces the yields of wheat, soybean, mustard and groundnut. With 1oC increase in temperature, the yields of potato decreases by 3-7%. The production of crops is expected to decrease marginally by 2020, and by 10-40% by 2100. The production of chickpea, rabi maize, sorghum and millets, and coconut may possibly improve in west coast. North-western India may possible experience less loss in potato, mustard and vegetables due to reduced frost damage. Increase in droughts and flood can increase production variability and can have considerable impact on insects, microbes and pathogens. Rise in sea and water temperature may possible affect fish breeding, migration, and harvests. Increase in water, shelter and energy requirements to maintain livestock. Animal distress due to heat. Further, climate change produces negative effects on reproduction, causing loss of 1.5 million tons of milk by 2020. Instability in food trade because of positive effects on North America and Europe, and negative impacts on us. (Source: http://moef.nic.in/downloads/othersVulnerability_PK%20Aggarwal.pdf) Self Assessment Questions 1. Mild increase in temperature levels generally favourable for __________ sector. (a) Energy (b) Information technology (c) Construction (d) Agricultural
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2. Climatic factors play an essential role in forest development. Say true or false. 04.3.3 Impacts on Energy sector There is an impact of energy production and use on climate (Figure 15.2). Climate change impacts energy supply and demand depends not only on climatic factors, but even on land use, patterns of economic growth, population growth, technology change and different social and cultural trends that bring significant changes in the actions of the individuals and institutions. Hydropower is the energy source which is susceptible to changes in precipitation and temperature. Hence, Hydropower generation is likely to be directly affected by the climate change. It is difficult to project changes in precipitation at regional scale. This means, depending on the region, climate change may affect hydropower either positively or negatively. Climate change could possibly affect the infrastructure of energy production, transmission and distribution. For example, if there are extreme weather events in a region such as windstorms, ice storms, floods, tornadoes and hail, then the electric power transmission systems could have a higher rate failure, imposing a huge attendant costs. Operations of power plants can also be affected by high degree of heat waves. For example, during extreme temperature, the intake of water used to cool power plants become warm. Climate change also affects some renewable sources of energy. It is difficult to predict the climatic conditions. If climate change causes cloudiness, then the production of solar energy decreases. Climate change can also affect the production of wind energy. If the speed of wind is above or below the acceptable range of the technology, then it affects the production of wind energy. Climate change causes changes in growing conditions which in turn affects the biomass production and power plant fuel source, which has begun to receive more attention (IPCC, 2007). In northern hemisphere, as the world experience warm climate, the consumption of energy probably changes in climate-sensitive sectors. Following are the possible effects:
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(1) Energy utilised in commercial, residential and industrial buildings for space heating decreases and space cooling increases. (2) Energy used for water heating in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings decreases, whereas energy used for refrigeration and cooling increases. (3) Energy utilised to supply other resources for climate-sensitive work such as pumping water for irrigated agriculture and municipal uses increases. (4) Balance of energy used such as electricity used for air conditioning and natural gas used for heating changes. (5) Energy consumption in major climate-sensitive sectors of economy, which include transportation, construction, agriculture, and others, also changes.

Figure 04.2: Energy resources and uses

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(Source: Michael Grubb 2006, Climate change impacts, energy, and development, Paper to World Bank) 04.3.4 Human Health Impacts The local climatic conditions prevalent throughout the world influence the human health and the occurrence of some diseases. Extreme temperature can causes serious threats to life. Climate-related disturbances such as increase in the range of infective parasites in the ecological systems can result in the rise of many serious infectious diseases. Warm temperature can also increase air and water pollution, causing threats to human health. Human health can be affected by many factors such as urbanisation, affluence, individual behaviour and vulnerability (genetic makeup, nutritional status, and economic status), scientific developments, etc. The impacts of climate change on human health differ by region, extent of exposure to climate change, vulnerability of population groups and societys ability to adapt to the changes. According to IPCC, changing weather patterns directly affects the health of human beings, whereas, changes in water, air, food quality and quantity, ecosystems, agriculture, and economy imposes indirect impact on the human beings. The effects are expected to progressively increase throughout the world. Temperature: The average temperatures are predicted to raise the level of heat waves and intensify the incidence of hot extremes. By the end of the century, Chicago is predicted to experience 25% more heat waves and Los Angles is projected to experience a four-to-eight-fold rise in heat wave. People with heart problems or asthma, including the particular segments of population such as the elderly, the very young and the homeless, can be vulnerable to extreme heat. Extreme Events: Extreme weather events such as flood, drought, hurricanes, etc., can seriously affect the human health and well-being. The U.S Global Change Research Program is investigating how climate change increases the frequency and severity of these events. If the frequency of extreme events increases, then there will be increase in number of deaths, injuries, infectious diseases, and stress-related disorders. Climate-Sensitive Diseases: As the climate changes, the risk of some infectious diseases also increases. In warm areas, mosquitoes and other
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insects spread diseases like malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis. As the temperature increases, the algal blooms occur more frequently in areas with polluted waters. This makes the diseases, like cholera, that accompany algal blooms to become more frequent. Higher temperature and favourable rainfall patterns can sustain disease transmission seasons in the areas where diseases already exist. Heat waves, especially in urban "heat islands" can directly affect the people having heart problems or respiratory disease. Rise in temperatures can increase ground-level ozone as well as accelerate the onset of pollen season, leading to asthma attacks. The research conducted by IPCC showed that the risk of vector-borne diseases such as malaria is likely to increase globally by 220-400 million in the next century. The risk of vector-borne diseases is predicted to occur more in Africa. Other countries such as Britain, Australia, India and Portugal may also face some increased risk of such diseases.

