Burial methods

In many cultures, human corpses were usually buried in soil. The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun around 200,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period by Homo sapiens, before spreading out from Africa. As a result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. Mounds of earth, temples, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors. In modern times, the custom of burying dead people below ground with a stone marker to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture, although other means such as cremation are becoming more popular in the west (cremation is the norm in India and mandatory in Japan[citation needed]). Some burial practices are heavily ritualized; others are simply practical.

[edit] Natural burial

While perceived as a new trend in modern burial, natural burial, the process by which a body is returned to the earth to decompose naturally in soil, has been practiced in Islam for almost 1500 years.[citation needed] Natural burial became popularized in the United Kingdom in the early 1990s by Ken West, a professional cemeterian for the City of Carlisle responding to the U.K's call for changes in government that aligned with the United Nations' Environmental Program Local Agenda 21[citation needed]. The practice is gaining ground rapidly and has now expanded to Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, North America, China, Japan.[citation needed]

[edit] Prevention of decay

A naturally mummified body in the British Museum. Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further delaying the decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin (also called a casket). A larger container may be used, such as a ship. In the United States, coffins are usually covered by a burial liner or a burial vault, which prevents the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.

These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a flood or some other natural process, the corpse will still not be exposed to open air.

[edit] Inclusion of clothing and personal effects

The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, of the deceased may be included with the body. This practice, also known as the inclusion of grave goods, serves several purposes:

In funeral services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest. The inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the afterlife. The inclusion of personal effects may be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have with them what was important to them on earth. Alternatively, in some cultures it is felt that when a person dies, their possessions (and sometimes people connected to them such as wives) should go with them out of loyalty or ownership. Though not generally a motivation for the inclusion of grave goods with a corpse, it is worth considering that future archaeologists may find the remains (compare time capsule). Artifacts such as clothing and objects provide insight into how the individual lived. This provides a form of immortality for the deceased.

[edit] Body positioning

Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Christian burials are made extended, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect. Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the head is pointed toward and the face is turned toward Mecca, the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space. [edit] Orientation Historically, Christian burials were made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian churches, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day (Eschaton). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy

are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at the General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people. [edit] Inverted burial For humans, maintaining an upside down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead. In Gulliver's Travels, the Lilliputians buried their dead upside down: They bury their dead with their heads directly downward, because they hold an opinion, that in eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again; in which period the earth (which they conceive to be flat) will turn upside down, and by this means they shall, at their resurrection, be found ready standing on their feet. The learned among them confess the absurdity of this doctrine; but the practice still continues, in compliance to the vulgar. Jonathan Swift, Jonathan Swift Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English millenarians the idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency. There is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labelliere of Dorking (d. June 4, 1800) lies thus upon the summit of Box Hill.[7] Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with a foundation in truth.[8]

[edit] Burial among African-American slaves

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In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance. At death, a slaves body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried east to west, with the head facing east and their feet to the west. This positioning represented the ability to rise without having to turn around at the call of Gabriels trumpet. Gabriels trumpet

would be blown in the eastern sunrise. East-west positioning also was the direction of home, Africa.

[edit] Burial in the Bah' Faith

Bah' burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate". The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead[9] is ordained. The body should be placed with the feet facing the Qiblih. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[10]

[edit] Locations
[edit] Where to bury
Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations. Thus in some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; others keep remains close to help surviving generations. Religious rules may prescribe a specific zone, e.g. some Christian traditions hold that Christians must be buried in "consecrated ground", usually a cemetery; an earlier practice, burial in or very near the church (hence the word churchyard), was generally abandoned with individual exceptions as a high posthumous honour; also many existing funeral monuments and crypts remain in use. Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral; see examples on Heraldica.org. In North America, private family cemeteries were common among wealthy landowners during the 18th and 19th centuries. Many prominent people were buried in private cemeteries on their respective properties, sometimes in lead-lined coffins. Many of these family cemeteries were not documented and were therefore lost to time and abandon; their grave markers having long since been pilfered by vandals or covered by forest growth. Their locations are occasionally discovered during construction projects.

