Experimental and simulation studies on a single pass,

double duct solar air heater

F.K. Forson
a
, M.A.A. Nazha
b
, H. Rajakaruna
b,
*
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
b
School of Engineering & Technology, De Montfort University, Queens Building, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
Received 15 March 2002; accepted 10 June 2002
Abstract
A mathematical model of a single pass, double duct solar air heater (SPDDSAH) is described. The model
provides a design tool capable of predicting: incident solar radiation, heat transfer coecients, mean air
ow rates, mean air temperature and relative humidity at the exit. Results from the simulation are pre-
sented and compared with experimental ones obtained on a full scale air heater and a small scale laboratory
one. Reasonable agreement between the predicted and measured values is demonstrated. Predicted results
from a parametric study are also presented. It is shown that signicant improvement in the SPDDSAH
performance can be obtained with an appropriate choice of the collector parameters and the top to bottom
channel depth ratio of the two ducts. The air mass ow rate is shown to be the dominant factor in de-
termining the overall eciency of the heater.
2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Solar air heater; Mathematical modelling; Heat transfer
1. Introduction
Solar air heaters are employed in many applications requiring low to moderate temperatures
(below 60 C), such as crop drying and space heating. The principal types of these heaters are: the
single pass with front duct (SPFDSAH), rear duct (SPRDSAH), double duct (SPDDSAH) and
double-pass (DPSAH). In any of these four dierent arrangements, either a non-porous or a
porous/inltrating absorber can be used. It has been observed [1,2] that the double pass solar air
Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-116-2577097; fax: +44-116-2577692.
E-mail addresses: fkforson@hotmail.com (F.K. Forson), man@dmu.ac.uk (M.A.A. Nazha), hobina@dmu.ac.uk
(H. Rajakaruna).
0196-8904/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0196- 8904( 02) 00139- 5
Nomenclature
A area
C
P
specic heat capacity of air (J/kg K)
f friction factor
Gr Grashof number
G
sc
solar constant (W/m
2
)
h
r;pc
radiation heat transfer coecient from air heater absorber plate to cover
(W/m
2
K)
h
r;pb
radiation heat transfer coecient from air heater absorber plate to base plate
(W/m
2
K)
h
w
wind heat transfer coecient (W/m
2
K)
h
r;cs
radiant heat transfer from collector cover to sky (W/m
2
K)
h
1
heat transfer coecient between heated air in top channel and glass cover (W/m
2
K)
h
2
heat transfer coecient between upper surface of absorber plate and heated air in top
channel (W/m
2
K)
h
3
heat transfer coecient between lower surface of absorber plate and heated air in
bottom channel (W/m
2
K)
h
4
heat transfer coecient between base plate and heated air in bottom channel
(W/m
2
K)
H
d
monthly average daily diuse radiation on horizontal plane (J/m
2
)
H
o
extraterrestrial irradiance on horizontal plane (W/m
2
)
H monthly average daily radiation on horizontal plane (J/m
2
)
H
T
monthly average daily radiation on tilted plane (J/m
2
)
I
c
energy incident on collector cover per unit area per unit time (W/m
2
)
k thermal conductivity (kW/mK)
L length of primary collector (m)
_ mm air mass ow rate (kg/s)
Nu Nusselt number
P air heater top to bottom channel depth ratio
P
s
vapour pressure of water at surface of wet material (N/m
2
)
P
vs
water vapour saturation pressure (N/m
2
)
Pr Prandtl number
Q air heater length to width ratio
Ra Rayleigh Number
Re Reynolds number
s depth of solar air heater channel (m)
S monthly average absorbed solar radiation per unit area (W/m
2
)
T temperature or average temperature (K)
T
f
mean temperature (K)
U heat transfer coecient (W/m
2
K)
W width of air heater (m)
1210 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
heaters perform better than the conventional single pass systems. However, their application in
natural convective ow is limited, since air needs to be forced through the two ow channels for
ecient utilisation of the system. Studies on the three types of single pass solar air heaters em-
ploying a solid absorber have shown that the performance of the SPDDSAH is superior to the
other two [35]. Several studies have been conducted on the SPDDSAH, but issues regarding
the best geometrical proportions are not conclusive. Nevertheless, it is accepted that the de-
termination of the optimum collector length will greatly aid the design of future air heaters [4].
For a SPDDSAH in which the ow is by forced convection, Pawar et al. [6] recommend that for
higher eciencies, the collector length should be 1.52.5 m. This was based on a xed collector
width of 1.0 m, suggesting that air heaters having length to width ratios in the range 1.52.5 are
ideal. However, for a SPDDSAH in which the ow is purely by natural convection, recommen-
dations for optimal designs for specic applications are lacking. Such recommendations require
proper understanding of the eects of the design variables and would involve studying the im-
plications of a number of dierent congurations under varied operating conditions. Accom-
plishing such a task on full scale prototypes can be time consuming and expensive. Small scale
models provide useful information but cannot simulate all the features of the full scale system.
Alternatively, a mathematical model of the physical system can be developed and used for in-
vestigating the eect of changes in the design and operating conditions on the systems perfor-
mance at a relatively low cost. Such a model, however, must be validated against experimental
results before it can be used with condence as a design aid for future systems. Mathematical
models for predicting the useful energy gained by a at plate solar collector are generally based on
the equation:
q
u
F
0
sa
e
I
c
U
L

