Abstract

This paper analyses the international development of convention tourism and reveals the changing fortune of convention cities over the last decades. Based on primary data from a survey of meeting planners, it is shown that service, cost, image, location, and facilities are the main underlying factors in the planners decision making process. An analysis of convention destination images of 30 North American cities evidences considerable image differences among the destinations. Furthermore, planners with previous experience with a specific city generally have a more favourable perception of that destination.

Convention Cities - Images and Changing Fortunes

Martin Oppermann

Introduction The conventions and meetings industry is rapidly emerging as one of the most important sectors not only within business travel but also in the whole tourism industry. In recognition of its importance, conference centres and congress halls are built around the world not only in the major cities and capitals but increasingly in secondary and tertiary cities and resort areas. For example, it has been estimated that there are 434 convention centres in the United States alone (Fenich, 1992) and more than 300 congress and convention halls and some 600 cities equipped with conference facilities in Germany (Meetings & Conventions, 1993). Existing facilities are expanded so that a destination remains competitive with respect to available exhibit space (Ghitelman, 1995). International conventions have shown a rapid growth of 101.5% between 1982 and 1993 (LaBasse, 1984; Rockett & Smillie, 1994), outpacing the worldwide growth in tourist arrivals of 72.8% during the same time period (WTO, 1994). Auckland, Sydney, Hong Kong, Seoul, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Mexico City, and Acapulco are but a few examples of convention destinations attempting to capture a larger share of the convention business. Yet, why do all these destinations want more convention business and why are convention centres built although it is a well recognised fact that many if not the majority are operating at a loss (Major, 1993; McGee, 1993; Wiesendanger, 1995)? One reason is that convention centres are important to attract the larger conventions and the high spending delegates to a destination. It is usually assumed by the city that any losses incurred by the convention centre are more than recuperated through the spending of the attendees throughout the city on accommodation, transportation and food establishments resulting in increased tax revenues (Fenich, 1992). Convention Centres typically gauge success by room nights generated in area hotels, bed tax

Dr. Martin Oppermann is Senior Lecturer in Tourism Management, Management Development Centre, Waiariki Polytechnic, Rotorua, New Zealand.

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revenues or facility occupancy rates, rather than by revenue or profit" (Wiesendanger, 1995, p. 14). In the United States, it is estimated that convention attendees infuse an estimated US$1,287 per convention into the local economy. In addition, conference organisers spend another US$100-140,000 per meeting on site for food and beverages, space rental, etc. (Edelstein & Benini, 1994). In New Zealand, conference delegates spend NZ$300 per day or almost three times more than the NZ$111 of the average tourist (NZTN, 1995). Obviously, these figures are estimated averages only and, d ependent on the individual and the conference size, may vary considerably among individuals and conventions. Other reasons are the seasonality and exposure factors. While special events or hallmark events such as the Olympic Games may bring a huge influx of visitors in a short period of time, conventions provide for a more year-round demand and especially during the off or shoulder seasons (Abbey & Link, 1994; NZTN, 1995). Further, this form of group business provides for an exposure to many participants who may very well turn into repeat visitors provided they leave with a favourable impression. Despite its worldwide importance, the convention industry has been a largely neglected area of tourism research as several authors have stated in recent reviews of the field (e.g., Abbey & Link, 1994; Oppermann, 1994; Zelinsky, 1994). This paper aims to provide an overview of the development of convention tourism over the last four decades and trace changes in the international distribution pattern of convention sites over the same time period. Based on a survey of association meeting planners, it discusses images of North American convention destinations with a special emphasis on the effect of previous experience on