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Box 3 Climate Change in India: A Case Study of Sundarbans mangroves The Sunderbans, world's largest mangrove ecosystem, spread across Bangladesh and India, covering an area of 6,000 Sq.km. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers meet at Sunderbans and flow into the Bay of Bengal. Sunderbans has 20,000 square km network of creeks and canals, tidal rivers and estuaries. It has about one hundred islands supporting rich biodiversity. The Sunderbans has the largest tiger population and is considered as the only mangrove tiger habitat in the world. Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) are very strong and uses a large territory. The IPCC has forecast that the extreme weather conditions, which include severe storm surges, droughts and flood, in Sunderbans may become worse. The sea level is also expected to rise, which may submerge the entire Sunderbans. It is also estimated that rise in sea level (about 45cm) can inundate 75% of the area while a 1m rise can completely inundate and submerge the Sunderbans, destroy productive lands, wipe out species, and devastate ecosystem goods and services. Scientists predict that about 15% of 12 islands of Sunderbans are identified as the most vulnerable and may possibly disappear by 2020. More than a million people in India and Bangladesh may likely be affected by 2050. In last few years, the region has experienced a rise in sea level (more than 2.5 cm/year), also the monsoon has been shifted for a period of 15 20 days, increases the vulnerability of the community and the ecosystem. About 65% of the people in Sunderbans depend upon agriculture and they strongly suspect climate change to be responsible for causing rise in sea level, delay in monsoon seasons, prolonged summer seasons and a drastic increase in rainfall over the past 15 years. The key threats to agriculture in Sunderbans include crop vulnerability due to changing weather patterns, exposure to pests and salinity in freshwater supplies.. Communities in Sunderbans have started to adapt to the climate change by changing crop types, increasing rainwater harvesting, changing the timing of cropping and constructing mud-barrages around the island. (Source: http://assets.wwfindia.org)
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04.4 Ozone Depletion