[edit] Marking the location of the burial

Kanji inscriptions engraved headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in Broome, Western Australia Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a headstone. This serves two purposes. First, the grave will not accidentally be exhumed. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of immortality, especially in cases of famous people's graves. Such monumental inscriptions may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians. In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a necropolis, a "city of the dead" parallelling the community of the living. [edit] Unmarked grave In many cultures graves are marked with durable markers, or monuments, intended to help remind people of the buried person. An unmarked grave is a grave with no such memorial marker. The corpse of Pope Formosus was actually disinterred, placed on trial (see Cadaver Synod), found guilty, and ultimately thrown into the River Tiber. [edit] Anonymous burial Another sort of unmarked grave is a burial site with an anonymous marker, such as a simple cross; boots, rifle and helmet; a sword and shield; a cairn of stones; or even a monument. This may occur when identification of the deceased is impossible. Although many unidentified deceased are buried in potter's fields, some are memorialized, especially in smaller communities or in the case of deaths publicized by local media. Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The United Kingdom's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Westminster Abbey, France's is buried underneath the Arc de Triomphe, Italy's is buried in the Monumento al Milite Ignoto in Rome, Canada's is buried at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Australia's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, New Zealand's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Wellington and the United States' Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at Arlington National Cemetery.

Many cultures practise anonymous burial as a norm, not an exception. For instance, in parts of eastern Germany, up to 43% of burials are anonymous.[11] According to Christian Century magazine, the perspective of the Roman Catholic Church is that anonymous burials reflect a dwindling belief in God, but others claim that the practice relates more to the exorbitant cost of grave markers and the solitary nature of German life.[12] [edit] Secret burial In rare cases, a known person may be buried without identification, perhaps to avoid desecration of the corpse, grave robbing, or vandalism of the burial site. This may be particularly the case with infamous or notorious figures. In other cases, it may be to prevent the grave from becoming a tourist attractions or a destination of pilgrimage. Survivors may cause the deceased to be buried in a secret location or other unpublished place, or in a grave with a false name (or no name at all) on the marker. When Walt Disney was cremated his ashes were buried in a secret location in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, California. Some burial sites at Forest Lawn, such as those of Humphrey Bogart, Mary Pickford and Michael Jackson are secluded in private gated gardens or mausoleums with no public access. A number of tombs are also kept from the public eye. Forest Lawn's Court of Honour indicates that some of its crypts have plots which are reserved for individuals who may be "voted in" as "Immortals"; no amount of money can purchase a place. Photographs taken at Forest Lawn are not permitted to be published, and their information office usually refuses to reveal exactly where the remains of famous people are buried. Although the cemetery's owners state that this is meant to deter gravesite tourism, some critics say that the cemetery wishes visitors to purchase memorabilia at the funeral home's numerous gift shops instead of taking photographs for free, especially in the case of grave markers notable for their beauty.[13] [edit] Multiple bodies per grave

Megalith
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Megalithic tomb, Mane Braz, Brittany

Clooneen wedge tomb, the Burren, Co. Clare, Ireland

A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. Megalithic describes structures made of such large stones, utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement. The word 'megalith' comes from the Ancient Greek megas meaning great, and lithos meaning stone. Megalith also denotes an item consisting of rock(s) hewn in definite shapes for special purposes.[1][2][3] It has been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not being sepulchral.[4] The construction of these structures took place mainly in the Neolithic (though earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and continued into the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.[5]

Contents
[hide]

1 Early stone complexes in eastern Turkey 2 European megaliths o 2.1 Tombs o 2.2 Other structures o 2.3 Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe o 2.4 Timeline of megalithic construction 2.4.1 Mesolithic 2.4.2 Neolithic 2.4.3 Chalcolithic 2.4.4 Bronze Age 3 African megaliths o 3.1 Nabta Playa 4 Middle Eastern megaliths 5 Asian megaliths o 5.1 Northern style

5.2 Southern style 5.3 Capstone-style 5.4 Living megalith culture of Indonesia 5.5 Madia Gonds of Maharashtra, India 6 Analysis and evaluation o 6.1 Types of megalithic structures 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References o 10.1 Articles o 10.2 Books 11 External links

o o o o

[edit] Early stone complexes in eastern Turkey

Part of a megalithic structure at Gbekli Tepe (Turkey).