the side of the meeting planner on their perceptions. Convention tourism The attentive reader has already noted that different terms are used to denote the same or similar thing. Convention, congress, and conference all fall within the same category with differences in usage and meaning on an international level. Lawson (1980, p. 188) suggested that: Congresses a re usually ge neral sessions, mostly information giving and the commonly accepted traditional form of full-membership meeting. Conventions is a term widely used in North America and the Pacific region to describe major or total-membership meetings. Conferences are usually general sessions and face-tofa ce groups with a high participation, primarily concerned with planning, obtaining facts and information, or solving organisational and operational problems. Yet within a full-membership meeting, gatherings of groups discussing special topics ar e common qualifying for the more face-to-face definition of conferences. Since the present paper discusses this industry first from an international perspective and the from a more North American point of view, all three terms are henceforth used as synonyms. Most commonly convention tourism is associated with business tourism highlighting its business aspects rather than its leisure, educational or other aspects. However, business aspects are only part of the motivational factors of convention attendees and especially within the professional association convention arena other variables appear to be of greater importance (Grant, 1994; Price,

1993). Hence, differences are notable within the convention industry and usually two main sectors are identified: corporate and association meetings (Chon, 1991). The former is the more business oriented sector and, as in other business travel, place and time are mostly determined by business interests and the individual traveller has usually little influence on these. In addition, the corporate conference attendee generally has all her/his expenses paid. On the other hand, association conferences and the decision process of the association conference attendees resemble more the pleasure travel segment of the tourism industry. Participants attend at their own leisure, can decide which conference they want to attend and what times or places they prefer or dislike. Further, they often pay at least part of their way if not all their expenses. Commonly educational motives are also a major factor in both corporate and association conferences. Sales managers are informed of new products, mark eting directors of new strategies, professors want to learn the latest advances in their field, agricultural associations want to inform their members of current developments in government policy, etc. Another motive might be the reunion with friends or professional colleagues. Historical development Currently, conventions and meetings induce several hundred million person trips each year, constituting one of the largest segments within the tourism industry (USTDC, 1993). Despite the large numbers involved and their high spending very little information exists on this industry. Many countries and destinations that receive far less visitors have a much better documentation of their tourism industry. One of the reasons why so little research has focused on this industry is this dearth of a comprehensive documentation.

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Table 1: International Congresses by Continent, 1954-1993. Continent 1954 in % 1968 in % 1982 in % Africa 27 3 92 3 148 3 Americas 197 19 497 18 822 19 Asia 40 4 212 8 470 11 Australia-Oceania 6 1 29 1 110 3 Europe 788 74 1,898 70 2,826 65 World 1,058 100 2,728 100 4,376 100

1993 in % 446 5 1,802 20 1,138 13 162 2 5,269 60 8,817 100

Sources: Alkjaer 1970; LaBasse 1984; Rockett and Smillie 1994.

The only consistent data is provided by the Union of International Associations (UIA) which reports international conf erences in its member countries and destinations. However, even these statistics are only as good as the data provided by the respective organisation. Rockett and Smillie (1994) lamented the lack of more detailed data in Europe and suggested that North America is the most advanced with respect to its recognition of this industry and its data collection. However, as Zelinsky (1994) noted in his analysis of the U.S. meetings industry, some of the existing data banks are also not very reliable and he disclosed a serious underreporting of conferences by the destinations. Thus, one should treat any data available with the necessary caution. International distribution The examination of international conferences based on the UIA data suggests the growing importance of the convention industry. It also reveals a changing trend with regard to primary and secondary countries and/or destinations. Table 1 presents a summary of the development over the last 40 years by world region. Europe is the region with the largest share of international conferences. However, its share has been continuously declining from 74% in 1954 to 60% in 1993. The major beneficiary of this decline apparently has been Asia whose share more than tripled from 4% to 13% in the same time period. The changing prominence of

individual countries on the international level is portrayed in Table 2. A lthough the top countries remained virtually unchanged from 1982 to 1992, it is among the lower ranks where considerable fluctuations occur from year to year. Special or hallmark events such as the Olympic Games in Spain (1992) or the World Expo in Australia (1988) appear to exert a positive influence on the number of conventions held in the same country. Consequently the country attains a higher position in the hierarchy. The strong European representation among the top 10 c ountries for international conventions mirrors its position in the whole tourism industry. The proximity of most European countries to each other and the strong interrelationships between them results in many European organisations and consequently international conferences. On a destination level, Paris and London are the primary locations for international congresses (Table 3). Although the United States hold the first rank on

