Hydrodynamic

Mechanisms in Plant
Tissues during Mass
Transport Operations
P. Fito, A. Chiralt, J. Martnez-Monz, and J. Barat
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 HDM Promoted by External Pressure Changes
8.3 HDM Promoted by Cell Shrinkage in Osmotic Processes
8.4 HDM Promoted by Cell Matrix Relaxation in Long-Term
Osmotic Processes
8.5 Conclusions
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
References
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the processing of fruit and vegetables, soliduid systems (SFS) frequently occur
in different operations, such as osmotic dehydration, rehydration, candy processing,
boiling, and cooking, among others. The heat and mass transfer processes in such
systems have usually been modeled considering the food solid as a continuous phase.
Nevertheless, the cellular structure (intercellular spaces and cell compartmentation)
plays an important role in the denition of mechanisms involved in the process and
therefore in process kinetics. Recently, several studies have been carried out to
determine the inuence of porosity on the response of fruit tissue to solidliquid
operations (Fito, 1994; Fito and Pastor, 1994; Fito et al., 1996; Fito and Chiralt,
1997). In this way, a fast mass transfer mechanism (hydrodynamic mechanism,
HDM) has been described as occurring in process operations in which a porous solid
is immersed in a liquid phase; changes in temperature or pressure also take place.
The occluded gas inside the product pores is compressed or expanded according
to the pressure or temperature changes, while the external liquid is pumped into the
8
2003 by CRC Press LLC
pores in line with the gas compression. An effective exchange of the product internal
gas with the external liquid is promoted in vacuum impregnation (VI) operations,
where a vacuum pressure (p
1
~50100 mbar) is imposed on the system for a short
time (t
1
); afterwards, the atmospheric pressure (p
2
) is reestablished while the product
remains immersed in the liquid for a time t
2
(Fito et al., 1996; Salvatori et al., 1998a).
The volume fraction of the initial sample (X) impregnated by the external liquid
when mechanical equilibrium is achieved in the sample has been modeled as a function
of the compression ratio r (given by Equation (8.1), where p
c
is capillary pressure),
sample effective porosity (
e
), and sample volume deformations at the end of the
process () and the vacuum step (
1
) (Equation (8.2)) (Fito et al., 1996). If
1
0,
Equation (8.1) gives the relationship for VI of stiff products.
(8.1)
(8.2)
When there are no pressure changes (p
1
p
2
) in the system, capillary impreg-
nation will occur due to the capillary pressure; the lower the pressure in the system,
the greater the liquid penetration, according to Equations (8.1) and (8.2).
The possibility of introducing an external solution containing specic/selected
solutes inside the product pores has made VI a tool in fruit processing. The addition of
preservatives (antimicrobials, antibrowning agents, pH reducers, and others) or nutrients
(minerals, vitamins, etc.), fast water activity depression, and modifying physical prop-
erties, among others, may be some of the possible applications of VI (Chiralt et al., 1999).
Impregnation of the fruit pores due to hydrodynamic mechanisms has been seen
to occur without external pressure changes when the cellular tissue remains
immersed in a liquid phase for a long time (e.g., syrup canned and candied fruits).
This has been explained in terms of the capillary forces, pressure and temperature
uctuations in the system, and relaxation phenomena of the shrunken cellular matrix
when hypertonic solutions are used in the treatments (Barat et al., 1998). Fito et al.
(2000) reported a contribution of HDM to the total mass transfer throughout the
osmotic process due to the pressure gradients in the tissue associated with internal
volume generation in line with cell water losses.
The aim of this work is to analyze the role of hydrodynamic mechanisms in
different kinds or times of processing in plant tissueuid systems and their impli-
cations in process kinetics, as well as the inuence of the action of these mechanisms
on plant tissues in terms of product quality or process advantages.
8.2 HDM PROMOTED BY EXTERNAL PRESSURE CHANGES
The most effective action of HDM in the product pores is promoted by vacuum
impregnation operations. The compression ratio can reach very high values by using
common industrial pumps and, additionally, the product remains are impregnated at
the end of the process when normal pressure is recovered. Impregnation promoted by
r
p p
p
c

