Grammar Review

I hope that the gramar tips I have written below will be useful to you, not only for
reading this book but also to use them in the future. Besides, at the end of this Grammar
Review, you will find a list of verbs that will also help you. GOOD LUCK!
1 Adjectives
1.1 Modifying adjectives

You use modifiers to increase or reduce the strength of gradeable
adjectives. Gradeable adjectives express qualities which exist in different strengths, e.g.
tall, dirty, angry. Here are some modifiers arranged roughly from weak to strong:
a bit/fairly rather/pretty really/very extremely/incredibly
“I thought the film was really good.” “Did you? I thought it was pretty
boring.”
Sue can be a bit annoying sometimes, but generally I like her.
I’m incredibly excited about our holiday!
You can make comparative adjectives stronger by using much and a lot.
My brother is much more artistic than I am.
You can make comparative adjectives weaker by using a bit and a little.
The weather is a bit colder than yesterday, isn’t it?
Spoken English
In spoken English, a bit, a little, pretty and really are particularly common.
1.2 Comparative and superlative adjectives

Here are some of the basic rules for forming comparative and superlative
adjectives.
One-syllable adjectives
adjective + -(e)r/-(e)st
large larger largest
hard harder hardest
fast faster fastest
1
Este material educativo es para uso exclusivo de los alumnos del Programa de Educación a Distancia del
Liceo Naval “Almirante Guise”
One-syllable adjectives ending in a vowel and a single consonant
adjective (double final consonant) + -er/-est
thin thinner thinnest
big bigger biggest
wet wetter wettest
Two-syllable adjectives ending in “y”

adjective (drop the y) + -ier/-iest
tidy tidier tidiest
happy happier happiest
pretty prettier prettiest
Two or more syllable adjectives
more/most + adjective
wonderful more wonderful most wonderful
honest more honest most honest
tiring more tiring most tiring
Irregular adjectives
Good better best
bad worse worst

little less least
far further furthest
old elder eldest (people only)
Notes
• You can form some two-syllable adjectives using either -er/-est or more/most,
e.g. shallow, gentle, clever, tired.
• Notice the way you use prepositions with superlatives. With places, you use in
and with people and things, you use of.
She is the cleverest girl in the class.
He is the shortest of the four boys.
2
1.3 Adjective order
When you use more than one adjective before a noun, you have to put them in a
certain order. The rules are complicated but here is the most usual order.
1 opinion (lovely, nice, boring)

2 size/weight (huge, tiny, light)
3 age (ancient, young, brand-new)
4 shape (round, long, triangular)
5 colour (grey, blue, ivliite)
6 origin (German, Spanish, Greek)

7 material (plastic, leather, stone)
8 purpose (student hook, can opener, walking hoots)
I saw some lovely, old, gold earrings in a jeweller’s yesterday.

She's just bought a brand-new, red, sports car.
An archaeologist has recently discovered a collection of ancient
Greek, gold coins.
Note
You usually don't use more than three adjectives before a noun.
Spoken English
In spoken English we rarely use more than two adjectives before a noun. In
writing we might say:
I bought an expensive, black, leather jacket on Saturday.
In speaking, we are more likely to say:

I bought a black, leather jacket on Saturday. It was really expensive.
1.4 Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing
Many adjectives formed from the past participle (ed) (E.g. annoyed,
disappointed, interested, worried) describe a feeling or a state.
He was very frightened by the experience.

I am shocked by your attitude.
3
Many adjectives formed from the present participle (ing) (e.g. amusing,
exciting, surprising, terrifying) describe the thing, experience or person which
produces the feeling.
It was a very frightening experience.
Your attitude is shocking.
1.5 Compound adjectives