country level only Washington D.C. was among the top 10 destinations during the last few years. One reason for the strong showing of the USA on country level is that it has several venues that attract international conventions albeit not in very large numbers. The United Kingdom, on the o ther hand, is mostly represented by London. In the case of France, Strasbourg was also ranked among the top 15 convention cities besides Paris, mostly by virtue of being one of the seats of the European Union. The changing fortune of convention cities is apparent. The once primary destination New York dropped from 6th rank (1954) to 8th (1968) and 13th (1990) and was not even among the top 15 in 1992. Hence, while some destinations were successful in maintaining or even improving their position, others lost in relative importance. Notable is the emergence of Asian conference destinations on the international congress arena. Especially Singapore appears to be very successful and has been among the top 10 since 1988. The already mentioned special or hallmark events have not only a positive influence on the country level but also apparently improve the potential of the specific destination to attract international conventions. Seoul (Olympic Games 1988) and Barcelona (1992 Olympics) are two good examples. Only in 1988 Seoul was ranked among the top

Table 2: Top ten countries for international conventions, selected years 1982 1992. 1982 1986 1988 1990 1992 USA France UK Switzerland Belgium W.-Germany Italy Austria Netherlands Denmark USA France UK W.-Germany Switzerland Spain Italy Netherlands Belgium Canada USA UK France W.-Germany Italy Australia Netherlands Switzerland Belgium Spain USA France UK Germany Netherlands Italy Switzerland Belgium Spain Japan USA France UK Germany Spain Netherlands Italy Belgium Switzerland Japan

Sources: LaBasse 1984; Smith 1989; Rockett and Smillie 1994.

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Table 3: Top 15 cities for international congresses, selected years 1954-1992. 1954 Paris Geneva London Rome Brussels New York Vienna Amsterdam Copenhagen The Hague Munich Zurich Stockholm Liege Washington 1968 Paris Geneva London Brussels Strasbourg Vienna Rome New York Mexico City W. Berlin Tokyo Prague Washington Madrid Copenhagen 1982 Paris London Geneva Brussels Vienna New York Copenhagen Rome Tokyo Strasbourg W. Berlin Hong Kong Washington Dublin Singapore 1988 Paris London Madrid Brussels Geneva W. Berlin Rome Sydney Singapore Washington Vienna New York Strasbourg Amsterdam Seoul 1990 Paris London Brussels Vienna Geneva Berlin Madrid Singapore Amsterdam Washington Strasbourg Rome New York Copenhagen The Hague 1992 Paris London Brussels Vienna Madrid Geneva Amsterdam Singapore Washington Barcelona Copenhagen Strasbourg Hong Kong Budapest Prague

Sources: Alkjaer 1970; LaBasse 1984; Smith 1991, Rockett and Smillie 1994.

15 destinations and Barcelona managed to penetrate the top 10 only in 1992. The shifting pattern of convention fortunes is not only notable on international level but also within a country. Zelinsky (1994) illustrated how the spatial distribution of the U.S. convention industry changed between 1964/65 and 1990/91. The increasing number of secondary destination with adequate convention facilities contributed towar ds a lesser concentration of the industry in a few destinations. Overall, in this case, there was an obvious shift from the Northeast towards the Sunbelt states. Although this shift mirrors a more general population shift, Zelinsky also demonstrated that population size and/or population hinterland is not influencing the position of a given city on the convention destination hierarchy. One point in case is Las Vegas which had less than one million inhabitants and a population hinterland of virtually zero within several hundred kilometers. But, in 1990/91, it was fourth ranked with respect to estimated number of conference participants as compared to its 65th rank with respect to population size (Zelinsky, 1994, p. 73). Some of the major negative rank changes in the analysed period occurred