Stratospheric ozone and causes for its depletion is discussed in detail in previous chapters. The hole in the stratospheric ozone layer, over the Antarctic, is now the largest ever. Over the last 20 years, the emissions of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) have considerably decreased. However, the concern about the condition of stratospheric ozone still exists. Many industrialised countries have taken precautionary measures, way before the impacts were evident, to protect stratospheric ozone layer. Their responsiveness for making the reductions in the manufacture and consumption of ODS was successful throughout the world. Even though emissions of ODS have minimised in the last 20 years, it is estimated that the stratospheric ozone layer may not recover completely until between 2060 and 2075, assuming full Montreal Protocol compliance. Some degree of stratospheric ozone layer depletion can be seen everywhere, except over the tropics. Seasonal stratospheric ozone layer depletion is intense over the poles (the Antarctic in particular). The inhabited areas that are affected by the increase in ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation include parts of Chile, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. It is not possible to determine whether the area under the ozone hole has hit its peak because the ozone hole varies every year. The largest hole was seen in 2000, 2003 and 2006. On 25 September 2006, the ozone hole was over 29 million square kilometres, recorded as the largest ozone loss (World Meteorological Organisation 2006). Chemistry climate models indicate that recovery to pre1980 Antarctic ozone levels is possible by 2060-2075. The atmosphere above the Antarctic region is much colder than the atmosphere above the Arctic region. Hence the possibility of ozone depletion over the Arctic zone is likely to be less severe than the Antarctic region. Stratospheric meteorological conditions vary from one winter to another. Thus ozone depletion is highly variable during the Arctic winter and spring. Some unexpected ozone losses were also noticed over central Europe in summer of 2005. A future ozone hole above Arctic region may not appears as severe as that of the Antarctic ozone hole, however the population at risk from the Arctic ozone hole is much higher than the Antarctic ozone hole (UNEP 2006).
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Figure 04.3: Ozone layer depletion over Antarctic region (Source: NASA, 2006) The incidence of ozone depletion can impose a major effect on lives or ecosystems. Even if there is a minute hole in the ozone layer, a huge amount of ultraviolet light from the sun reaches the surface of the planet Earth. If 1% of the ozone layer is lost, then 2% of ultraviolet light is able to reach the Earth. As huge amount of ultraviolet light reaches the Earth, harmful consequences of ozone depletion also increases, causing skin cancer. Enormous exposure to this ultraviolet light can increase the cancer levels. According to EPA, around 60 million Americans born by the year 2075 would suffer from skin cancer, mainly due to ozone depletion. The EPA estimates that about one million of these people would die due to the complications. Some research also shows that increase in ozone depletion would also increase the occurrence of malaria and other infectious diseases. The EPA also expects to have 17 million more cases of cataracts. The ozone depletion would produce a negative effect on the environment. This would change the life cycle of plants, further disrupting the food chain. There would be severe effects on the animals, which would be very difficult to predict. Oceans would also be negatively affected by ozone depletion. Microscopic organisms like plankton may possibly die out. If that happened, then all other animals in the food chain (above plankton) would possibly not survive. Other ecosystems such as forests and deserts would also be
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affected by ozone depletion. The depletion of the ozone layer would also affect the planet's climate. This would change the wind patterns which in turn result in climatic changes throughout the world.

04.5. Resource Depletion Many comprehensive studies such as Millennium Ecosystem Assessment showed that long-term changes in the condition of natural resources produces negative impacts on society and economy. Over the past two centuries , the world has seen many impressive developments in human science and technology. However, the factors responsible for creating this highly sophisticated society possible are rapidly being depleted, ultimately threatening human survival. Current industrial civilization is built on a trinity of elements like metals, hydrocarbons (fossil fuels) and electricity. Each element is dependent on the other two. Electricity and metals are used to extract the hydrocarbons (fossil fuels), which create electricity and process metals from ore. Fossil fuels are used to generate electric power. Among the three elements, electricity is the most fragile element. Electrical failure gives a signal that the entire basis of current society is expected to collapse. In the period between 1990 and 2008, the use of electricity was increased by 70% throughout the world. The generation of global energy per capita is not increasing to the level at which (41% per capita) usage of electricity is increasing. In short, the rate at which energy is being used is faster than the rate at which it is produced. In fact, global economy is dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Petroleum products not only provide fuel but also provide other products such as asphalt, fertilizer, lubricants, paint and plastics. The world's population has used about half of the estimated 2 trillion barrels of petroleum in the period between 1850 and 2010. Presently, people use about 30 billion barrels of oil annually. Some analysts also estimated that by 2030, the production of oil will fall to about half of the amount. Coal and natural gas reserves are also on the decline. Meanwhile, global mineral depletion is not easy to determine. This is because of the following reasons:
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Recycling can recover usable minerals Economic trade makes it difficult to monitor the usage of minerals One mineral can replace another

The U.S. Geological Survey however indicates that most non-renewable resources have passed their peak amounts. Among these are bauxite (peaking in 1943), copper (1998), iron ore (1951), magnesium (1966), phosphate rock (1980), potash (1967), rare earth metals (1984), tin (1945), titanium (1964), and zinc (1969). In spite of recycling, the non-renewable resources continue to be vulnerable to depletion. In some location, clean water is more valuable than fossil fuel. That is because the production of fresh, clean water is considerably declining. According to the United Nations' Global Environment Outlook 4 report, by 2050, around two billion people (a third of the world's current population) are expected to live in regions with water scarcity, whereas, remaining twothirds may possibly be under water stress. This means that they will reach the threshold beyond which there will not be enough water to support agriculture, industry, energy production and domestic life. The lands suitable for cultivation of food crops are declining. From a global resource depletion viewpoint, the future of the world appears barren. The question to be answered is, whether mankind will be able to make decisions about population and energy conservations to preserve the human species before it is too late. Self Assessment Questions 3. Montreal Protocol deals about control of ozone depletion substance: say Yes or No 4. __________may lead to the changes in the geographic distribution of forest types. a) Landslides b) Tsunami c) Climate change d) floods 5. Natural resource depletion may leads to negative impacts on society. Say: Yes or No
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04.6. Pollution Hazards including Transboundary Effects