At a number of sites in eastern Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the 9th millennium BC have been discovered. They belong to the incipient phases of agriculture and animal husbandry, from which the European (or Western) Neolithic would later develop. Large circular structures involving carved megalithic orthostats are a typical feature, e.g. at Nevali Cori and Gbekli Tepe. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, it is not clear that any of the European Megalithic traditions (see below) are actually derived from them.[6] At Gbekli Tepe four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across. The stones carry carved reliefs of boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions.[7]

[edit] European megaliths

Poulnabrone portal tomb, Ireland

The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb a chamber consisting of upright stones (orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable whether use as burial sites was their primary function. Though generally known as dolmens the correct term accepted by archaeologists is, portal tomb, however many local names exist, such as anta in Portugal, stazzone in Sardinia, hunebed in the Netherlands, Hnengrab in Germany, dysse in Denmark, and cromlech in Wales. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds. The second-most-common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Br na Binne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France. The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long barrows, and German Steinkisten belong to this group. Another type of megalithic monument is the single standing stone, or menhir. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight, and, in some areas, long and complex alignments of such stones exist, for example, at Carnac in Brittany. In parts of Britain and Ireland the best-known type of megalithic construction is the stone circle, of which there are hundreds of examples, including Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar, and Beltany. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. They are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages.

[edit] Tombs

Large T shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger-Odoorn, Netherlands.

Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone. There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales, and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow. Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the Transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living. The Passage graves of Orkney, Ireland's Boyne Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross-shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at Maeshowe for example is unknown elsewhere in northwest Europe at the time. Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of megalithic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.

Cup and ring marks, England

Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey. Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.

[edit] Other structures

Associated with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large earthworks of various designs ditches and banks, broad terraces, circular enclosures known as henges, and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte dAccoddi in Sardinia. Sometimes, as at Glastonbury Tor in England, it is suggested that a natural hill has been artificially sculpted to form a maze or spiral pattern in the turf. It seems that spirals were an important motif for the megalith builders, and have been found carved into megalithic structures all over Europe along with other symbols such as lozenges, eye-patterns, zigzags in various configurations, and cup and ring marks. While not a written script in the modern sense of the term, these symbols are considered to have conveyed meaning to their creators, and are remarkably consistent across the whole of Western Europe.

[edit] Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe

In Western Europe and the Mediterranean, megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the Neolithic or late stone age and Chalcolithic or Copper Age (4500-1500 BC). Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England, although many others are known throughout the world. The French Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the Carnac stones. Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen, both taken from the Breton language, into antiquarian terminology. He interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs. In Britain, the antiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, Jacques

Cambry published a book called Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, prcdes d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques, where he proposed a Celtic stone cult. This completely unfounded connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since. In Belgium, there is a megalithic site at Wris, a little town situated in the Ardennes. In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the current, mostly in the province of Drenthe. Knowth is a passage grave of the Br na Binne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c.3500-3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of megalithic art in all Western Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations.

[edit] Timeline of megalithic construction

[edit] Mesolithic Excavation of some Megalithic monuments (in Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and France) has revealed evidence of ritual activity, sometimes involving architecture, from the Mesolithic, i.e., predating the Neolithic monuments by centuries or millennia. Caveats apply: In some cases, they are so far removed in time from their successors that continuity is unlikely; in other cases, the early dates, or the exact character of activity, are controversial. Examples include:

Circa 8000 BC: Wooden constructions in England (Stonehenge). Circa 5400 BC: Possible early dates in Ireland (Carrowmore).

[edit] Neolithic

Circa 5000 BC: Constructions in Portugal (vora). Emergence of the Atlantic Neolithic period, the age of agriculture along the western shores of Europe. Circa 4800 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Barnenez) and Poitou (Bougon). Circa 4000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Lisbon), France (central and southern), Corsica, England and Wales. Circa 3700 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Knockiveagh and elsewhere). Circa 3600 BC: Constructions in England (Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester), and Malta (gantija and Mnajdra temples). Circa 3500 BC: Constructions in Spain (Mlaga and Guadiana), Ireland (south-west), France (Arles and the north), Sardinia, Sicily, Malta (and elsewhere in the Mediterranean), Belgium (north-east) and Germany (central and south-west). Circa 3400 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Newgrange), Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark. Circa 3200 BC: Constructions in Malta (aar Qim and Tarxien).

Circa 3000 BC: Constructions in France (Saumur, Dordogne, Languedoc, Biscay, and the Mediterranean coast), Spain (Los Millares), Sicily, Belgium (Ardennes), and Orkney, as well as the first henges (circular earthworks) in Britain. Circa 2800 BC: Climax of the megalithic Funnel-beaker culture in Denmark, and the construction of the henge at Stonehenge.

[edit] Chalcolithic

Circa 2500 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Le Menec, Kermario and elsewhere), Italy (Otranto), Sardinia, and Scotland (northeast), plus the climax of the megalithic Bell-beaker culture in Iberia, Germany, and the British Isles (stone circle at Stonehenge). With the bell-beakers, the Neolithic period gave way to the Chalcolithic, the age of copper. Circa 2400 BC: The Bell-beaker culture was dominant in Britain, and hundreds of smaller stone circles were built in the British Isles at this time.