Compound adjectives are made up of two parts. The second part can be:
• a past participle (suntanned, old-fashioned, outspoken).
Helen looks very relaxed and suntanned after her holiday in Spain.
• a present participle (easy-going, hard-working, outgoing).
You have to have an outgoing personality if you want to be a successful

salesperson.
• a preposition (broken-down, well-off, worn-out).
Her family is very well-off and lives in a large house in a smart suburb.
Compound adjectives are usually written with a hyphen (-), but some can be
written as one word. There are no clear rules for writing them. If in doubt, look them up
in a dictionary.
2 Describing a sequence of events
You use tenses and a time expression (when, until, after, before, as soon as,
once, the moment etc) to describe a sequence of events.
a) When you talk about the past, you use the time expression + past simple or
past perfect simple. b) The past perfect simple emphasizes that one action was
completed before the other.
a) The moment I saw him, I felt very nervous.
b) After I had left university, I travelled round the world.
4
a) When you talk about the future, you use the time expression + present simple
or present perfect simple. b) The present perfect simple emphasizes that one action has
to be completed before the second action can take place.
a) As soon as I get home, I’ll call you.
b) When you have had your lunch, we will start work.
3 Expressing wishes and regrets
You can use wish or if only + could or past simple/continuous to talk about
something you would like to be different, but can't change. If only is stronger than
wish.
I wish I’d studied harder at school.
If only I could speak English fluently!
To talk about something you regret in the past, you can use:
• wish or if only + past perfect
I wish we had bought that sofa we saw in the sales.
• should have + past participle

She should have told him the truth before he found out for himself.
4 Linking and contrasting ideas
You can contrast ideas in one sentence by using:
• but
I didn't go to the party but Martin did.

Julia likes working there, but I don't.
• although, though, even though. You use these at the beginning or

in the middle of a sentence. You use even though to contrast the
ideas more strongly.
Although he felt ill, he went to work.
He doesn’t drive, even though he has passed his driving test.
5
• despite, in spite of. These words are prepositions, so you must use
a noun or an -ing form after them. You use the fact that to
introduce a clause.
Despite the fact that they arrived late, they enjoyed the
concert.
They went to the beach in spite of the bad weather.
• Whereas, while
While Stephen really enjoys listening to music, his brother

can't stand it.
Jennie loves living in the city, whereas her husband Simon
would prefer a home in the country.
You can contrast ideas in two sentences by using:
• However, nevertheless. a) You use however at the beginning or

at the end of a sentence. b) You use nevertheless only at the
beginning of the sentence. Nevertheless is more formal.
a) I’ve never been to Canada. However, I’d like to go there
one day.
b) The staff in my company doesn’t get paid for overtime.
Nevertheless, it is common for employees to work after five
o’clock.
• On the other hand
He didn’t want to go to the cinema with his friends. On the

other hand, he didn't want to stay at home.
If you read the WHOLE

Grammar Review
carefully, you’ll succeed
in solving the book!
6
5 Inversion
You use inversion in formal English, especially formal written English, for
emphasis. You use inversion after:
• Negative or restrictive adverbs or clauses (never, scarcely, rarely,

seldom, hardly ever, not until, no sooner, nowhere, under no
circumstances).
• Restrictive expressions beginning with only (only when, only if,

only by).
When you use inversion, you use the same word order as in a question:
negative/restrictive expression + auxiliary + subject + verb.
Seldom did he leave the house after the accident.
Never before have I met such an interesting person.
Only by working hard will you succeed.
Note when you use when and than in sentences beginning with hardly and no
sooner.
Hardly had I left the house when I realized I had forgotten
something.
No sooner had he finished his first song than the crowd
started to boo.
6 Ellipsis
You can leave out words when it is not necessary to repeat them for the meaning
to be clear, and in other situations where you can understand the meaning without using
the words. This is called ellipsis. You use ellipsis:
• In short tag answers beginning with so, neither, nor.
“I didn’t 'see Ann.” “Neither did I.”

“I’ve visited Rome.” “So have I.”
“I wouldn’t like to be here on my own.” “Nor would I”.
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• After an auxiliary or a modal. You can leave out the verb phrase. If
there is no auxiliary, you use do/does/did.
Pete enjoyed the film hut I didn't. (= but I didn’t enjoy the
film.)
Sarah and Luke are coming to the party, but Matt isn’t.
Stuart can’t swim, but his sister can.
• In short reply questions. You use a positive question after a positive
statement and a negative question after a negative statement.
“They play tennis nearly every day.” “Do they?”
“He hasn’t seen that film.” “Hasn’t he?”
• In short answers.
“How old is he?” “25.”