+
2
1

e
r X r ( ) ( ) + 1
1
2003 by CRC Press LLC
applying high pressure in the system is not effective because the liquid introduced into
the pores in the compression step ows out when the system returns to atmospheric
conditions. For stiff matrices, the kinetics of impregnation are very fast, depending on
the pore size (length and diameter) and tortuosity and the liquid viscosity. Equation
(8.3) gives the relationship between the liquid penetration level and time, in terms of
the volume fraction of the pore impregnated (x
v
) at time t (t
2
) in a reduced way (x
r
)
(Equation (8.4)). The value of x
ve
corresponds to the impregnated volume at mechanical
equilibrium, which can be obtained by Equation (8.2) when
1
0, since x
v
X/
e
.
Parameters B and k are described by Equations (8.5) and (8.6) (Chiralt et al., 1999).
(8.3)
(8.4)
(8.5)
(8.6)
Figure 8.1 shows the predicted development of x
r
as a function of time (t
2
) after
the vacuum step for different values of the external liquid viscosity, and by consid-
ering a stiff matrix with pore size of 100 m diameter, 1 cm length, and a tortuosity
factor F
t
2. It can be observed that even for high viscosity liquids such as
hydrocolloids or concentrated sugars, the penetration times needed to reach the x
ve
are on the order of a few minutes (Figure 8.1a). This process length is near the time
required to achieve stationary pressure in the tank after the valve is opened to restore
the atmospheric pressure.
In real systems with a viscoelastic character, the kinetics of pore impregnation
are coupled with deformationrelaxation of the sample volume. A fast mechanical
pseudoequilibrium can be achieved in the rst step, with a notable reduction of
product porosity coupled with partial liquid penetration. Afterwards, the true equi-
librium is reached through relaxation of the deformed porous matrix, which leads
to progressive liquid entry in line with sample volume recovery while the product
remains immersed. This two-step behavior will be especially promoted when long
penetration times, associated with high liquid viscosity or/and small pore diameter,
occur. For cylindrical (2 cm diameter and height) apple samples, Figure 8.1b shows
the sample volume fraction impregnated (X) and deformed () after VI (10 min at
50 mbar) with a sugar isotonic solution and with 3% pectin sugar isotonic solution,
as a function of the length of the VI second step at atmospheric pressure. It can be
observed that at very short times, the sample volume reduces by about 5% and
slowly recovers in line with time increase. The impregnation levels increase more
quickly in the less viscous solution.
t
B
x x k x x
x
x
r r r r
r
r
+

j
(
,
\
,
(
,

,
,
]
]
]
]
1
2
1
1
2
0
2
0
0
( ) ( ) ln
x
x
x
r
v
ve

k
x
ve
+ 1
1
B
eF
r
p
p p
t
p

j
(
,
\
,
(

8
2
2
2 1
2

( )
2003 by CRC Press LLC
It is remarkable that when solutions with high viscosity are used for VI, it is
advantageous to carry out the vacuum step with samples suspended above the
solution, rather than immersed in it. If not, difculties of sample gas outow cause
great sample deformation and very limited impregnation. Throughout the release of
the gas, it becomes entrapped in the external solution, thus forming stable foam
around the sample with much higher viscosity than the original uid. During the
second VI step, part of the entrapped gas ows into the pores again, thus reducing
the impregnation effectiveness.
Table 8.1 shows the levels of deformation and impregnation of cylindrical apple
samples at the end of the vacuum step and of the process as a function of the
FIGURE 8.1 (a) Impregnation kinetics of an ideal pore (100 m diameter, 1 cm length, 2
tortuosity factor) for different viscosities (Pa s) of the external solution. (b) Development of
sample volume fraction impregnated (X, closed symbols) and deformed (, open symbols)
with time (t
2
), during VI of cylindrical apple (var. Granny Smith) samples with isotonic sugar
solution (squares) and 3% pectin isotonic sugar solution (circles).
(a)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 20 40 60
t (s)
xr
(m
3
/m
3
)
0.01 Pas
0.1 Pas
1.0 Pas
(b)
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
t(s)
X

