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Medical Physics
Thermal Physics
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I feel hot
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Temperature Scales
Thermometers can be calibrated by placing them in thermal contact with an environment that remains at constant temperature Environment could be mixture of ice and water in thermal equilibrium Also commonly used is water and steam in thermal equilibrium
Celsius Scale
Temperature of an ice-water mixture is defined as 0 C This is the freezing point of water Temperature of a water-steam mixture is defined as 100 C This is the boiling point of water Distance between these points is divided into 100 segments
Kelvin Scale
When the pressure of a gas goes to zero, its temperature is 273.15 C This temperature is called absolute zero This is the zero point of the Kelvin scale (273.15 C = 0 K)
To convert: TC = TK 273.15
Fahrenheit Scales
Most common scale used in the US Temperature of the freezing point is 32 Temperature of the boiling point is 212 180 divisions between the points
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Type of Thermometer
v Change in electrical resistance (convenient
but not very linear) v Change in length of a bar (bimetallic strip) v Change in volume of a liquid v Change in volume of gas (very accurate but slow and bulky)
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Thermal Expansion
The thermal expansion of an object is a consequence of the
change in the average separation between its constituent atoms or molecules At ordinary temperatures, molecules vibrate with a small amplitude As temperature increases, the amplitude increases This causes the overall object as a whole to expand Rails expand and may buckle on a hot summer day
In most liquids or solids, when temperature rises molecules have more kinetic energy they are moving faster, on the average consequently, things tend to expand (works for a gas) amount of expansion DL depends on change in temperature DT L0 original length L0 coefficient of thermal expansion L0 + DL = L0 + a L0 DT DL = a L0 DT (linear expansion) V DV = b V0 DT (volume expansion) b @ 3a
DL
V + DV
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material
DL = a Lo Dt
a depends on the
DA = g Ao Dt , g = 2a
DV = b Vo Dt for solids, b = 3a
Crazing:
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If you quickly switch from eating/drinking something hot to something cold, the brittle enamel will contract more than the dentin, and develop small cracks called crazes.
Example
A copper telephone wire has essentially no sag between poles 35.0 m apart on a winter day when the temperature is 20.0C. How much longer is the wire on a summer day when TC = 35.0C? Assume that the thermal coefficient of copper is constant throughout this range at its room temperature value.
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1. Thermostats
Use a bimetallic strip Two metals expand differently
2. Pyrex Glass
Thermal stresses are smaller than for ordinary glass
3. Train rails
Keeping space between joints for possible expansion and contraction
Ideal Gas
Properties of gases o A gas does not have a fixed volume or pressure o In a container, the gas expands to fill the container Ideal gas: o Collection of atoms or molecules that move randomly o Molecules exert no long-range force on one another o Molecules occupy a negligible fraction of the volume of their container Most gases at room temperature and pressure behave approximately as an ideal gas
Moles
v Its convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in terms of the
number of moles, n
n=
v One mole is the amount of the substance that contains as many particles as
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Avogadros Hypothesis
Equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same numbers of molecules Consequences: At standard temperature and pressure, one mole quantities of all gases contain the same number of molecules This number is called Avogadros Number (NA =6.02 x 1023 particles / mole) Can also look at the total number of particles: N = n NA
matom =
molar mass NA
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At a constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to the volume v Charles Law At a constant pressure, the temperature is directly proportional to the volume v Gay-Lussacs Law At a constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the temperature
Lussacs Law PV = n R T
R is the Universal Gas Constant R = 8.31 J / mole K R = 0.0821 L atm / mole K
P V = N kB T
kB is Boltzmanns Constant kB = R / NA = 1.38 x 10-23 J/ K
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Questions
1. An ideal gas is confined to a container with constant volume. The number of moles is constant. By what factor will the pressure change if the absolute temperature triples? a. 1/9 b. 1/3 c. 3.0 d. 9.0 2. An ideal gas is confined to a container with adjustable volume. The number of moles and temperature are constant. By what factor will the volume change if pressure triples? a. 1/9 b. 1/3 c. 3.0 d. 9.0
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to the number of molecules per unit volume and to the average translational kinetic energy of a molecule
P=
3 N 1 2 mv 2 V 2
molecules
1 mv 2
KE
=
=
3 k BT 2
3 nRT 2
can have
U =
3 nRT 2
U is the internal energy of the gas In a polyatomic gas, additional possibilities for contributions to the
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vrms =
3 kB T 3RT = m M
Lighter molecules can more easily reach escape speed from the earth
Includes kinetic and potential energy associated with the random translational, rotational and vibrational motion of the atoms or molecules Also includes the intermolecular potential energy
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Units of Heat
v Calorie
An historical unit, before the connection between thermodynamics and mechanics was recognized A calorie is the amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C .