“Have you seen that film?” “Not yet.”
• In sentences where the verb would be repeated in the infinitive
form. You can leave out the infinitive and you use to.
I’ve never heard him sing, but I’d like to.

I never play basketball now, but I used to.
7 Modals
7.1 Obligation and necessity (must, have to, need)
Must
You use must + infinitive for strong obligations which express the authority of
the speaker. You use it for:
• Rules or laws.
You must give in your homework by Friday.

• For advice or recommendations.
You must take your medicine every three hours if you want to
get better for the weekend.
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• For obligations or necessities that the speaker imposes on him or
herself.
I must get up early tomorrow so I don’t miss my flight.
You use mustn’t to talk about something you are not allowed to do, or
something that is inadvisable.
You mustn’t wear jeans to work.
You mustn’t go out if you’re not feeling well enough.
Note
You can only use must and mustn’t to talk about the present and
future. You use had to talk about the past.
Have to
• You use have to + infinitive for strong obligations that express

the authority of a third person, rather than the speaker.
I have to work late tonight because my boss is away.

You have to go outside if you want to smoke that is the
company rule.
• You use don’t have to to talk about a lack of obligation. (You can
also use needn’t and don’t need to, see below).
You don’t have to pick me up from the station- I’ll get a taxi.
• You use had to for past obligations.
We had to wear a uniform when I was at school.
Note
You can use have got to instead of have to. It is informal, and
more common in British English.
Sorry, I’ve got to go now; I’m meeting Mark in half an hour.
Need, need to
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• You use need to + infinitive to talk about necessities, rather than
obligations. You need to get your hair cut.
Do we need to prepare food for the party, or shall we just
provide drinks?
• You use don’t need to + infinitive or needn’t + infinitive to talk
about a lack of obligation or necessity.
You don’t need to/needn’t buy a sleeping bag for the holiday. I
will lend you one.
• You use needn’t have + past participle to talk about an action in

the past that was unnecessary.
We needn’t have arrived at the airport so early. We still had to
queue for three hours.
• You use didn’t need to + infinitive to talk about an action in the

past that was unnecessary, without saying whether the person did it
or not.
He didn’t need to fill in the form.
7.2 Certainty and speculation (must, may, might, could, can’t)
You use must or can’t + infinitive to say you are fairly certain about
something; you have some evidence to reach this conclusion.
You use must to indicate “positive” certainty (you are sure something is true)
and can’t to indicate “negative” certainty (you are sure something is not true).
You do not use mustn't or can to talk about certainty.
It must be five o'clock; everyone is beginning to leave. (People
usually leave at five; they’re leaving now, and therefore I
conclude that it’s five o’clock.)
She must he terribly unhappy.
That can’t be Sheila; she said she couldn’t come today.
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You use may, might or could when you are speculating that something is
possible.
I don’t know where he is; he might be out to lunch.
I'm not sure whose pen this is but it could be Teresa’s.
You use a modal + have + past participle to express certainty or speculate

about the past.
It’s very late; he must have forgotten we were meeting.

He may have been delayed by the traffic.
He could have arranged another appointment.
You can also use the main verb in the continuous form:
(be + -ing or have been + -ing).

He can’t be coming.
He might have been planning something different.
7.3 Ability (can, could)
To talk about general ability, you use can for the present and could for the past.
I can speak three languages.

He could swim when he was six years old.
To talk about an ability to do a specific thing in the past, you use was/were able
to or managed to, not could.
It took three hours, but in the end they managed to put out
the fire.
For other tenses, you use be able to.