TT
f
T
a
1
Greek symbols
b air heater angle of tilt ()
e emittance
q density of air (kg/m
3
)
r StefanBoltzman constant (kW/m
2
K
4
)
Subscripts
a, amb ambient
b base plate
c collector cover
e edge
p absorber plate
s sky
in inlet
out outlet
1 top (upper) channel
2 bottom (lower) channel
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1211
where F
0
and U
L
are the collector eciency factor and the collector heat loss coecient, re-
spectively,

TT
f
is the local time average uid temperature and sa
e
is the eective transmittance
absorptance product. An examination of Eq. (1) suggests that the collectors eciency (the
amount of useful energy collected for a given solar radiation input) can be increased by increasing
F
0
and sa
e
and reducing U
L
. Parker [7] developed expressions for F
0
and U
L
for a SPDDSAH,
but in arriving at the solution, he made simplifying assumptions regarding the mass ow rate and
the heat transfer coecients. Boindi et al. [8] also derived expressions for F
0
and U
L
by assuming
equal temperatures of the air in the two channels. It is noted from these expressions that the values
of F
0
and U
L
are related to the heat transfer parameters, which are also dependent on the char-
acteristics of the absorber plate, the transparent cover and the base plate of the system.
Pawar et al. [6] developed a steady state model aimed at predicting the thermal behaviour of air
heaters. Their model provides no means of estimating the air ow rates but uses assumed values,
and it over predicts the collector eciency by 1015%. Ong [9,10] manipulated the basic governing
equations and employed the matrix inversion technique to solve the resulting constitutive equa-
tions. In Ongs model, the mass ow is assumed. The model over predicts the mean temperature of
the heated air near the inlet of the collector and under predicts it near the outlet. The mass ow
rate aects the performance of a collector signicantly, and a proper method of estimating its
value is, therefore, necessary. Hegazy [11,12] did modelling work of a SPDDSAH. The work
showed that the channel depth-to-length ratio is an important parameter in determining the useful
heat gain. His study suggests that for variable ow operation, the optimum depth-to-length ratio
should be 0.0025 for both natural [11] and forced convection [12]. Using the above optimum
value, he conducted another theoretical study on the eect of collector shape. The study showed
that for a constant area, variable width collectors exhibit performance behaviour similar to
constant width ones, but with a marginal decrease in collector eciency [13]. These studies did not
address the eect of top-to-bottom channel depth ratio of the two ducts.
The work presented in this paper aims at providing a mathematical model capable of predicting
the performance of a SPDDSAH, including the properties of the heated air at the exit. It also aims
at using the developed model to investigate the eects of the design and operating variables on the
performance of a SPDDSAH, perform sensitivity analysis and outline recommendations for an
optimal design conguration for a given air heater aperture area that maximises the air tem-
perature and mass ow rate and minimises the relative humidity. The model is validated by
comparing the simulation results with those obtained using a small scale laboratory model and a
full scale prototype attached to a commercial crop dryer.
2. Description of the system
The schematic conguration of the SPDDSAH is illustrated in Fig. 1. Basically, it is an air
heater that utilises a non-porous absorber. There are two rectangular ow channels, one above
and one below the absorber plate. The collector has a single glazing, and the bottom plywood
board serves as both the base or bottom plate and the insulation. The absorber plate is suspended
between the glazing and the bottom plate, and the system is also thermally insulated from the
sides. Air ow through the air heater is by natural convection. Ambient air enters the two
channels at x 0, and the hot air emerges at x L. The two hot air streams mix in the plenum.
1212 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
3. Formulation of the mathematical model
The equations governing the performance of the system are formulated by coupling the energy
balance equations of the components of the air heater with those for the useful heat extracted in
the two channels, making the following assumptions:
1. The air heater operates under steady state conditions.
2. The capacitance of the absorber plate is negligible.
3. The operating temperatures of the air heater components are constant.
4. The area of the absorber plate is equal to the aperture area of the collector.
5. The temperature of the air varies only in the direction of the ow (x direction).
6. The sky is considered a blackbody for long wavelength radiation.
7. The heat ow through the glazing and the base plate is one dimensional and in the y direc-
tion.
8. The air heater is treated as an inclined chimney.
9. The air heater is considered to be made of sections of equal length in the direction of airow
with each section receiving heated air from the previous section and delivering heated air to the
following one.
10. The physical properties of air are assumed to vary linearly with temperature in the range
293 K < T < 333 K.
11. The ambient temperature and wind speed are constant and equal to the long term monthly av-
erage day time values.
3.1. Energy balance equations
The energy balance equations for the various components of the system and an expression that
relates the useful energy absorbed by the heated air to the incident energy (solar radiation) on the
system are given below:
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a SPDDSAH.
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1213
cover plate:
S
c
h
r;pc
T
p
T
c
h
1
T
f;1
T
c
h
w
T
c
T
a
h
r;cs
T
c
T
s
2
air stream 1 (air in top channel):
h
2
W T
p
T
f;1
h
1
W T
f;1
T
c
_ mm
1
C
Pa
dT
f;1
dx
U
e;1
s
1
T
f;1
T
a
3
absorber plate:
S
p
h
3
T
p
T
f;2
h
2
T
p
T
f;1
h
r;pb
T
p
T
b
h
r;pc
T
p
T
c
4
air stream 2 (air in bottom channel):
h
3
W T
p
T
f;2
h
4
W T
f;2
T
b
_ mm
2
C
Pa
dT
f;2
dx
U
e;2
s
2
T
f;2
T
a
5
base plate:
h
4
T
f;2
T
b
h
r;pb
T
p
T
b
U
b
T
b
T
a
6
eciency of the system:
g
c