A Calorie (food calorie) is 1000 cal
1 cal = 4.186 J
This is called the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Specific Heat
v Every substance requires a unique amount of energy per
unit mass to change the temperature of that substance by 1 C directly proportional to mass (thus, per unit mass) v The specific heat, c, of a substance is a measure of this amount
c=
Q m DT
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Example1:
Given: Mass: m=0.5 kg Temp. DT= 5 Specific heat: cAl =900 J/kgC
Q = mc Al D T
)(
Q=?
Calorimeter
A technique for determining the specific heat of a
substance is called calorimetry A calorimeter is a vessel that is a good insulator that allows a thermal equilibrium to be achieved between substances without any energy loss to the environment
Calorimetry
Analysis performed using a calorimeter Conservation of energy applies to the isolated system The energy that leaves the warmer substance equals the energy that enters the water Qcold = -Qhot Negative sign keeps consistency in the sign convention of T
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Example: A 0.010-kg piece of unknown metal heated to 100C and dropped into the bucket containing 0.5 kg of water at 20C. Determine specific heat of metal if the final temperature of the system is 50C
Given: m1=0.010 kg m2=0.5 kg Specific heat (water): cW =4186 J/kgC Temperatures: T1=100 C T2=20 C Tf=50 C Find: Specific heat =? Mass: Conservation of energy: heat lost by metal is the same as heat acquired by water:
Qwater + Qmetal = 0
)(
cmetal = 1.25 10 J kg C
o
iron
Latent Heat
During a phase change, the amount of heat is given as
system and a negative sign if energy is being removed from the system Latent heat of fusion is used for melting or freezing Latent heat of vaporization is used for boiling or condensing
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1. Conduction
The transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale It is an exchange of energy between microscopic particles by collisions Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions from more energetic particles Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the substance
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Conduction example
The molecules vibrate about their equilibrium positions Particles near the flame vibrate with larger amplitudes These collide with adjacent molecules and transfer some energy Eventually, the energy travels entirely through the rod
Conduction can occur only if there is a difference in temperature between two parts of the conducting medium
Conduction
The slab allows energy to
transfer from the region of higher temperature to the region of lower temperature P= Q T -T = kA h c t L
Thermal conductivity
Heat flow
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P=
Q T -T = kA h c t L
length of a rod P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and t is in seconds k is the thermal conductivity of the material
Good conductors have high k values and good insulators have low k values
2. Convection
v Energy transferred by the
movement of a substance
When the movement results from differences in density, it is called natural conduction When the movement is forced by a fan or a pump, it is called forced convection
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Convection example
Air directly above the
flame is warmed and expands The density of the air decreases, and it rises The mass of air warms the hand as it moves by Applications:
Radiators Cooling automobile engines
3. Radiation
v Radiation does not require physical contact v All objects radiate energy continuously in
the form of electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations of the molecules v Rate of radiation is given by Stefans Law
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Radiation example
Radiation equation
P = AeT4
P is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts = 5.6696 x 10-8 W/m2 K4 A is the surface area of the object e is a constant called the emissivity
e varies from 0 to 1
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Find: Power =?