He’s been able to ride since he was very young.
“Will you be able to copy this for me?
8 Gerunds (-ing forms)

Gerunds are nouns formed from verbs. You form them by adding -ing to the
infinitive. You use the gerund:
• As the subject of sentences.
Flying was his favourite hobby.
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• As the object of sentences.
I’ve always enjoyed sailing.
• After certain verbs and verb phrases. (See the list on p222.)
I couldn't help noticing you were pale.
• After prepositions and combinations of adjective + preposition and

verb + preposition.
On arriving at the airport, go straight to the transfer desk.
I'm interested in learning more about this subject.
I'm thinking of visiting Rome next month.
9 Present tenses
9.1 Present Simple
Form
Affirmative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)
you MUST add an “s” to the verb
E:G: I eat an apple. He eats an apple.
Negative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

you MUST add “es” to the auxiliary verb: Do
E:G: I don’t eat an apple. He doesn’t eat an apple.
Interrogative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

you MUST add “es” to the auxiliary verb: Do
E:G: Do I eat an apple? Does he eat an apple?
Use
You use the present simple:

• to talk about routines and habits. I go to the theatre about once a month.
• to talk about facts. Light travels at about 186 000 miles a second.
12
• to talk about permanent situations. My father runs his own business from
home.
You often use adverbs of frequency with the present simple (e.g. never,
rarely, seldom, sometimes, occasionally, usually, frequently, often, always).
Adverbs of frequency usually go before the main verb and after the verb to be.
Longer adverbial expressions usually go at the end of the sentence.
I often go to the cinema.
I am rarely late for work.
The committee meets once a month.
Spoken English
The present simple is often used in spoken English:
• to give instructions and directions.
“First you boil some water in a saucepan; then you add the powder ..”
“You go straight on and keep on going till you come to the traffic
lights; then you turn left.”
• to tell stories or jokes.
“Anyway, I look for my car keys for an hour, but I can’t find
them. So I walk home, which takes me another hour- and what do I
find when I get home? My keys are in my pocket, they’ve been there
all the time!”
• to comment on events, such as sports events.
“Becher passes to Kidd, who manages to get past March ...and he

scores!”
9.2 Present Continuous
Form
is/are + present participle
Use
13
You use the present continuous to talk about:
• actions that are happening now or around now.
“What are you doing?” “I’m trying to fix the door.”

I’m working very hard at the moment, so I won’t be able to see you
until next week.
• temporary actions or situations.
We’re living in a caravan at the moment while our new house is being
redecorated.
• changes and developments.
The weather is getting cold again, isn’t it?

Your English is improving all the time.
Spoken English
In spoken English we use the present continuous to talk about something

that happens often and is usually unplanned or irritating (with always).
It’s always raining in this country.
My boyfriend is always buying me surprise presents.
9.3 Present perfect simple
Form
has/have + past participle
Use
The present perfect connects past actions or situations to the present in
some way. You use the present perfect simple to talk about:
• Actions or situations that began in the past and continue in the

present. A past time reference must be included (often with for and
since).
I've lived in this house for twenty years.
14
I've lived in tins house since 1978.
• Finished actions or situations that happened in unfinished time

(often with time expressions, e.g. today, this week, this year and
words like already).
I’ve already had six cups of coffee today, and it’s only
lunchtime!
• Finished actions or events that happened at some unspecified time in

the past. It is the experience that is important, so we are not
interested in when the action happened.
I’ve been to most countries in Europe, but I’ve never visited
Spain.
• Finished actions or situations (often from the recent past) that have a
result in the present, or a relevance to the present (often with just).
I’ve just spilt some coffee on the rug. Could you get me a
cleaning, cloth from the kitchen?
• Recent news, when the exact time of the event is not mentioned.
Compare with the past simple:
The government have announced new laws to try to reduce
the crime rate.
Last night, the government announced new laws to try to
reduce the crime rate.
Note
In American English the past simple is usually used where the present
perfect is used by British English speakers.
“Did you ever see Star Wars?” “Yes, I saw it twice.” (American English)
“Have you ever seen Star Wars?” “Yes, I’ve seen it twice.” (British English)
Spoken English
In spoken English the present perfect is often shortened.
“Been to England?” (= “Have you been to England?”)
“Done that!” (= “I’ve done that!”)
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9.4 Present perfect continuous
form
has/have + been + present participle
Use
You use the present perfect continuous:
• To talk about actions or situations that began in the past and

continue in the present. Used in this sense, the present perfect
continuous is very similar to the present perfect simple. However,
because the present perfect continuous emphasizes the continuity
and duration of the action, it tends to be more common. For
example:
I have been working for Heinemann since 1995.
is more common than:

I have worked for Heinemann since 1995.
Remember that certain verbs are not usually found in continuous
tenses (see p 220) and some verbs do not suggest duration, and are
therefore usually only found with the present perfect simple, e.g. decide,
finish, stop.
• To indicate that an action is unfinished. Compare:
I’ve been reading that book you lent me.

I’ve read that book you lent me.
• To suggest that an action or situation is temporary.
She’s been cycling to work recently because her car broke

down.
• To talk about a recent action (that may or may not be finished) that
has a result in the present.
I’ve been digging the garden — that’s why my boots are
covered in mud.
I know, this is a bit

boring for you but it
is very USEFUL for
16
you!
10 Past Tenses
10.1 Past simple
Use
You use the past simple to talk about:
• events or actions in the past.
Our teacher came into class late yesterday.

• habits in the past.
When I lived in Spain, I went to the beach every weekend.
• situations in the past.
I lived in England for twenty years.
Remember that you use the past simple for actions and events in the past
that are finished, and happened at a specific time or over a specific period of
time. The past time reference must be included or must be clear from the
context.
Here are some of the adverbs and time expressions you can use with the
past simple:
all night, at six o’clock, between 1992 and 1995, for ten years, in 1945, last
Spring, recently, this morning, yesterday
10.2 Past continuous

Form
was/were + present participle
Use
You use the past continuous:
• to talk about actions in progress around a specific time in the past.
I was studying for my exams this time last year.
17
• to talk about an action that was in progress when another action
happened. The second action is in the past simple. You join the parts
of the sentence together with when or while.
While I was shopping in the supermarket, I met my old boss.
I was shopping in the supermarket when I met my old boss.
• to talk about two or more actions in progress at the same time in the
past.
I was watching TV while my husband was doing the washing-up.
• to give background information when telling a story.
It was snowing outside as people arrived for the party.
Spoken English
The past continuous is often used:
• with reporting verbs.
“Brice was just telling me about his new job, it sounds great.”
• to introduce what you are going to say.
“I was just thinking ... Wouldn’t it be nice if we could buy a new

car?”
• to express a future intention that may or may not be fulfilled.
“I was thinking of going to the cinema tonight. Do you want to

come?”
10.3 Past Perfect Simple
Form
had + past participle
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Use
You use the past perfect simple:
• To talk about an action or event in the past that happened before

another action in the past. The second action is in the past simple.
Julie had eaten her lunch by the time I arrived at
the house.
• To talk about an action or event in the past that happened before a

definite time in the past.
I had never been to France until this year.
• To give a reason for a past event or action.
He arrived late because he had missed the bus.
10.4 Past perfect continuous
Form
had + been + present participle
Use
You use the past perfect continuous for an action in the past that was in
progress up to or near a specified time in the past. Using the continuous form of
the past perfect emphasizes the continuity or duration of the action. You often
use it with for and since.
It had been snowing all night and everything in the garden
was white.
I had been working for the firm for five years before I got a
promotion.
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11 Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses

Form
subject object possessive

person who (that) (that, who, whom) whose
thing that (which) (that, which) whose (of which)
The pronouns in brackets are less common. No commas are used before and
after the relative clause.
You can often leave out the relative pronoun when it refers to the
object of the sentence, particularly in informal language.
The woman (who/that) he married was tall and beautiful.
Use
You use a defining relative clause to identify or “define” the subject or
object of the sentence. (The information is essential to the meaning of the
sentence.)
Students who pass the exam will be given a certificate.
That’s the man whose car was stolen.
Non-defining relative clauses
Form
subject object possessive
person who who, whom whose
thing which which whose (of winch)
You cannot use that in non-defining relative clauses. Commas are