to Atlantic City (-37 ranks), Miami (-23), Philadelphia (-19), Pittsburgh (-19), and New York (9). Some of the listed major benefactor s were Las V egas (+16), New Orleans (+14), San Antonio (+12), and Seattle (+11). What contributed to these considerable changes? While the adequacy of physical facilities such as meeting and hotel rooms and accessibility are undoubtedly among the major factors, the convention destination image is likely to play a major role too. But overarching all of these factors and influences is another great, pervasive variable: the reputation or image of a potential convention site .... Perception is what matters, and it matters mightily (Zelinsky, 1994, p.75). Yet, convention destination images has been an almost completely neglected area of inquiry. Destination image and previous experience Destination images have attracted considerable interest within tourism research. Hunts (1975) seminal article on images of four North American states prompted several studies on that topic and eventually several

destination selection process and image formation models have been proposed and discussed (e.g., Chon, 1990; Crompton, 1979; Gartner, 1993; Woodside & Lysonski, 1989; Woodside & Sherrell, 1977). Echtner and Ritchies (1991, 1993) reviews of destination image studies indicate that images of states or countries was the main focus while city images have been largely ignored. Yet, over the last few years, the importance of urban image has been highlighted (e.g., Ashworth & Voogd, 1990; Kotler, Haider & Rein, 1993; Law, 1993). Another emerging topic is urban reimaging (e.g., Kearsley, 1994). Nevertheless, comparative studies of city images appear to be still lacking. A dearth of publications on convention destination image studies has also been noted (Oppermann, 1994). Despite some early interest in this field (e.g., Alkjaer, 1976) only few others have followed. Most of these used islands as basis of inquiry rather than individual cities (e.g., Bonn, Ohlin, & Brand, 1994). The influence of previous experience on the decision process and the destination image has been recognised (e.g., Mazursky, 1989; Watson, Roggenbuck, & Williams, 1991). In most tourism destination

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decision models previous experience flows in as a modifying variable in the decision process (e.g., Chon, 1990; Gartner, 1993). However, little rigorous examinations have focused on the extent to which previous experience actually modifies or changes the image owing to a general lack of longitudinal tourism studies. In most cases, repeat and first time visitors are compared with each other and the emerging differences are bona fide taken as the modifying influence of a previous visit on the image (e.g., Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gitelson & Crompton, 1984; Gyte & Phelps, 1989). To the knowledge of this author, there is no published research on the importance of previous

results by Fortin et al. ( 1 9 7 6 ) , ASAE (1992), and Edelstein and Benini (1994). The third section included an evaluation of 30 North American conference destinations on a scale from one to fifteen. Further, respondents were asked to indicate any previous visits to the same destinations. Since this study could possibly not include all locations with conference facilities, the study included the major convention cities in the United States and Canada according to Zelinskys (1994) results. In addition, several secondary destinations were identified from trade journal articles dealing with that topic (e.g., Buchbinder, 1994; CzarnyLeone, 1989; Elwood, 1992; Teibel, 1994) and included in the list such as to complement the primary destinations and to give a relatively wide geographical spread across the United States and Canada. The instrument was pre-tested at a meeting planner conference and, after a slight modification, mailed to 600 randomly selected active members (meeting planners) of the Professional Convention Management Association (PCMA). Owing to financial constraints, only one mailing was used. At the cut-off data three weeks after the mailing some 123 questionnaires or 20.5% were returned. This is comparable with previous onetime mailing response rates in studies of meeting planners (e.g., Bonn et al. , 1994). The inundation of meeting planners with questionnaires in recent years partially explains the low response rates. Three professional organisations survey meeting planners almost every year and the meeting planners might just have too much and discard the questionnaires without much regret. This researcher offered to send the respondents a summary of the results. Some 25% took up on this offer indicating that it was a valuable incentive. Future