_ mm
1
C
P;1
T
f;1out
T
f;1in
_ mm
2
C
P;2
T
f;2out
T
f;2in

I
c
A
c
7
3.2. Modelling of airow rate
The air ow rate through a chimney is caused by a natural draft resulting from the temperature
dierence between the hot air at the inlet and the cold air outside, and the pressure drop D
t
(N/m
2
)
is given by [14]:
D
t
233:9q
a
h
T
f;m
T
a
T
f;m
_ _
8
where T
f;m
is the mean temperature of the heated air inside the chimney (K), and h is the vertical
height of the stack (m). To account for heat losses in a chimney, the T
f;m
, valid for chimneys less
than 9 m tall, is given by [15]:
T
f;m
5=9fT
a
0:65T
a
T
f;out
g 9
where T
a
and T
f;out
are the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the chimney, respectively.
Considering the air heater as an inclined chimney and neglecting inertia forces, the thermal
pressure dierence inside the collector is balanced by the pressure drop due to friction across the
collector, and hence, the mass ow rate of air in each of the two channels is given by
_ mm
i
q
i
Ws
i
C
V ;i
F
v;i

2 233:9q
a
h
T
f;out
T
a
T
f;out

7
13
T
a
_ _ _ _

_
10
where h L sinb, F
v;i

d
h;i
=fLq
i
_
, d
h;i
hydraulic mean depth of the duct and L is the collector
length (m), C
v;i
the coecient of velocity and W the width of the collector (m).
1214 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
3.3. Estimation of heat transfer coecients
The radiative heat transfer coecients from the absorber to the glazing, h
r;pc
, and from the
absorber to the bottom plate, h
r;pb
, are given by an expression of the general form:
h
r;pi
rT
2
p
T
2
i
T
p
T
i