used before and after the relative clause.
Use
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You use a non-defining relative clause to give extra, non-essential
information about the subject or object of the sentence.
Mr. Brown, who lives next door, is a talented artist.
The play at the Lyric Theatre, which is now sold out, has been
getting wonderful reviews.
In non-defining relative clauses, you can use which to refer to the whole
clause before.
Most of the class passed the exam, which made the teacher
very proud.
Notes
• You can also use when, where and why as relative pronouns to refer
to a time, a place or a reason. You can leave out when and why in
defining relative clauses, but not in non-defining relative clauses.
Saturday is the day (when) most people do their shopping.
I try to leave work at six, when the rush hour is over.
The same relative clause can give the sentence two different meanings,
depending on whether it has commas (non-defining) or hasn’t (defining).
Compare:
All my friends, who like sport, play basketball. (All my friends
play basketball.)
All my friends who like sport play basketball. (Only some of
my friends play basketball.)
Spoken English
In spoken English, non-defining relative clauses are not as common as
they are in written English, because they sound very formal. It is more usual to
use shorter sentences. Compare:
I met Jackie Sutton, who is the new teacher at our school, at a
party last night. (Written English)
I met Jackie Sutton at a party last night. She’s the new
teacher at our school. (Spoken English)
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12 Word formation
You can use prefixes and suffixes to make different word-types.
Prefixes
You can use a prefix to give an adjective the opposite meaning:
• disagreeable, illegal, impossible, inactive, irregular, unlikely
You can use a prefix to give a verb the opposite meaning:
• disagree, misunderstand, untie
You can also use other prefixes with verbs:
• reheat, reread (re- = do again)
• oversleep, overcook (over- = too much)
• underestimate, undercook (under- = too little)
Suffixes
You can use a verb + suffix to make nouns:

• teacher, manager, dishwasher, pencil sharpener, actor (-er, -or =
the person or thing that does an action)
• action, collection, persuasion
• excitement, enjoyment, employment
• attendance, appearance
You can use a noun + suffix to make abstract nouns:
• friendship, membership, relationship
• childhood, brotherhood
You can use an adjective + suffix to make abstract nouns:
• happiness, goodness, sadness, carelessness

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You can use a verb + suffix to make adjectives:
• interested, shocked, married
• boring, encouraging, frightening
• drinkable, washable, countable
• flexible
• forgetful, helpful
You can use a noun + suffix to make adjectives:
• careful, tactful
• childless, cloudless
• professional, national
• hopeless, useless
13 Nouns
13.1 Collective nouns

Singular nouns that refer to groups of people can be used with either
singular or plural verbs and pronouns. You often use plural forms when you talk
about the group as a collection of individuals doing something together (the
relative pronoun is who). You often use singular forms when you talk about the
group in an impersonal way (the relative pronoun is which).
Our football team have worked really hard this season.
The team which wins the championship will represent the
country abroad.
The average family goes to the supermarket once a week.
The family next door to us have decided to emigrate to
Australia.
Here are some of the most common collective nouns:

class, club, committee, enemy, family, government, jury, party, public,
school, staff, team
13.2 Countable and uncountable nouns

23
Countable nouns are separate things, people and ideas that can be
counted. They have a singular and plural form and are used with words such as
the, a, several, many, a few and numbers.
Uncountable nouns are things which are thought of as “masses” and not
as separate objects. They usually don’t have a plural form and are used with
words such as some, much, a little. You can’t use numbers with them.
These words are usually uncountable:

advice, anger, beauty, bread, English (and all languages), food, health, help,
information, love, luggage, music, news, paper, rain, sleep, traffic, travel,
weather, work.
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable, depending on how they are

used. Some nouns are countable if you talk about the thing and uncountable if
you talk about the substance or material.
Last weekend I visited a factory that makes glass. It was
really interesting.
Could you put six wine glasses on the table, please?
Abstract nouns are countable if you talk about something particular and
uncountable it you talk about something more generally.
I had a fantastic time at your party last week.
Mr Brown is very busy this morning, but he’ll have time to
talk to you this afternoon.
Note
When words for drinks are used as countable nouns, you often miss out the
quantifying words.
Would yon like a (bottle/glass of) beer?