/

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impregnating solution viscosity. Effective sample porosity, calculated by Equation
(8.2), assuming mechanical equilibrium, also appears in Table 8.1. The decreasing
values of
e
, in line with the solution viscosity increase, suggest that mechanical
equilibrium was not reached for t
2
15 min. On the other hand, a greater effectiveness
of sample impregnation when the sample is not immersed in the viscous solution
during the vacuum step can be observed.
VI may promote fast compositional changes in fruit, which is useful in many cases
to ensure processed fruit stability (decrease of pH or water activity, introduction of
antibrowning agents or microbial preservatives) or quality (the improvement of the
sweetsour taste relationship, fortication with specic nutrients). Prediction of com-
positional changes in short VI treatments can be easily obtained by applying Equations
(8.7) and (8.8), if the value of the impregnated volume fraction (X) and the density
of the initial product (
0
) and the impregnating solution (
IS
) are known (Chiralt et al.,
1999). From these equations, the required solution mass fraction (y
i
) of a determined
component (i.e., water, sugar, acid, additive, etc.) to achieve the desired level in the
nal product (mass fraction: x
i
VI
) can be calculated. Composition changes promoted
by concentration gradients between external solution and product were not taken into
account in Equation (8.7) due to the short length of VI processes. In Equation (8.7),
x
i
0
corresponds to the initial mass fraction of component i in the product.
(8.7)
(8.8)
TABLE 8.1
Impregnation (X) and Deformation () Levels of Apple (var. Granny
Smith) Cylindrical Samples (2 cm Diameter and Height) Reached in a
VI Operation (p
1
= 50 mbar, t
1
= 10 min, t
2
= 15 min) with Isotonic
Sugar Solutions Containing Different Concentrations of Pectin
Pectin
concentration
%
Viscosity
(Pas) X
1
a

1
a
X
b

b

e
c
0 0.0068 0.035 0.013 0.14 0.05 0.20
1 0.0202 0.043 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.15
2 0.0917 0.011 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.14
3 0.179 0.028 0.14 0.09 0.06 0.13
3
d
0.179 0.040 0.01 0,13 .0,05 0.19
a
At the end of the vacuum step.
b
At the end of the process.
c
Determined on the basis of theoretical model (Equation (8.2)) assuming mechanical equilibrium.
d
Samples were not immersed in the solution during the vacuum step.
x
x x y
x
i
VI
i HDM i
HDM

+
+
0
1
x X
HDM
IS

0
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8.3 HDM PROMOTED BY CELL SHRINKAGE
IN OSMOTIC PROCESSES
Throughout osmotic processes in fruit and vegetables, a great cell volume reduction
occurs due to intracellular water loss. This implies the generation of internal voids
that provoke internal pressure depression, which promotes hydrodynamic ow of
the external solution from the sample interface to the internal voids. These pressure
gradients also contribute to the structural development pathway of cells, depending
on the kind of uid (gas or liquid) in the tissue pores (Fito et al., 2000).
Figure 8.2 shows a scheme of how HDMs were promoted into the tissue, as well
as the sample cellular structure development. When the intercellular spaces are full of
liquid, osmosis promotes plasmolysis but no signicant folding of the cell wall,
whereas the space between plasmalemma and cell wall is ooded by the extracellular
liquid (Martnez-Monz et al., 1998a). In contrast, when intercellular spaces are occu-
pied by gas, osmosis provokes cell wall shrinkage without plasmalemma separations
(Salvatori et al., 1998b). This difference in behavior has been explained in terms of
the different pressure drop of gas or liquid phases during their ux towards the
intercellular space generated volumes (isgv in Figure 8.2). The balance of forces acting
on both sides of the plasmalemmacell wall layer during cell water volume loss leads
to the separation of the double layer and to the ux of the external liquid through the
cell wall, or to cell wall deformation together with the plasmalemma (Fito et al., 2000).
In osmotic treatments of cellular tissues, HDM may act to a great extent at the
beginning of the process if a vacuum pulse is applied in the tank for a short period
(Pulsed Vacuum Osmotic Dehydration, PVOD), since the sample impregnation with
the osmotic solution is promoted. In treatments at atmospheric conditions (OD) or
at vacuum conditions (Vacuum Osmotic Dehydration, VOD) capillary pressure also
provokes HDM near the sample interface to a lesser extent. The different extent of
the external liquid ow into the tissue and the subsequent differences in the cellular
structure development will affect the tissue response to mass transport.
Figure 8.3 shows a comparison of the effective diffusivity values (D
e
) in the fruit
liquid phase obtained in OD and PVOD treatments in apple slices (1 cm thick)
FIGURE 8.2 Scheme of cellular structure development during osmotic treatments depending
on the uid present in the intercellular spaces (is) and water (J
w
) and hydrodynamic (J
HDM
)
uxes (isgv, intercellular space generated volume; ic, intracellular content; A and B, cell
bonding points).
J
w
is
A
B
J
HDM
is containing liquid phase
is containing gas phase
A
B
is
JW
JHDM
M
ic
isgv
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osmosed with different sucrose syrups (2565Brix) at 30, 40, and 50C. Compo-
sitional change promoted by the vacuum pulse was corrected to make the D
e
values
more comparable (Barat et al., 1997). Higher values of D
e
in the PVOD process can
be observed; the higher the D
e
value in OD, the greater the difference.
On the other hand, Figure 8.4 shows the inuence of VI with isotonic solutions
of different viscosity on the kinetics of fruit liquid phase composition changes for
apple cylindrical samples. The reduced concentration of each component (Y
i
) was
dened in terms of the solute or water mass fractions (z
i
, i water or solutes) in
the fruit liquid phase (water plus solutes) by Equation (8.9). The value of z at equi-
librium (z
i
e
) was taken to be equal to that of the osmotic solution. The acceleration
of kinetics in line with the lling of the pores, without any changes in the initial
value of the process driving force, can be observed. Nevertheless, if the impregnating
FIGURE 8.3 Comparison of values of the effective diffusion coefcient (D
e
, in m
2
/sec) in
apple (Granny Smith) liquid phase (water plus solutes) obtained in OD and PVOD processes
carried out with different sucrose solutions (25 to 65Brix) at 30, 40, and 50C.
FIGURE 8.4 Kinetics of fruit liquid phase composition changes in cylindrical apple samples
(2 cm diameter and height) osmosed in 62Brix rectied grape must, for nonimpregnated
samples ( ), samples impregnated with an isotonic solution ( ), and samples impregnated
with a 3% pectin isotonic solution ( ).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 2 8 6 4 10 12
D
e
10
10
(m
2
/s)(OD)
D
e