1
e
p
_ _

1
e
i
1
_
11
where i represents c, b.
The heat transfer by radiation from the glazing of a solar collector to the sky is given by
h
r;cs
re
c
T
2
c
T
2
s
T
c
T
s
12
where the sky temperature, T
s
is evaluated from an equation given by Swinbank [16] and T
c
is the
temperature of the air heater top cover or glazing.
Hollands et al. [17] give the relationship between Nusselt number and Rayleigh number for free
convective heat exchange through a tilted cavity with tilt angle, b, 0 6b 660 as:
Nu
x
1 1:44 1
_

1708sin1:8b
1:6
Racos b
_
1
_

1708
Racos b
_

Racos b
5830
_ _
1=3
_
1
_

13
where X

is dened by: X

jXj X=2
The average value of the Nusselt number is related to the local value by the relation
Nu
4
3
Nu
x
14
Eqs. (13) and (14) are used to evaluate the heat transfer coecients, h
2
and h
4
, between the hot air
and the heated absorber plate for large aspect ratios L=s > 12. For small aspect ratios,
L=s 612, it is suggested [18] that reasonable results may be obtained for rectangular cavities as
follows:
Nu
L
Nu
H
Nu
V
Nu
H
_ _
b=b
c
sin b
c

b=4b
c

15
Values of b
c
are provided by Incropera and DeWitt [18]. The convection heat transfer coecient
for a horizontal cavity, Nu
H
, with heated plate below is obtained from Eq. (13) by making b 0.
For a vertical rectangular cavity, with aspect ratio from 2 to 10, Pr < 10
5
and 10
3
< Ra < 10
10
, the
following correlation has been suggested [18]:
Nu
v
0:22
Pr
0:2 Pr
Ra
_ _
0:28
L
s
_ _
1=4
16
The characteristic length in the expression for Nusselt number for Eqs. (13)(16) is the depth of
the corresponding air channel. In using these equations, the properties of air are evaluated at the
mean temperature of the plates enclosing the cavity.
The heat transfer coecient, h
1
, between the hot air and the inner surface of the relatively cold
tilted glass cover is estimated using the following correlation [19]:
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1215
Nu
h
1
X

k
0:27 GrPr cos b
1=3
_ _
17
where X

is the characteristic length taken as the surface area divided by the perimeter that en-
compasses the area.
The heat transfer coecient, h
3
, is calculated using the correlation for calculating the heat
transfer coecients between two horizontal plates (with the hot plate uppermost) and accounting
for the tilt as follows [20]:
Nu 0:135GrPr cos b
1=3
18
The wind heat transfer coecient is evaluated using the correlation proposed by Othieno [21]
for angles of tilt in the range 020
h
w
k75 0:42Re
0:6
=X 19
where the characteristic length, X, is four times the plate area divided by the plate perimeter.
The back loss coecient U
b
is given by Klein [22]:
U
b
1=x=k 1=h
b
20
where k and x are the thermal conductivity and thickness of the back insulation, respectively, and
h
b
is the convection coecient between the bottom of the insulation and the environment. The
values of h
b
range from 12.5 to 25 W/m
2
K.
The edge heat losses are estimated by assuming one dimensional sideways heat ow around the
perimeter of the collector system. The edge loss heat transfer coecient is referred to the collector
area A
c
and given by:
U
e
i
UA
edge
=A
c
fk=xs
i
g=W 21
3.4. Radiation on the collector surface
The monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, H
o
, is [23]:
H
o

24 3600
p
G
sc
1
_
0:033 cos
360nn
365
_
cos /cos d sin x
s
_

px
s
180
sin /sind
_
22
where G
sc
1367 W/m
2
, nn mean day (based on solar radiation) of the month, / latitude of
the site, d declination and x
s
sunset hour angle. Eq. (22) is valid for evaluating H
o
for lat-
itudes in the range 60 to 60 [23].
The AngstromPage regression equation, as developed for Kumasi, Ghana [24], was used to
relate the monthly average daily radiation to the extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface.
The mean monthly daily total radiation on a tilted surface, H
T
, is related to H and R as:
H
T
RH 23
where H is the monthly average radiation on a horizontal surface, and the factor R is an estimate
of the sum of three terms corresponding to beam, diuse and ground-reected radiation on the
inclined surface.
1216 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
Klein and Theilacker [25] proposed an algorithm for estimating R valid for any surface ori-
entation and for all latitudes. The simplied expression of