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Ideal Absorbers and Reflectors An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all of the energy incident on it e=1 This type of object is called a black body
An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of energy
Applications of Radiation
Clothing
Black fabric acts as a good absorber White fabric is a better reflector
Thermography
The amount of energy radiated by an object can be measured with a thermograph
Body temperature
Radiation thermometer measures the intensity of the infrared radiation from the eardrum
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Question
The use of fiberglass insulation in the outer walls of a building is intended to minimize heat transfer through what process? a. conduction b. radiation c. convection d. vaporization
A macroscopic state of an isolated system can be specified only if the system is in internal thermal equilibrium
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Work
Work is an important energy transfer
mechanism in thermodynamic systems Heat is another energy transfer mechanism Example: gas cylinder with piston
o The gas is contained in a cylinder with a moveable piston o The gas occupies a volume V and exerts pressure P on the walls of the cylinder and on the piston
A force is applied to
The compression is slow enough for all the system to remain essentially in thermal equilibrium
W = - P V
This is the work done on the gas
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When the gas is compressed V is negative The work done on the gas is positive When the gas is allowed to expand V is positive The work done on the gas is negative When the volume remains constant No work is done on the gas
W = - P V
Work=Area under the curve Work done on the gas
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Question
Find work done by the gas in this cycle.
P2
P1
Other Processes
Isovolumetric Volume stays constant Vertical line on the PV diagram Isothermal Temperature stays the same Adiabatic No heat is exchanged with the surroundings
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Example:
Calculate work done by expanding gas of 1 mole if initial pressure is 4000 Pa, initial volume is 0.2 m3, and initial temperature is 96.2 K. Assume a two processes: (1) isobaric expansion to 0.3 m3, Tf=144.3 K (2) isothermal expansion to 0.3 m3.
Given: n = 1 mole Ti = 96.2 K Tf = 144.3 K Vi = 0.2 m3 Vf = 0.3 m3 P = const Find: 1. Isobaric expansion:
W = PDV = P (V f - Vi ) = 4000 Pa (0.3m 3 - 0.2m3 ) = 400 J
Also:
Tf Ti Pf V f = PiVi
3 nR = V f = 0.3m = 1.5 Vi 0.2m3 nR
W=?
Example:
Calculate work done by expanding gas of 1 mole if initial pressure is 4000 Pa, initial volume is 0.2 m3, and initial temperature is 96.2 K. Assume a two processes: (1) isobaric expansion to 0.3 m3, Tf=144.3 K (2) isothermal expansion to 0.3 m3. Given: n = 1 mole Ti = 96.2 K Vi = 0.2 m3 Vf = 0.3 m3 T = const 2. Isothermal expansion:
V f W = nRT ln V i Vf = PiVi ln V i 3 0 .3 m = (4000 Pa ) 0.2 m 3 ln = 324 J 0 .2 m 3
Find:
Also:
Pf = Pi Vi 0.2m3 = 4000 Pa = 2667 Pa Vf 0.3m3
W=?
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v By heat
Occurs by random molecular collisions
v Results of both
Change in internal energy of the system Generally accompanied by measurable macroscopic variables
Pressure Temperature Volume
Q (Heat) Positive if energy is transferred to the system W (Work) Positive if done on the system U(Internal energy ) Positive if the temperature increases The relationship among U, W, and Q can be expressed as
U = Uf Ui = Q + W
This means that the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the energy transferred across the system boundary by heat and the energy transferred by work
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Example:
If 500 J of heat added to ideal gas that is expanding from 0.2 m3 to 0.3 m3 at a constant pressure of 4000 Pa, what is the change in its internal energy?
DU=?
other forms needed by the organs and into work and heat v The metabolic rate (U / T) is directly proportional to the rate of oxygen consumption by volume
Basal metabolic rate (to maintain and run organs, etc.) is about 80 W
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