[edit] Bronze Age

Circa 2000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Er Grah), Italy (Bari), Sardinia (northern), and Scotland (Callanish). The Chalcolithic period gave way to the Bronze Age in western and northern Europe. Circa 1800 BC: Constructions in Italy (Giovinazzo). Circa 1500 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Alter Pedroso and Mourela). Circa 1400 BC: Burial of the Egtved Girl in Denmark, whose body is today one of the most wellpreserved examples of its kind. Circa 1200 BC: Last vestiges of the megalithic tradition in the Mediterranean and elsewhere come to an end during the general population upheaval known to ancient history as the Invasions of the Sea Peoples.[citation needed]

[edit] African megaliths

[edit] Nabta Playa

Nabta megalith

Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the Nubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day Cairo.[8] By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned the world's earliest known astronomical device, 1000 years older than, but comparable to, Stonehenge.[9] Research shows it to be a prehistoric calendar that accurately marks the summer solstice.[9] Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle.[9][10] There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert.

[edit] Middle Eastern megaliths

Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo, southwards down to Yemen. They can be encountered in northern Lebanon, southern Syria, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The most concentrated occurrence of dolmen in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Great Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights, the Hauran, and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia. The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from Mesopotamian times. Although not always 'megalithic' in the true sense, they occur throughout the Orient, and can reach 5 meters or more in some cases (such as Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament, such as those related to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10-22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating (standing) stones continued in Nabatean times and is reflected in, e.g., the Islamic rituals surrounding the Kaaba and nearby pillars. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East.

[edit] Asian megaliths

Northern-style megalithic burial from Jukrim-ri, Gochang-eub, North Jeolla Province, Korea.

Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula. They are also found in the Liaoning, Shandong, and Zhejiang in China, Kysh in Japan, Dong Nai province in Vietnam and parts of India. Some living megalithic traditions is found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula.[11][12] Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see Dolmen).

[edit] Northern style

Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in Manchuria, in particular the Liao River basin.[13][14] The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist.[15] An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River. Few northern-style megaliths in Manchuria contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals.[16] However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods.

[edit] Southern style

Southern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period.[15][16] Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type.

Representations of a dagger (right) and two human figures, one of which is kneeling (left), carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No. 5, Orim-dong, Yeosu, Korea.

As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals.[17] The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.

[edit] Capstone-style
These megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles.[18] A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700-550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56 X 18 m in size.

[edit] Living megalith culture of Indonesia

People on Nias Island in Indonesia move a megalith to a construction site, circa 1915. Digitally restored.

Toraja monolith, circa 1935.

Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian megalith cultures in past and present. Living megalith culture can be found in Nias, an isolated island offcoast western North Sumatra, Batak culture in interior North Sumatra, Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara, also Toraja culture in interior South Sulawesi. These megalith cultures remain preserved, isolated and undisturbed well until late 19th century. Several megalith sites and structures also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramids structure called Punden Berundak were discovered in various sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and Lesser Sunda Islands. Punden step pyramid and menhir can be found in Pagguyangan Cisolok and Gunung Padang, West Java. Cipari megalith site also in West Java displayed monolith, stone terraces, and sarcophagus.[19] The Punden step pyramid is believed to be the predecessor and basic design of later Hindu-Buddhist temples structure in Java after the adoption of Hinduism and Buddhism by native population. The 8th century Borobudur and 15th-century Candi Sukuh featured the steppyramid structure. Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues. Mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys.[20]

[edit] Madia Gonds of Maharashtra, India

A study[21] mentions living megalithic practices amongst the Madia Gonds. The Madia Gonds live in Bhamragad Taluka of Gadchiroli District of Maharashtra, India.