RR for south facing collectors situated in
the northern hemisphere was used. This algorithm requires an estimate of H
d
=H, the monthly
average diuse radiation fraction. H
d
=H was related to K
T
( H=H
o
), the ratio of the average
daily total to extraterrestrial radiation or the monthly average daily clearance index. The corre-
lation of Erbs et al. [26], independent of the season, was used for estimating H
d
=H.
The monthly average transmittanceabsorptance product, sa
av
, is related to the monthly
average radiation incident on the collector and the monthly average solar radiation absorbed per
unit absorber plate area, S
p
h
S
p
h
H
T
sa
av
R
0
H 24
The radiation absorbed by the absorber per unit area (S
p
h
) is evaluated by introducing a factor to
account for the eects of dust and shading on the collector performance. Hence, the eective
monthly average daily absorbed radiation per unit area (by the absorber) is given by
S
p
h
fR
0
a
00
_
b
00
nn
N
_
H
o
25
where H
o
is the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, nn is the
monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine, a
00
and b
00
are empirical constants dependent on
the location and N is the monthly average of the maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (i.e.
the day length of the average day of the month). In this model, it is assumed that solar radiation is
collected over a time interval of N
ds
, corresponding to the day length for drying, on each day of
the month. Hence, the steady state intensity of the monthly mean absorbed solar radiation (by the
absorber), S
p
, is given as
S
p
fR
0
a
00
_
b
00
n
N
_
H
o
N
ds
3600
26
where f is a factor to account for the combined eects of shading and dust and n is the number of
bright sunshine hours on the mean day of the month. The intensity of solar radiation absorbed by
the collector cover per unit area is also given by
S
c
a
c
RK
T
H
o
N
ds
3600
27
3.5. Thermo-physical properties of air in the plenum
The air inside the plenum is a combination of the air streams exiting the two channels. In
estimating the temperature of the air in the plenum, we assume adiabatic mixing of the two air
streams from the two channels to achieve a conservative estimate of the plenum air temperature.
This assumption is made on the premise that once the air is inside the plenum, there is no radiative
or conductive heat transfer to the air. In real terms, the eect of heat losses is taken into account
by the factors n and c based on experimentation. The expression for the average temperature of
the air in the plenum, T
f
, is given by:
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1217
T
f
n
_ mm
1
C
P;1
T
f;1
_ mmC
P;2
T
f;2
_ mm
1
_ mm
2

c 28
where n and c are constants determined experimentally (a linear regression, using Eq. (28) and 208
data points, obtained on both the full scale and the small scale models, produced n 0:94 and
c 0:56).
The water vapour saturation pressure, P
vs
, for the temperature range of 0473 K is given by:
lnp
vs
C
1
=T
db
C
2
C
3
T
db
C
4
T
2
db
C
5
T
3
db
C
6
lnT
db
29
where C
1
5:8002206 10
3
, C
2
5:516256, C
3
4:8640239 10
2
, C
4
4:1764768 10
5
,
C
5
1:4452093 10
8
, C
6
6:5459763 and T
db
is the dry bulb temperature.
The humidity ratio, H, (kg water vapour/kg dry air) in the temperature range of 225533 K is
given by:
H
0:6219P
v
P
atm
P
v
30
The partial pressure of water vapour, P
v
, is evaluated using Eq. (29) by replacing the dry bulb
temperature with its corresponding dew point temperature, T
d
, of a given sample of moist air. The
dew point temperature can be calculated from the following equation:
T
d
a ba ca
2
da
3
eP
v