A survey of meeting planners examined backgrounds, decision criteria and an evaluation of 30 North American conference destinations.

experience on city or destination images and, ther efore, no foundation the present research could be based upon. Research approach A survey instrument was developed with three main sections for the purpose of this study: First, the respondents w er e as ke d s ome gen er al meeting planner attributes, such as years of meeting planning experience, number and size of meetings planned per year, size of the largest meeting, and instrumentality in selecting destinations and conference sites. Second, the respondents were given a list of 15 decision criteria and asked to indicate their importance in the destination selection process. Responses were measured on a seven-point Likert scale. The attributes selected were based on prior research

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Table 4: Planners decision attributes and factor scores. Attribute Mean Factor 1 score Service Meeting rooms/facilities Hotel service quality Hotel room availability Clean/attractive location Safety/security Ease of air transportation access Food & lodging costs Overall affordability City image Transportation costs Restaurant facilities Exhibition facilities Scenery/sightseeing opportunities Climate Nightlife Variance explained: 66.6% 6.6 6.6 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.1 6.1 5.8 5.5 5.4 5.1 4.9 4.7 4.0 n/a 0.41 0.81 0.37 0.68 0.63 0.06 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.17 0.60 -0.03 0.19 -0.15 0.21 27.5%

Factor 2 Cost 0.30 0.08 0.15 0.20 0.41 0.46 0.82 0.74 0.18 0.76 -0.10 0.05 0.03 -0.12 0.01 14.8%

Factor 3 Image -0.43 0.02 -0.28 0.29 0.02 0.01 -0.11 0.21 0.70 0.06 0.25 0.03 0.79 0.59 0.39 9.2%

Factor 4 Location 0.22 0.06 0.59 0.06 0.09 0.71 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.16 0.50 -0.01 0.05 0.59 0.49 7.9%

Factor 5 Facilities 0.32 0.00 0.33 -0.00 -0.07 -0.06 -0.12 0.06 0.19 0.32 0.16 0.94 -0.09 -0.14 -0.03 7.2%

Note: Attributes with a loading of 0.50 or higher are highlighted.

research attempts may need to revert to other medium such as fax or e-mail surveys in hope to improve the response rate. Meeting planner's perspective The majority of respondents were between 26 and 45 years of age (56%) and 37% were between 46 and 65 years of age. The majority were female (68%), hold a baccalaureate (59%) or masters degree (15%), and earned US$ 30-59,999 per year (56%). Many respondents were from the Washington D.C. area (24%) and Illinois (15%) where incidentally most associations headquarters are lo cated. In total, the respondents resided in 30 different states. Most respondents meeting planning career was less than 10 years (54%) with an emphasis on five to ten years (39%). Some had been in the meeting planning business for more than 30 years and 15% for at least 20 years. The average number of conventions/meetings planned was 26, ranging from just one to more than 300. The largest convention organised by any respondent attracted about 56,000 participants while the smallest meeting draw an attendance of just 25. This indicates the width of the

conference market and other congresses and exhibitions are even larger. Some 65% had planned at least one convention with attendance exceeding 1,000. The importance of the meeting planners with respect to destination choice was revealed when 79% mentioned that their responsibilities include selection of the conference destination. However, no attempt was made to ascertain the degree of influence on the decision process. Usually several people in the organisation are involved and depending on the structure and the influence of the CEO meeting planners may have full or hardly any influence. Nonetheless, it highlights the relevance of knowing meeting planners convention destination images such as to design marketing strategies according to the strengths and weaknesses perceived. Importance of Destination Attributes A literature analysis of previous inquiries into importance of convention destination attributes yielded a whole range of different variables (e.g., ASAE, 1992; Edelstein & Benini, 1994; Fortin et al., 1976). For the purpose of this study, however, 15 attributes