1
0
1
0
(
m
2
/
s
)

(
P
V
O
D
)
25 Brix
35 Brix
45 Brix
55 Brix
65 Brix
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0 4000 8000 12000
t (s)
Ln Y
2003 by CRC Press LLC
solution viscosity is high, slower kinetics are observed. These results agree with a
great promotion of diffusion through the noncompartmented intercellular spaces
when lled with liquid phase, which is greatly affected by the liquid viscosity
(Martnez-Monz et al., 1998b).
(8.9)
8.4 HDM PROMOTED BY CELL MATRIX RELAXATION
IN LONG-TERM OSMOTIC PROCESSES
In long-term osmotic processes such as those carried out in fruit candying, HDM
plays an important role in tissue development after compositional equilibrium
between the sample and the external solution has been reached. Sample mass and
volume decrease in line with osmotic dehydration until a minimum value is reached
at compositional equilibrium time t
c
. From this point, sample mass and volume begin
a slowly increasing pathway until almost all of the initial values are recovered. This
was observed initially in apple samples (Barat et al., 1998; Fito et al., 1998) and
was conrmed for other fruits (Barat, 1998).
Mass and sample volume recovery has been explained in terms of pressure
gradients generated in the shrunken cellular structure due to relaxation of cell walls,
where a great amount of free energy was stored during cell dehydrationshrinkage.
True equilibrium in the system implies free energy reduction by release of mechan-
ical stress. If the product remains immersed in the external solution, volume recovery
is coupled with liquid suction and therefore with mass gain. In this sense, the pressure
drop of liquid inow will affect the sample volume relaxation rate, causing the
system (fruit plus external liquid) to behave as a viscoelastic solid. The overall
relaxation rate of the system will be greatly dependent on liquid viscosity and the
elastic character of the cellular matrix. The relative relaxation level will be deter-
mined by the total volume lost during osmotic treatment and the irreversible struc-
tural damage in the tissue. In this sense, cellular turgor will not be recovered, and
so the nal sample volume will be reduced with respect to the initial value by the
intercellular volume associated with the turgid cell packaging.
HDM ow in this matrix relaxation process has been modeled on the basis of
a viscoelastic model (Equation (8.10)) (Peleg, 1980). In Equation (8.10), F
0
and F
t
are
respectively the initial force on the sample associated with a given deformation and
the force at a determined relaxation time. The constants A and B represent, respec-
tively, the total relative relaxation level and the relaxation rate. To t Equation (8.10)
to the experimental mass recovery data, the following hypotheses are considered:
the mechanical stress on the matrix is released as ow pressure drops in the external
liquid; likewise, a laminar ow was assumed. From these hypotheses, force will be
given by Equation (8.11), thus obtaining Equation (8.12) to describe mass recovery.
The M
0
values are the relative mass gain of the sample at each time. The function
(dM
0
(t)/dt) was obtained by tting a bi-exponential function to the experimental
Y
z z
z z
i
i
t
i
e
i i
e