0:1984
31
where T
d
dew point temperature, C, a lnP
v
, P
v
water vapour partial pressure, kPa,
a 6:54, b 14:526, c 0:7389, d 0:09486 and e 0:4569. The relative humidity, RH, is, by
denition, given by
RH
P
v
P
vs
32
The physical properties of air are assumed to vary linearly with temperature.
4. Solution procedure
A FORTRAN computer program was written and used to solve the model equations.
Two input variables of the model, namely the solar intensity, H
T
, and the ambient temperature,
T
a
, are time dependent, and hence, the values of the absorber plate temperature, T
p
, uid tem-
peratures in the top and bottom channels, T
f;1
, T
f;2
, respectively, which are dependent on H
T
and
ambient temperature, T
a
, are also time dependent. In order to simplify the solution procedure, it is
assumed that the air heater is subject to a constant insulation, and hence, the plate temperature is
assumed constant. Eqs. (2), (4) and (6) are used to write implicit expressions for T
f;1
, T
f;2
, T
b
and T
c
in terms of the dened parameters. These are then substituted into Eqs. (3) and (5) resulting in the
following rst order dierential equations:
dT
f;1
dx
/
1
T
f;1
/
2
33
dT
f;2
dx
/
3
T
f;2
/
4
34
1218 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
The nite dierence technique is employed to solve Eqs. (33) and (34). An explicit forward dif-
ferencing method is used with an iterative technique where
T
f;i
T
f;i1
T
f;i
=2 and
dT
i
dx