were selected based on their relevance in previous studies and the respondents were asked to rate the importance of these in their planning decision process for meetings and conventions. Of the 15 given attributes, the respondents placed most importance on meeting room facilities and hotel service quality in planning a conference (Table 4). Other important attributes were hotel room availability, safety/security, and the cleanliness/attractiveness of the destination. The least important variables were nightlife, climate and scenery/sightseeing opportunities. This compares favourably with previous research results. In the ASAE (1992) study, for example, quality of service, meeting room facilities, overall affordability, sleeping room facilities and location image emerged as the top 5 decision attributes. A factor analysis of the main underlying trends reveals five factors with eigenvalue values greater than 1. Together they explain 66.6% of the variance. A varimax rotation of the factor matrix resulted in the factor loadings given in Table 4. The factors were named service, cost, i m a g e , l o c a t i o n , and f a c i l i t i e s . The image-factor, for example,

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had high loadings of city image, scenery/sightseeing opportunities , and climate. The cost-factor had high loadings in all three cost variables, namely food & lodging c o s t s , transportation costs , and overall affordability. Although image emerged only as one of the five factors, many of the other variables are usually contributing to the overall image of a destination as a convention city. Destination images As elaborated above, 30 cities were included in the study based on previous publications regarding the importance of convention destinations. San Diego (12.5) achieved the highest average score on a fifteen point scale. It was followed by San Francisco, New Orleans and Orlando, Washington D.C., Seattle, Chicago, and Boston. On the other end of the scale were Atlantic City, Calgary, Miami, and Quebec City (Table 5). The relative poor performance of Calgary and Quebec City may be partially attributed to the fact that many US-organisations cannot hold conferences in Canada. For this reason some respondents gave Canadian destinations very low scores. Miamis and Los Angeles poor images are recognised facts and mostly based on violence and other negative publicity of events that appeared in the national and international press. In a meeting planner survey on the perceived safe ty of destinations, Los Angeles (3rd) and Miami (2nd) were considered the most dangerous destinations behind New York (Beta Research, 1994). Los Angeles is actively trying to counteract the negative press coverage in the wake of riots, earthquakes and tourist killings and to place Los Angeles back on the map as a top destination for meetings and conventions (Klayman, 1995). Atlantic City, once one of the most prestigious destinations and the foremost convention city in

Table 5: Convention Destination Image.

Destination Overall Mean with previous without previous experience experience significance level

San Diego San Francisco New Orleans Orlando Washington DC Chicago Boston San Antonio Seattle Atlanta Toronto Vancouver Phoenix Dallas Denver Honolulu Las Vegas Montreal Philadelphia Nashville New York St. Louis Salt Lake City Houston Los Angeles Portland, OR Quebec City Miami Calgary Atlantic City

12.5 11.8 11.4 11.4 10.6 10.4 10.4 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.5 9.5 9.2 8.8 8.7 8.2 8.1 8.0 7.7 7.7 6.4 6.3 6.1 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.6 5.6 4.9 3.2

12.6 12.1 12.0 11.8 10.7 10.5 10.8 11.4 10.8 9.8 9.7 12.0 10.1 8.8 9.1 8.7 10.3 8.6 8.9 8.5 7.0 6.4 7.1 5.8 5.9 6.8 6.0 5.9 6.4 3.2

12.1 9.0 7.9 7.2 9.3 7.0 5.9 7.4 7.4 8.0 8.9 8.0 7.3 8.8 7.5 7.2 4.7 7.5 5.3 5.8 3.5 5.9 5.3 5.8 4.8 5.4 5.5 4.9 4.6 3.2

.54 .02 .01 .01 .32 .14 .01 .01 .01 .44 .36 .01 .01 .98 .06 .16 .01 .18 .01 .01 .01 .57 .02 .94 .36 .06 .64 .28 .09 .94

Note: Mean scores from scaling of destinations on a scale from 1 to 15. Underlined significance level denote significant difference below the .05 level.