[edit] Analysis and evaluation

Megaliths were used for a variety of purposes. The purpose of megaliths ranged from serving as boundary markers of territory, to a reminder of past events, to being part of the society's

religion.[22] Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much like the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the indigenous peoples of India, Malaysia, Polynesia, North Africa, North America, and South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility.[23] In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic culture"[24] (hyperdiffusionism, e. g. 'the Manchester school',[25] by Grafton Elliot Smith and William James Perry), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods.[citation needed] Nor is it believed any longer that there was a European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such a small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote "Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No-one has ever been rash enough to claim a nation-wide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology!" [26]

[edit] Types of megalithic structures

The types of megalithic structures can be divided into two categories, the "Polylithic type" and the "Monolithic type".[27] Different megalithic structures include:
Polylithic type

Monolithic type

Dolmen: a free standing chamber, consisting of standing stones covered by a capstone as a lid. Dolmens were used for burial and were covered by mounds. Taula: a straight standing stone, topped with another forming a 'T' shape. Cistvaens Tumuli or barrows Punden or Punden Berundak: step earth and stone pyramid, similar to tumuli but enforced with stone walls. Cairns or Galgals Cromlech (ed., a Welsh term) Kurgans Nuraghi Talayots Sessi or Stazzone Round Towers Marae (Polynesia) Ahus with Moai and Pukao (Easter Island)

Menhir: a large, single upright standing stone. Alignements[28] (or Stone row avenues [e.g., Linear arrangement of upright, parallel standing stones]) Cycoliths (or stone circles) Stantare Trilithon: Two parallel upright stones with a horizontal stone (called a lintel) placed on top, e.g. Stonehenge. Orthostat: an upright slab forming part of a larger structure. Stone ship Statues such as most moai Gateways

[edit] Gallery
This section looks like an image gallery. Wikipedia policy discourages galleries of random images of the article subject; please improve or remove the section accordingly, moving freely licensed images to Wikimedia Commons if not already hosted there.

Megalithic tomb in Inside the burial Easter Island's Moai Menhirs at the Almendres Khakasiya, Russian chamber at Mane Braz, at Rano Raraku Cromlech, vora, Portugal Federation Brittany, France

Capstones of southern- Ale's Stones at Kseberga, Megalithic tomb in style megalithic burials around ten kilometres south Bryn Celli Ddu Khakasiya, Russian in Guam-ri, Jeollabuk- east of Ystad, Sweden Federation do, Korea

Talaiot in Majorca

the Great Menhir of Er Grah, the largest known Deer stone near Mrn single stone erected by Neolithic man, later in Mongolia deliberately toppled.

Menhir in the Cham des Bondons site, Lozre, France.

[edit] See also

List of megalithic sites Irish Megalithic Tombs Plain of Jars ranging from the Khorat Plateau in Thailand in the south, through Laos and to North Cachar Hills of northern India. Standing stone

Stone circle

Neolithic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.

The Neolithic
This box: view talk edit

Mesolithic
Europe Linear Pottery Vina culture Varna culture Vuedol culture Malta Temples Boian culture Cucuteni-Trypillian culture China South Asia Mehrgarh

Americas

Chalcolithic
Uruk period Pit Grave culture Corded Ware Europe Mesoamerica

farming, animal husbandry pottery, metallurgy, wheel circular ditches, henges, megaliths Neolithic religion Bronze Age

The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in the Middle East[1] that is traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioral and cultural characteristics, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals.[2] New findings put the beginning of the Neolithic culture back to around 10700 to 9400 BC in Tell Qaramel in northern Syria, 25 km north of Aleppo.[3] Until those findings are adopted within the archaeological community, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 9500 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (12,5009500 BC or 12,000-9500 BC[1]). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming. By 95009000 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 8000 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.[4]

Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery, and, in Britain, it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionallydistinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery before developing agriculture.[5][6][7] Unlike the Paleolithic, where more than one human species existed, only one human species (Homo sapiens) reached the Neolithic. Homo floresiensis may have survived right up to the very dawn of the Neolithic, about 12,000 years ago. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek , neolithikos, from neos, "new" + lithos, "stone", literally meaning "New Stone Age." The term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system.

Contents
[hide]

1 Periods by pottery phase o 1.1 Neolithic 1 Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) o 1.2 Neolithic 2 Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) o 1.3 Neolithic 3 Pottery Neolithic (PN) 2 Periods by region o 2.1 Fertile Crescent o 2.2 Southern Mesopotamia o 2.3 North Africa o 2.4 Europe o 2.5 South and East Asia o 2.6 America 3 Social organization 4 Shelter 5 Farming 6 Technology 7 Clothing 8 Early settlements 9 List of cultures and sites 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 Bibliography 13 External links

[edit] Periods by pottery phase

In Southwest Asia (i.e., the Middle East), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC.[1] Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g., Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by ca. 8000 BC. The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 5,0006,000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.[8]

[edit] Neolithic 1 Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)