T
i1
T
i
Dx
35
5. Experiments
Two sets of experiments were conducted, one set using a small scale laboratory model of the
SPDDSAH and the other using a full scale commercial type SPDDSAH. The small scale air
heater had an aperture measuring 440 mm wide and 740 mm long with an overall duct depth of 75
mm. Ten, 100 W each, infrared heat lamps were used to provide the incident energy of average
intensity of 464 W/m
2
on the plane of the collector.
The full scale eld model air heater is attached to a commercial size drying chamber in Ghana.
It measures 6.75 m wide and 12.6 m long with an overall duct depth of 280 mm. The detailed
description of the design of this heater and dryer combination has been given previously [27].
5.1. Laboratory or indoor experiments
Three tests were conducted for three dierent locations of the absorber plate between the cover
plate and the base plate. The purpose of this was to assess the eect of the top to bottom channel
depth ratio on the performance of the SPDDSAH. This ratio was set at 0.364:1, 1.08:1 and 3.42:1
in the three tests, respectively. Each test was conducted over a period of at least 3 days with the
infrared lamps switched on for between 5 and 7 h each day.
5.1.1. Instrumentation of the small scale model
The laboratory model was instrumented with appropriate thermocouples for measuring the
glazing, absorber plate, air in the ow channels and base plate temperatures along the ow di-
rection of the collector. The top and bottom values of the glazing, absorber and base plate
temperatures were measured at the middle and the outlet section of the collector. The tempera-
tures of the air were, however, taken along the centre line of the two channels at the inlet and
outlet sections. These measurements were used to compute the weighted mean averages of the
temperatures. A pyranometer (Kipp and Zonen type CA 1 No. 754379) with microvagalva-
nometer (type AL 4) readout was employed to measure the global radiation at several points over
the eld of the collector and averaged to give the average solar irradiance. Two hot wire an-
emometers, for measuring velocities in the range 02 m/s, were used to measure the air velocities
along the centre line of the air channels at the inlet and outlet of the collector and the wind speeds
inside the enclosed test room. These velocity readings were taken at hourly intervals. A hand held
hygrometer was used to measure the relative humidity of air at the collectors inlet and outlet.
5.2. Field or outdoor experiment
The outdoor experiment was conducted on a SPDDSAH with a xed top to bottom channel
depth ratio of 1:1.
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1219
5.2.1. Instrumentation of the large scale model
An LI200S LI-COR PYRANOMETER located at the middle of the collector was used to
measure the incident global solar radiation. The collector was instrumented with k-type ther-
mocouples for measuring the temperatures of the components of the air heater, i.e. the absorber
plate, the glazing and the base plate, at three locations along the length of the air heater. At each
of these three locations, the top and the bottom temperatures of the components were taken. The
temperatures of the air in the two ow channels of the air heater were measured at the inlet and
outlet sections. The ambient temperature and the temperature of the air in the plenum were also
measured with thermocouples. The ambient wind speed, the outlet air velocity and relative hu-
midity at the inlet and outlet of the collector were also obtained.
6. Results and discussion
A comparison of the daily hourly mean values of the measured parameters and their corre-
sponding predicted values for three top to bottom channel depth ratios of the laboratory
SPDDSAH is presented in Table 1. The values presented are based on a steady state incident
radiation of 464 W/m
2
.
The daily hourly average values of the day time values of the measured parameters and their
corresponding predicted values for the full scale air heater are summarised in Table 2.
7. Parametric studies on the small scale SPDDSAH
In order to optimise the design of the SPDDSAH, parametric studies were conducted on the
laboratory air heater using the simulation model. The study was designed to examine the factors
that are within the control of a solar air heater designer and that can be optimised in order to
improve its performance. The focus of the study reported in this paper, therefore, was concerned
with determining the best air heater design conguration without compromising on cost.
Table 1
Comparison of predicted and measured average values for the laboratory air heater
Air heater model: performance indicators
T
c
(C) T
p
(C) T
b
(C) T
f;1
(C) T
f;2
(C) T
f
(C) _ mm (kg/s) RH (%) g
c
(%)
Test 1 Measured 46.8 56.1 27.5 46.1 24.9 27.5 0.0164 35 49.6
(P 0:364:1) Predicted 43.3 57.0 25.0 42.0 26.2 29.5 0.0144 28 56.5
Dierence (%) )7.1 1.6 )9.1 )8.9 5.2 7.3 )12.2 )20 13.9
Test 2 Measured 44.8 54.5 29 38.9 33.2 31.9 0.0123 35.8 63.5
(P 1:08:1) Predicted 44.8 56.5 29 36.8 31.8 34.3 0.0130 29.7 64.0
Dierence (%) 0 3.7 0 )5.4 )4.2 7.5 5.7 )17.0 0.8
Test 3 Measured 45.3 52.6 33.1 34.5 38.9 37.1 0.0139 39.8 71.3
(P 3:42:1) Predicted 43.4 55.4 31.6 34.1 36.1 34.4 0.0145 31.7 71.0
Dierence (%) )4.4 5.3 )4.5 )1.1 )7.2 )7.3 4.3 )20.4 )1.0
1220 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
The investigation assessed the eect of the following four parameters on the performance of the
air heater:
(i) the air ow channel top to bottom channel depth ratio, P ( s
1
=s
2
),
(ii) the length to width ratio, Q ( L=W ),
(iii) the overall collector channel depth, s ( s
1
s
2
),
(iv) the area of the collector, A
c
.
Using the same base line design parameters of the laboratory air heater (P 0:364, Q 1:586,
s 75 mm and A
c
0:317 m
2
), the value of only one parameter was varied for a given set and the
eect of this change on the collectors predicted performance was obtained.
Fig. 2 shows that as the top to bottom channel depth ratio is increased for a given overall depth,
there is an increase in the temperature and a reduction in the mass ow rate of the heated air in the
bottom channel; and the reverse occurs in the upper channel.
A better way of looking at Fig. 2 is to consider an increasing P (i.e. P > 1), and a decreasing P
(i.e. P < 1). These two cases signify an increasing greater depth of the top channel relative to the
bottom one and an increasing greater depth of the bottom channel relative to the top one,
Table 2
Comparison of predicted and measured average values for the full scale air heater
Parameter
T
c
(C) T
p
(C) T
b
(C) T
f;1
(C) T
f;2
(C) T
f
(C) _ mm (kg/s) RH
2
(%) RAD (W/m
2
)
Measured 41.4 42.4 36.5 40.2 35.4 37.6 0.369 43.1 341
Predicted 42.1 47.5 37.3 41.9 39.2 40.3 0.350 34.8 479
Dierence (%) 1.7 12 2.2 4.2 10.7 7.2 )5.1 )19.7 40.5