the late 19th century is still not nicely looked upon despite its successful reinvention as a gaming destination in the 1970s. Recently a new convention centre is being built to remain c ompetitive with other destinations. Yet, there is a perception from years ago that Atlantic City is crumbling (Lucas, 1994). Table 5 also contrasts the destination image re sults of meeting planners with and without previous experience with the individual city. It indicates the generally higher and more favourable scores among planners with previous experience. Exceptions are Dallas, Houston and Atlantic City where perceptions are almost identical. Using the t-test analysis for two

samples it shows that many of these differences are significant. Hence, it appears as if previous experience has a considerable influence on the citys image as perceived by meeting planners. Those destinations that are likely to improve their image by exposing planners to the city are well advised to invest some more promotional budget for familiarisation trips rather than general advertising. However, as a discussion at the 1995 PCMA Conference on the topic of familiarisation trips suggests it becomes more and more important to show the planners the essence of the destinations within a limited time because meeting planners are busy and do not want to waste their time. Another point made during the same discussion was that many meeting planners prefer working

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with the same hotel contact persons with whom they had favourable past experiences. Since meeting planners are evaluated on the success of the conferences but have only very limited influence on most factors involved (i.e., food quality, hotel service quality), they depend highly on their counterparts in the hotel to ensure a smooth convention. However, many hotel sales and convention people are more interested in securing the next contract as they are evaluated on the amount of business they procure. Thus, meeting planners prefer to work with those hotels whose personnel are involved throughout the whole planning process and the convention itself. Another reason why previous experience may bias meeting planners perceptions of convention destination is their familiarity with the city or resort. This enables them to reduce their planning time as they do not need to obtain information on the hotel and/or destination for pl anning of excursion programmes, activities and at tractions available, etc. Considering that on average the respondents were involved in the organisation of 26 conferences per year, any time saved is a plus. Conclusion More and more countries and destinations recognise the importance and value of the convention industry. High per capita expenditures and exposure to large groups are but two factors in favour of convention tourism. In New Zealand, for example, even customs procedure are made easier for convention delegates (NZTN, 1995) indicating the value that is placed upon these travellers and the recognition that a favourable impression on the delegates starts with them setting feet into the destination and that word-ofmouth is an invaluable marketing tool.

Although it is ultimately up to the individual (potential) attendee to decide on attending a specific conference in a specific destination, for the destination it is crucial to attract as many conferences as possible so as to increase the potential number of attendees. Hence, for destinations it is important to become part of the initial destination set of the conference organisers and, therefore, of the meeting planners. Thus, a destination needs to be not only attractive to potential delegates but also to the meeting planners and decision makers. This study showe d that the destination image and several other attributes are important variables in that decision process. Furthermore, meeting planners with previous experience often have a significantly better perception of conference destinations than those without previous experience. Familiarisation trips could, therefore, be an excellent way to improve a destination perception among meeting planners and consequently better its competitive position. Within the domain of convention destination images several items can be identified for a future research agenda. First, to what extent do different destination perceptions translate into different demand for these

d estinations? Second, do convention destination images of the ultimate customer, the convention delegates, correspond to the perceptions held by meeting planners and are the latter aware of possible dissimilar ities? Third, how important are convention delegates' perceptions of destinations in the participationdecision making process to attend a spec ific conference. More studies are also needed on the wider complex of convention tourism, the decision maker and buying processes within organisations, and the decision making process of organisers and attendees. Convention destinations themselves are likely to be interested in their competitive positioning with respect to the various attributes involved. Multi-dimensional scaling techniques or contours of convention images across the factors could be used. A simpler method could be an importanceperformance analysis of all the image attributes involved. This will yield areas which a destination may want to emphasise in its promotional efforts and attributes that require more work to bring them up to meeting planners expectations. To reiterate Zelinsky, conventions constitute a rich, but fallow, field for research (1994, p. 71).

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