Recent findings made by a Syrian-Polish joint excavation team run by Prof. R.E. Mazurowski, in Tell Qaramel, 25 km to the north of Aleppo put the beginning of the Neolithic 1 (PPNA) around 10700 to 9400 BC.[3] Previous excavations at that site brought the discovery of four circular towers dating back to between the eleventh millennium and about 9,650 BC[citation needed]. Until the findings in Tell Qaramel are adopted within the archaeological community, sites in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine & Jbeil (Byblos), Lebanon) that go back to around 9500 to 9000 BC. are still considered the beginning of the Neolithic 1 (PPNA). The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by scientists in the British Museum and Philadelphia laboratories[citation needed]. An early temple area in southeastern Turkey at Gbekli Tepe dated to 10,000 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the Neolithic 1. This site was developed by nomadic huntergatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site may be the oldest known man-made place of worship.[9] At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (100,000 m2), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which may have supported roofs. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and selective breeding). In the 21st century, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9,400 BC. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains. (Source: "Ancient Figs May Be First Cultivated Crops" by Christopher Joyce, NPR.org, last accessed 28 January 2009. [5]) Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbrick. The husband had

one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses.[citation needed] The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are also some enclosures that suggest grain and meat storage.

[edit] Neolithic 2 Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)

The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8500 BC in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine).[1] As with the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. But this terminological structure is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. This era was before the Mesolithic era. Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.

[edit] Neolithic 3 Pottery Neolithic (PN)

The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6500 BC in the Fertile Crescent.[1] By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.

[edit] Periods by region

[edit] Fertile Crescent
Around 9500 BC, the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent.[1] Around 10700 to 9400 BC, a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 25 kilometers north of Aleppo. The settlement included 2 temples dating back to 9650.[3] Around 9000 BC during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), the world's first town, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 20003000 people and a massive stone tower.[10] Around 6000 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.

[edit] Southern Mesopotamia

Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 5500 BC.

[edit] North Africa

Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC[citation needed]. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium bc in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange.[11] Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.[12][13][14]

[edit] Europe

Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in Neolithic Europe, ca. 4500 BC

Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves).

In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BC,[15] and in Central Europe by ca. 5500 BC. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the Sesklo culture in Thessaly , which later expanded in the Balkans giving Starevo-Krs (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vina. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vina culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vina signs, though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists[who?] that the Sumerian cuneiform script was the earliest true form of writing and the Vina signs most likely represented

pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing.[citation needed] The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300-2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of gantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BC.The Hypogeum of al-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands.

[edit] South and East Asia

The oldest Neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh from 7000 BC. It lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."[16] One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle Ganges region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BC.[17] Recently another site near the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BC for its Neolithic levels.[18] A new 2009 report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa shows new C14 datings that range between 8000 BC and 9000 BC associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia. In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. In East Asia, the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC. The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone adze and axes are used in the present day (As of 2008 CE) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail.

[edit] America
In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,00010,000 BC, although here the term "Pre-Classic" (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term Archaic Era for the Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic.[citation needed]

[edit] Social organization

Anthropomorphic Neolithic figurine

Anthropomorphic Female Neolithic clay figurine

During most of the Neolithic age, people lived in small tribes of 1502000 members that were composed of multiple bands or lineages.[19] There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age.[20] Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian.[19] However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-gatherer cultures in general[21][22] The domestication of animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced.[23] However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catalhoyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain strong possibilities. There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch.[24][25] Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at Herxheim,[26] which, whether the site of a massacre or of a martial ritual, demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups." and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period.[27] This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle."[28] Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man', a proto-chief or a matriarch, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age.[29] Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.

[edit] Shelter

Reconstruction of Neolithic house in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster.[30] The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses.[30] The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept.[citation needed]

[edit] Farming
Main article: Neolithic Revolution

A Cucuteni-Trypillian culture deer antler plough

Food and cooking items retrieved at a European Neolithic site: millstones, charred bread, grains and small apples, a clay cooking pot, and containers made of antlers and wood.

A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands. The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe. One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was the possibility of producing surplus crop yields, in other words, food supplies in excess of the immediate needs of the community. Surpluses could be stored for later use, or possibly traded for other necessities or luxuries. Agricultural life afforded securities that pastoral life could not, and sedentary farming populations grew faster than nomadic. However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities.[23] Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued. Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of

successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated. In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively populationdense sites would have altered sanitation needs and patterns of disease.

[edit] Technology

A Neolithic artifact from Romania.