Fig. 2. Predicted variation of air temperature and mass ow rate with P.
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1221
respectively. In both cases, a decrease in the depth of a channel results in an increase in the ow
resistance, leading to a reduction in the mass ow and an increase in the temperature. However,
the temperature of the heated air in the upper channel appears to increase more rapidly when
P < 1 and reducing than the case for the lower channel with P > 1 and increasing. This prediction
is supported by the experimental ndings presented in Table 1. The eciency of the air heater also
increases with increasing P, while the relative humidity (normalised to the inlet condition) de-
creases as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 4 shows that an increase in the value of S causes an increase in the mass ow rate and a
decrease in the temperature of the heated air in both channels. An increase in the channel ow
area results in a lower ow resistance and, hence, an increase in the mass ow rate, accompanied
by a reduction in the air temperature. The eciency of the heater also increases with S as shown in
Fig. 5. A similar trend of results has been reported in the literature [10]. The useful heat trans-
ferred to the air is given by Q
u
_ mmC
P
DT. Since DT decreases as the overall depth (S) increases, the
increase in eciency suggests that the increase in mass ow rate outweighs the eect of the de-
crease in the corresponding temperature of the heated air. Thus, the mass ow becomes the
dominant determining factor governing the performance of the air heater with an increase in the
value of the overall collector depth. However, the extent to which S can be increased to achieve an
increase in collector eciency is limited, since for collectors with a tilt angle up to 60, the aspect
ratio (L=s) of the collector should be between 20 and 200 [28]. This restriction places a limit on the
maximum value of S for a collector of given area. It is also signicant to note that with this
option, the increase in eciency is at the expense of the relative humidity, which increases with S
as shown in Fig. 5. Thus, increasing the air heater channel depth may result in heated air con-
ditions that are unfavourable for certain applications (such as drying purposes). On the other
hand, it can be inferred from the results that in order to achieve a higher air stream temperature, a
Fig. 3. Predicted variation of eciency and relative humidity with P.
1222 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
small ow channel depth is required. However, this may cause large frictional losses over the
length of the air heater, resulting in a reduced mass ow rate. A compromise is needed that takes
into account the specic application of the air heater.
Fig. 6 shows that as Q is increased, the temperature of the air in each channel increases, while
the mass ow rate decreases. An increase in the value of Q for a given collector area implies a
reduction in the value of the width of the collector and an increase in its length. Thus, for a given
Fig. 4. Predicted variation of air temperature and mass ow rate with S.
Fig. 5. Predicted variation of eciency and relative humidity with S.
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1223
conguration of the collector with S, P and A
c
maintained constant, there is a reduction in the
cross-sectional area of each channel as Q increases. This leads to an increase in turbulence, re-
sulting in a decrease in the mass ow accompanied by an increase in the heated air temperature.
Fig. 7 indicates that increasing Q leads to reductions in the eciency and the normalised rel-
ative humidity of the heated air. The temperature of the heated air, however, increases with in-
creasing Q. This suggests that the mass ow rate is again the dominant factor governing the
performance of the air heater. Reducing the length to width ratio for a given collector is an
Fig. 6. Predicted variation of air temperature and mass ow rate with Q.
Fig. 7. Predicted variation of eciency and relative humidity with Q.
1224 F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227
alternative proposition for increasing its eciency without compromising on the cost, but it is at
the expense of decreasing temperatures and increasing relative humidity of the heated air.
Fig. 8 clearly illustrates that an increase in the collector area will lead to an increase in both the
temperature and the mass ow rate. This option does not necessarily alter the ow channel
conguration, but the total solar radiation absorbed by the collector is increased and, conse-
quently, the available energy increases. However, the eciency of the collector decreases, and the
relative humidity of the heated air increases, as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 8. Predicted variation of air temperature and mass ow rate with A
c
.
Fig. 9. Predicted variation of eciency and relative humidity with A
c
.
F.K. Forson et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 12091227 1225
It is evident from the study, that for an existing SPDDSAH, the most eective modication that
can be made to enhance its performance appears to be the re-positioning of the absorber plate to
obtain higher values of P. As for new designs, a number of parameters have to be chosen carefully
with the ultimate purpose of the heater in mind to achieve the most eective performance.
8. Conclusion
The following conclusions may be drawn from the foregoing case and parametric studies:
1. The developed mathematical model provides reasonable predictions of the performance of a
SPDDSAH and can be a useful design tool for future development of a SPDDSAH to satisfy
specic applications.
2. Signicant improvement in the SPDDSAH performance may be obtained through a careful
choice of a number of collector parameters.
3. A compromise between higher values of Q, A
c
and P is needed to achieve the required temper-
ature, mass ow rates and relative humidity of the heated air.
4. Increasing the top to bottom channel ratio is a cost eective way of optimising the thermal per-
formance of a SPDDSAH.
5. The mass ow rate is the dominant factor in determining the eciency of a natural convection
air heater, hence a careful estimation of the mass ow rate is essential.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission, the British
Council and the Ghana Government for sponsoring the Ph.D. studies of the rst author at De
Montfort University, Leicester, England. The technical support of the Technicians of the De-
partment of Mechanical Engineering, UST-Ghana and the School of Engineering and Technol-
ogy, DMU, England, during the construction and instrumentation of the set ups are also
acknowledged.
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