( )
( )
0
2003 by CRC Press LLC
curve (M
0
vs. time) and calculating the derivative equation and its values at each
time.
(8.10)
(8.11)
(8.12)
Figure 8.5 shows a linear relationship between experimental points plotted as
dened by Equation (8.12) for OD and PVOD treatments of 1 cm thick apple slices,
with 55Brix sucrose solution, at 30, 40, and 50C. The scarce inuence of temper-
ature and kind of treatment on the kinetics of HDM mass ow during sample stress
relaxation can be observed. Table 8.2 shows the mean values obtained for A and B
parameters for OD and PVOD treatments of apple slices in the 3050C range. The
values of A are near one in all cases, indicating that samples recover about 100%
of their initial mass throughout the examined time, with the relaxation rate being
affected by the syrup concentration. The relaxation is faster as the sucrose concen-
tration is lower (below 25Brix), in agreement with the lower viscosity values of
the solutions.
FIGURE 8.5 Kinetics of HDM mass ow in long-term osmotic processes after compositional
equilibrium time (t
c
). Points correspond to osmosed apple slices (1 cm thick) in 55Brix
sucrose solution for OD and PVOD treatments at different temperatures.
F t
F F AB
t
A
t
0
0
1

+
F
Fe M t
t
t
IS

( )

j
(
,
\
,
(
8
0

( ( ) / )
( ( ) / ) ( ( ) / )


+
M t t t
M t t M t t
t
Y AB
t
A
t F
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
t t
c
(h)
t/YF (h)
55 OD 30C
55 OD 40C
55 OD 50C
55 PVOD 30C
55 PVOD 40C
55 PVOD 50C
2003 by CRC Press LLC
8.5 CONCLUSIONS
HDM plays an important role in solidliquid operations with cellular products such
as fruit and vegetables. Through understanding and modeling the action of these
mechanisms, better process control will be possible. Promotion of these mechanisms
through the control of process variables may be a tool in designing new product
composition.
NOMENCLATURE
p Pressure (mbar), (subscript c: capillary; 1: at the vacuum step; 2: atmospheric)
Solution viscosity (Parsec)
x
v
Pore volume fraction impregnated by the solution (m
3
/m
3
)
x
ve
Pore volume fraction impregnated by the solution at mechanical equilibrium
(m
3
/m
3
)
x
r
Reduced pore volume fraction impregnated by the solution (x
v
/x
ve
)

e
Sample effective porosity
r Compression ratio
X
1
Sample volume fraction impregnated by the solution at the end of the rst
VI step
X Sample volume fraction impregnated by the solution at the end of the VI
process

1
Relative volume deformation of the sample due to pressure change at the
end of the rst VI step
Relative volume deformation of the sample due to pressure change at the
end of the VI process
e Sample characteristic dimension (m)
r
p
Pore radius (m)
F
t
Tortuosity factor of the sample pores
TABLE 8.2
A and B Parameters of Equation (10) for OD and PVOD
Treatments of Osmosed Apple Slices in Sucrose Syrups
(OS) of Different Concentrations
OD PVOD
Brix (OS) A B A B
65 1.02 0.002 0.98 0.009
55 1.05 0.004 1.07 0.005
45 1.02 0.012 1.05 0.037
35 1.01 0.024 1.00 0.094
25 0.98 0.162 0.96 0.082
20 1.01 0.024 1.01 0.080
2003 by CRC Press LLC
k Dimensionless parameter of the model of VI kinetics
B Time dimension parameter of the model of VI kinetics

0
Density of the initial product (kg/m
3
)

IS
Density of the impregnating solution (kg/m
3
)
x
HDM
Mass ratio of the impregnated solution in the initial product (kg/kg)
y
i
iv
Mass fraction of the component i in the impregnating solution (kg/kg)
x
i
0
Mass fraction of component i in the impregnated product (kg/kg)
x
i
Mass fraction of component i in the initial product (kg/kg)
Y
i
Reduced driven force referred to component i
z
t
i
Mass fraction of component i in the food liquid phase at time t of the process
(kg/kg)
D
e
Pseudodiffusion coefcient (m
2
/sec)
M
0
Mass relative change of the sample at each time (kg/kg)
t Process time (sec)
F Force (N)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Comisin Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologa (Spain),
CYTED program, and European Union (DGXII) for their nancial support.
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