8.

Origins: Prestige of Spain mixed with the moral influence of the Roman papacy became jumbled
with the religions crises in smaller countries. The Netherlands were a very powerful county in banking, diplomacy, and war. What began as a step towards reformation of the church, turned into a Dutch struggle over independence. 9. Basically, Elizabeth hated Phillip II of Spain. Also, he had William of Orange from theUnited

Provinces killed of whom Elizabeth was rumored to have an affair with. Not to mention the fact that English people in general didn't like Spaniards. Both England and Spain were in competition for the most powerful in the world. (Elizabeth's small fleet of English ships eventually defeated the Spanish Armada, which was previously the best navy in the world) 10. It was kind of a 'the enemy of my enemy is my friend' thing. France wanted to break the power of the Catholic Hapsburgs
monarchs, who ruled in Spain, Austria, and theHoly Roman Empire (modern Germany). One way to do this was to side with the Protestants, who also fought against the Hapsburgs in the Holy Roman empire. BTW, France also made an alliance with the Ottoman Empire, to counter the Hapsburgs--The first Catholic country to make an alliance with a Muslim one. 11. One result of the war was the enshrinement of Germany divided among many territories -- all of which, despite their membership in the Empire, had de facto sovereignty. This significantly hampered the power of the Holy Roman Empire and decentralized German power. It has been speculated that this weakness was a long-term underlying cause of later militant German Romantic nationalism. The Thirty Years' War rearranged the previous structure of power. The conflict madeSpain's military and political decline visible. While Spain was preoccupied with fighting in France, Portugal which had been under personal union with Spain for 60 years (since 1580) acclaimed John IV of Braganza as king in 1640, and the House of Braganza became the new dynasty of Portugal. Meanwhile, Spain was finally forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1648, ending the Eighty Years' War. With Spain weakening, France became the dominant power in Europe, an outcome confirmed by its victory in the subsequent FrancoSpanish War. The defeat of Spain and imperial forces also marked the decline of Habsburg power and allowed the emergence of Bourbon dominance. From 164345, during the last years of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden and Denmark fought the Torstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the great European war at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 helped establish post-war Sweden as a force in Europe. The edicts agreed upon during the signing of the Peace of Westphalia were instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of the sovereign nation-state. Aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal (as well as for the newer ones created afterwards), the Peace of Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. In earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. Now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of neighboring powers, be they religious or secular. The war had a few other, more subtle consequences: * The Thirty Years' War marked the last major religious war in mainland Europe, ending large-scale religious bloodshed in 1648. There were other religious conflicts in the years to come, but no great wars. * The destruction caused by mercenary soldiers defied description (see Schwedentrunk). The war did much to end the age of mercenaries that had begun with the first landsknechts, and ushered in the age of well-disciplined national armies.

It would vary considerably depending on the social class of the women. Upper class women had a higher social status than middle classs women,and middle class women had a higher social status than working classs women. And within all thesocial classes there would be grades of precedence, society at that time was extremely class conscious.
12.

Women of all classes were expected to obey their husbands when they married. But they would expect to

be obeyed by their children, and by servants. They would expect to be defered to by men of a lower social class. 13. Women were more likley to be accused of being witches, because they were thought to be spiritually weaker than men, and more susceptible to demonic influence. But men were also accused of witchcraft, overall about 20-25% of those executed for witchcraft were men. If you look at the Salem trials for example, fourteen women and five men were hanged,and one man was pressed to death for refusing to plead. This was fairly typical of the relative numbers of men and women who were executed. Another important point to remember is that, athough it is true that the majority of those accused of witchcraft were women, so were the majority of their accusers. Women were very likely to be the ones accusing other women of witchcraft. The answer above, which says that during the witch hunts, anyone who was different was burnt or hanged, is a wild exaggeration. The number of people accused was very small, relative to the general population,a nd the number who were executed even smaller. 14. first came african racism; then mediterranean racism, then european racism, then asian racism and southeast asian racism and finally north american racism. we were way behind the curve, but the africans got there first! oh, and the broader context of racism includes bias against a different tribe or ethnic group within your geographic area. rarely was racism a black vs. white thang, y'no wah i'm sayin? 15. Major changes in philosophy and science took place in the seventeenth century. Whereas
previously,religion was expounded as the answer to every thoughtful question, people began to realise that philosophy and science could provide more credible answers. For the first time in centuries, people began to think of the universe as fundamentally rational, able to be understood through the use of reason alone. They realised that truth can be arrived at through empirical observation, the use of reason and systematic doubt. The outcome was the realisation that religious doctrines have no place in the understanding of the physical and human worlds. If religion could not provide the answers, and if religion was not the source of all truth, or perhaps even of any truth, then faith was no longer necessary and religious certainty declined. 16. answer yourself 17.answer yourself