Environmental pollution is the main cause for the increased incidences of diseases (up to 20%) in developing countries. Poor women, in particular, are vulnerable to respiratory diseases due to exposure to the indoor air pollution. Acute respiratory infections are the main cause of death in children. Children under the age of five die due to Pneumonia (respiratory disease). Unsafe water and poor sanitation can be considered as the worlds second biggest killer of children. Due to diarrhoea (caused by infection and food poisoning), about 1.8 million children die every year and about 443 million school days are missed. Urban air pollution is severely affecting health of living beings and has become one of the most widespread environmental problems throughout the world. Air pollution has reduced in many industrialised countries, however in some countries, particularly in Asia, air pollution has considerably increased. Rapid growth of population, economic development and urbanisation are the factors responsible for deterioration of air quality and exploitation of fossil fuels. According to WHO, more than 1 billion people in Asian countries are exposed to air pollutant levels exceeding their guidelines (WHO 2000). WHO conducted a survey in 2002 which showed that more than 800,000 people died prematurely due to the effects of PM10.

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Figure 04.4: Premature Deaths Due to Outdoor Urban PM10 Pollution by Region in 2000 (Source: Geo Environment Outlook 4) Human activities on land either alter water availability or generate water pollutants, causing changes in water quality. The quality of water is good in upstream and in the open oceans, whereas the quality of water is degraded in downstream and in estuarine and coastal areas. Pollutants like microbial contaminants and excessive nutrient loads are a primary cause for concern. Groundwater found in some parts of Bangladesh and adjacent parts of India has high natural arsenic content. In many areas fluoride content is found in groundwater, causing major health impacts. Some of the main origins of pollutants are nutrients, Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), microbial pathogens, heavy metals and oxygen-consuming materials. The main origins of pollutants are pesticides, oxygen-consuming materials, suspended sediments and nutrients. Highly saline water and radioactive materials are also pollutants of primary concern in some locations. Inadequate sanitation facilities, improper wastewater disposal and animal waste cause microbial pollution, leading to severe human illness and death. Wastewater pollution on coastal waters causes several health impacts as well as imposes an economic cost of US$12 billion/year. A pollution that originates in one country and is able to spread to another country, through pathways like water or air, thereby affecting the country's environment is called Transboundary pollution. This type of pollution can be spread across hundreds and thousands of kilometres. It is not contained within the boundaries of any single nation. Hence it is called Transboundary Pollution. The major problem caused by this pollution is that it can carry pollution from a nation whose emissions are very high onto a nation where emissions are relatively low.

04.7 Summary
Let us recapitulate some important points discussed in this unit: Anthropogenic environmental ramifications are being considered responsible for millions of human deaths, early extinction of species and climate change.
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In spite of innovative measures and enforcements, environmental problems continue to grow in different shapes.

the

To alleviate the environmental problems at global level more tools like strategic environmental assessments that incorporate environmental concerns into policies should be made mandatory. The United States and Canada were the first to introduce the environmental assessments for planned policies in the 1970s. Such reforms in developing countries can check further environmental deterioration.

04.8 Glossary
Transboundary pollution: A pollution that originates in one country and is able to spread to another country, through pathways like water or air, affecting the country's environment. ODS: Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) such as CFCs. POPs: Persistent Organic Pollutants, which is responsible for point source pollution

04.9 Terminal Questions

1. Describe in detail about global environmental issues. 2. List out some of the impacts of climate change on human health. 3. Discuss- Impact of climate change on Indian agriculture sector. 4. How resource depletion would affect humanity. 5. Discuss in detail about transboundary pollution.

04.10 Answers
SAQ 1. (d) Agricultural 2. Yes
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3. Yes 4. c) Climate change 5. Yes

Terminal Questions 1. Refer section 04.2 2. Refer section 04.3 3. Refer section 04.3 4. Refer section 04.5 5. Refer section 04.6

References 1. Global Environment Outlook 4(2007), United Nations Environment Programme 2. OECD ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK TO 2030, (2008), ISBN 97892-64-04048-9 IPCC, (2007), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Exit EPA Disclaimer Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Eds:Parry, Martin L., Canziani, Osvaldo F., Palutikof, Jean P., van der Linden, Paul J., and Hanson, Clair E.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1000 pp. E-References 1. http://epa.gov/climatechange/effects/health.html. Accessed on October 2011. 2. http://library.thinkquest.org/ 26026/ Environmental_Problems/ ozone_depletion.html. Accessed on October 2011 3. http://environmental-issues.org/content/resource-depletion, http://www.inforesources.chf. Accessed on October 2011
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