Clay Figure from 4900 - 4750BC depicting a piece of Furniture

Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly-won farmland. Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At atal hyk, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives. The peoples of the Americas and the Pacific mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool technology until the time of European contact. Exceptions include few copper hatchets and spearheads in the Great Lakes region. However, there are numerous examples of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia. Those include the Inca, Maya, ancient Hawaii, Aztec, Iroquois, Mississippian and Mori.

[edit] Clothing
Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather, but not cloth. However, wool cloth and linen might have become available during the British Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by tzi the Iceman, although he was not British and not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).

[edit] Early settlements

Reconstruction of a Cucuteni-Trypillian hut, in the Tripillian Museum, Ukraine.

Neolithic human settlements include:

Tell Qaramel in Syria, 10700 - 9400 BC Tabon Cave Complex in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines 5000 2000 BC[citation needed] Padah-Lin Caves in Myanmar, ca 11000 BC Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (ca. 10000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500 6000 BC Gbekli Tepe in Turkey, ca. 9000 BC Jericho in West bank, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture Nevali Cori in Turkey, ca. 8000 BC Ganj Dareh in Iran, ca. 7000 BC

The Archaeological Site of atal Hyk in the Konya Plain in Turkey

atalhyk in Turkey, 7500 BC Pengtoushan culture in China, 7500 6100 BC 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, 72505000 BC Chogha Bonut in Iran, 7200 BC Jhusi in India, 7100 BC Karanovo in Bulgaria, 6200 BC Petnica in Serbia,6000 BC Sesklo in Greece, 6850 BC (with a 660 year margin of error) Dispilio in Greece, ca. 5500 BC Jiahu in China, 7000 to 5800 BC Mehrgarh in Pakistan, 7000 BC Knossus on Crete, ca. 7000 BC Lahuradewa in India, 9000 BC Porodin in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC[31] Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC[31] Pizzo di Bodi (Varese), Lombardy in Italy, ca 6320 80 BC Sammardenchia in Friuli, Italy , ca 6050 90 BC, Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, 5500 - 2750 BC, in Ukraine, Moldova and Romania first salt works Hemudu culture in China, 5000 4500 BC, large scale rice plantation

around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400 2800 BC The Megalithic Temples of Malta, 3600 BC Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland, from 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively Br na Binne in Ireland, ca. 3500 BC Lough Gur in Ireland from around 3000 BC Lajia in China, 2000 BC

The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, dates from 3800 BC and the world's oldest free-standing structure is the neolithic temple of Ggantija in Gozo, Malta.

[edit] List of cultures and sites

Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae (Orkney, Scotland), Europe's most complete Neolithic village.

Note: Dates are very approximate, and are only given for a rough estimate; consult each culture for specific time periods. Mesolithic Periodization: The Levant: 20,000 to 9500 BC; Europe: 9660 to 5000 BC; Elsewhere: 14,000 to 400 BC

Azilian culture Balkan mesolithic cultures Capsian culture Fosna-Hensbacka culture Harifian culture Kebaran culture Jmon cultures Jeulmun culture Komsa culture Kongemose culture Kunda culture Lepenski Vir culture

Maglemosian culture Natufian culture Neman culture Nstvet and Lihult cultures Sauveterrian culture Tardenoisian culture Zarzian culture

Early Neolithic Periodization: The Levant: 10,000 to 8500 B.C.; Europe: 5000 to 4000 B.C.; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.

Beixin culture Cishan culture Dudeti culture Franchthi Cave people o Earliest European Neolithic site: 20th to 3rd millennium BC Sesclo village culture Starcevo-Cri culture o (also known as the Starevo-Krs-Cri culture)

Middle Neolithic Periodization: The Levant: 8500 to 6500 B.C.; Europe: 4000 to 3500 B.C.; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.

Baodun culture o Jinsha settlement and Sanxingdui mound. Cardium Pottery culture Comb Ceramic culture Corded Ware culture Cortaillod culture Cucuteni-Trypillian culture Dadiwan culture Dawenkou culture Daxi culture o Chengtoushan settlement Grooved ware people o Skara Brae, et al. Erlitou culture o Xia Dynasty Erteblle culture Hembury culture Hemudu culture Hongshan culture Houli culture Horgen culture Liangzhu culture

Linear Pottery culture o Goseck circle, et al. Longshan culture Majiabang culture Majiayao culture Peiligang culture Pengtoushan culture Pfyn culture Precucuteni culture Qujialing culture Shijiahe culture Trypillian culture Vina culture Windmill Hill culture o Stonehenge Xinglongwa culture o Beifudi site Xinle culture Yangshao culture o Banpo and Xishuipo settlements. Zhaobaogou culture

Later Neolithic Periodization: 6500 to 4500 B.C.; Europe: 3500 to 3000 B.C.; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region. Eneolithic Periodization: Middle East: 4500 to 3300 B.C.; Europe: 3000 to 1700 B.C.; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region. In the Americas, the Eneolithic ended as late as the 1800s for some people.

Beaker culture Cucuteni-Trypillian culture Funnelbeaker culture Gaudo Culture Lengyel culture Varna culture

[edit] See also

Megalith Neolithic Europe Neolithic Revolution Neolithic religion Neolithic tomb

tzi the Iceman Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Paleolithic Rock art of the Djelfa region

[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ a b c d e f Figure 3.3 from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies by Peter Bellwood, 2004 2. ^ Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", although this has not gained wide acceptance. 3. ^ a b c [1] Yet another sensational discovery by polish archaeologists in Syria 4. ^ The potter's wheel was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry. 5. ^ Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3. ISBN 0521772133 (HB), ISBN 0521776708 (PB). 6. ^ Japan Echo, Inc. (June 22, 1999). "Jomon Fantasy: Resketching Japan's Prehistory". Trends in Japan. http://web-japan.org/trends00/honbun/tj990615.html. Retrieved 2008-04-14. 7. ^ Keally, Charles T. (2004). "'Fakery' at the Beginning, the Ending and the Middle of the Jomon Period". Bulletin of the International Jomon Culture Conference 1. Archived from the original on 2008-03-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20080316225317/http://www.jomon.or.jp/ebulletin11.html. Retrieved 2008-04-14. 8. ^ "New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS". Institute of Archaeology Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=982. Retrieved 2007-09-18. 9. ^ "The World's First Temple", Archaeology magazine, Nov/Dec 2008 p 23. 10. ^ "Jericho", Encyclopedia Britannica 11. ^ Barker, Graeme The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why did Foragers become Farmers? OUP Oxford (22 January 2009) ISBN 978-0199559954 pp.292-293 [2] 12. ^ Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y; RMW Dixon Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics p.35 [OUP Oxford (2 March 2006) ISBN 978-0199283088] 13. ^ Hassan, Fekri Droughts, Food and Culture: Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa's Later Prehistory Springer (31 March 2002) ISBN 978-0306467554 pp.164 [3] 14. ^ Shillington, Kevin Encyclopedia of African History Routledge; 1 edition (18 November 2004) ISBN 978-1579582456 p.521 [4] 15. ^ Female figurine, circa 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece 16. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. "Mehrgarh". Guide to Archaeology 17. ^ Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic" 18. ^ Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28" 19. ^ a b Leonard D. Katz Rigby (2000). Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives. United kingdom: Imprint Academic. pp. 352. ISBN 0719056128. http://books.google.com/?id=inmTyPPdR5oC&pg=RA1-PA158&dq=Neolithic+egalitarianism. Page 158 20. ^ Killen, pg 422. 21. ^ "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 19972007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Archived 2009-11-01. 22. ^ Guthrie, pg 420.

23. ^ a b Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc 24. ^ Idyllic Theory of Goddess Creates Storm 25. ^ Krause (1998) under External links, places. 26. ^ Orschiedt (2006) under External links, Places. 27. ^ Guthrie, pg 422 28. ^ Gimbutas (1991) page 143. 29. ^ Ian Kuijt (2000) "Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and differentiation" page 317 Springer press 30. ^ a b Shane, Orrin C. III, and Mine Kuk. "The World's First City." Archaeology 51.2 (1998): 43 47. 31. ^ a b Developed Neolithic period, 5500 BC

[edit] Bibliography

Bellwood, Peter (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0631205667. Pedersen, Hilthart (2008), "Die jngere Steinzeit auf Bornholm", Mnchen & Ravensburg. ISBN 978-3638945592

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Neolithic

McNamara, John (2005). "Neolithic Period". World Museum of Man. http://worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic1.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-14. Rincon, Paul (11 May 2006). "Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4757861.stm. Retrieved 2008-04-14. Vincha Neolithic Script UB Prhistoire Enseignements sur le Nolithique

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic" Categories: Neolithic | Holocene | Stone Age | Greek loanwords Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010 | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 | All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases | Articles with specifically marked weaselworded phrases from December 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 | Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008 | All articles containing potentially dated statements | Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008

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