Let’s stop for a (cup of) coffee and plan what to do next.
14 Verbs
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14.1 Stative and dynamic verbs
Most verbs describe actions or events. These are “dynamic” verbs. You
can use these verbs in either simple or continuous tenses. Some verbs describe
states, not actions. These are “stative” verbs. You cannot use these verbs in the
continuous tenses. Here are some common stative verbs:
Be, believe, belong, cost, exist, hate, hear, imagine, know, like, love,
mean, need, own, prefer, realize, remember, seem, sound, understand,
want, wish.
Some verbs have two meanings: one meaning describes an action or

event, and the other meaning describes a state. When the meaning of the verb is
“dynamic” you can use either the simple or continuous tense. When the meaning
is “stative” you can only use the simple tense. Here are some verbs which have
both stative and dynamic meanings:
• have
He has three cars. (stative meaning = own, possess)

He’s having a bath. (action)
• think
I think you’re right. (stative meaning = have an opinion)

What are you thinking about? (action of thinking)
• see
I see. You aren’t interested. (stative meaning = understand)

I’m seeing him next week. (dynamic meaning = meeting)
• look
It looks as if the situation is getting worse. (stative meaning =

seem)
What are you looking at? (action)
• depend
It all depends on what he says. (stative meaning = is decided

by)
25
I’m depending on you to do the right thing. (dynamic
meaning = relying)
• smell
This rose smells wonderful. (state)

I’m smelling this new perfume to see if it is suitable. (action)
• taste
Lemons taste sour. (state)

I’m tasting the soup to see if it’s salty enough. (action)
14.2 Used to/would + infinitive
Form
subject + used to/would + infinitive
Note the negative and question form of used to:

subject + didn’t + use to + infinitive
did + subject + use to + infinitive
Use
You use used to + infinitive to talk about past habits that are now
finished, repeated actions in the past or past situations which no longer exist.
I used to play ice hockey, but I don’t anymore.
We used to live in an apartment in the city centre.
I always used to get up at seven o 'clock.
You also use used to to talk about actions and states which did not
happen or exist before, but do now.
I didn’t use to watch football. (But I do now.)
He didn’t use to be so helpful. (But now he is.)
Note
26
You do not use used to and a time period. When you say how long, you
use the past simple.
When I was a child, we lived in London for five years.
You can use would + infinitive to talk about repeated actions in the past.
You cannot use would + infinitive to talk about past states or situations.
When we were children, our father would read us stories

every evening.
We would always go to the beach for our holidays in the
summer.
14.3 Be/get used to + -ing
Form
be/get + used to + -ing
Use
You use to be used to -ing something to mean to be accustomed to -ing
it. You use to get used to -ing something to mean to become accustomed to it,
often something which at first was unusual or strange for you.
At the interview, he said he wasn’t used to working in a
team, but he’d try to get used to it.
I’m used to driving on the left, so I find driving in Greece
quite stressful.
At the start of the new school year, everyone has to get used
to being at school again after the holidays.
I’m getting used to my new job now; it hasn’t taken long at
all.
14.4 Verbs followed by infinitive (with/without ) or -ing form (gerund)

You use different patterns after different verbs; it is a good idea to learn
these combinations together. Some verbs have more than one possible pattern.
27
Verbs followed by infinitive with to
agree, arrange, attempt, begin, choose, decide, expect, help, hope,
intend, learn, manage, offer, pretend, promise, refuse
We arranged to meet at the station.
He always pretends to be interested, but I know he isn’t.
Verbs followed an object + infinitive with to

advise, allow, ask, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, help, invite,
oblige, permit, persuade, prefer, recommend, remind, tell, want, warn
My parents always encouraged me to work, as hard as I

could.
I would prefer you to stay here.
Note
When you use not, it goes before to + infinitive.
He told the children not to throw stones.
Verbs and expressions followed by infinitive without to

modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, would sooner, would rather, had better
You really should visit your grandmother more often.
Would you rather stay in or go out this afternoon?
I think you’d better apologize, hadn’t you?
Verbs followed by an object + infinitive without to
let, make, know, feel, help
They didn’t let me forget my promise.
She helped me carry my bags.
Note
If you use these verbs in the passive, they take the infinitive with to.
He was made to do his homework.
Verbs followed by -ing form
28
avoid, admit, can’t stand, can’t help, consider, like, finish, forgive,
give up, involve, mention, practise, suggest
He admitted stealing the money.
I’m going to give up eating chocolate.
Verbs followed by -ing form or infinitive:

• With no change of meaning, (e.g. begin, continue, start).
He continued to study throughout his life.

He continued studying throughout his life.
• With little change of meaning (e.g. hate, like, love, prefer).
With these verbs, you usually use the -ing form to refer to a situation in
general and you use the infinitive to refer to a more specific situation. The
difference in meaning is very small.
I don’t usually like getting up early but when I’m on holiday I
like to get up at sunrise.
Note
Would like etc must be followed by the infinitive.
• With a change of meaning.
forget/remember + -ing = to remember (or forget) the moment when you did
something.
I’ll never forget meeting him for the first time.
forget/remember + infinitive with to = to remember (or forget) something
you have to do
Did you remember to post the letter?
regret + -ing = to be sorry about something you did (or didn't do)
I regret not going to her party.
regret + infinitive with to = to be sorry about something you are going to
do/say etc
We regret to tell you your application has not been successful.
stop + -ing = to stop an action
29
I must stop losing things.
stop + infinitive with to = to stop an action in order to do something else
They stopped to have lunch in a country pub and then
walked another five miles.
try + -ing = to experiment, perhaps as a way of solving a problem

Why don’t you try getting up earlier?
try + infinitive with to = to make an attempt to do something which is possibly
difficult
I tried to learn all the vocabulary, but 1 couldn’t.
mean + -ing = to involve
Will your new job mean moving to London?
mean + infinitive with to = to intend
What do you mean to do when you finish the course?
Verbs of perception
After verbs such as feel, hear, notice, see, watch, you use the -ing form
to emphasize the progress of the action. You use the infinitive (without to) to
suggest completion of the action.
I saw him running along the road. (= When I saw him, he was
running.)
I saw him win the race. (= I saw how he won the race.)
I watched everyone leave the stadium.
15 Prepositions
It is useful to learn combinations of verb/noun/adjective + preposition together.
Sometimes you use a different preposition for different meanings, and sometimes
different prepositions have similar meanings. If you use a preposition followed by a
verb, you use the -ing form (see p 211).
Verb + preposition
accuse of ask for care about/for
agree about/on/to/with believe in charge with
apologize for/to belong to congratulate on
arrive at/in borrow from cover with
30
crash into look speak to/with
after/at/for/forward to
depend on succeed at/in
meet at/with
die of suffer from
participate in
divide into swap with
pay for
dream about/of take part in
prevent from
dress in talk about/to/with
rely on
drive into tell to/about
remind about/of
explain to think about/of
refer to
fill with throw at/to
search for
hope for travel in/to/with
send to
insist on tremble with
share with
laugh about/at warn about
shout at/to
learn about/of/to worry about
smile at
listen to write to
31
Adjective + preposition
accustomed to excited about responsible for
afraid of fond of rude to
angry about/with full of scared of
anxious about/for independent of shocked at
bad at infected with similar to
bored with interested in skilful at
capable of kind to sorry about
clever at near to successful at/in
committed to nice to surprised at
connected to pleased with tired of
dependent on polite to typical of
different from/to prepared for worried about
disappointed proud of wrong
about/at/with reliant on about
Noun + preposition
addiction to difficulty in/with need for
admiration for discussion about/on quarrel with
agreement about/on dislike of reason for
anger at effect of/on relationship with
answer to escape from reply to
attack on exception to respect for
ban on expert in responsibility for
comment on idea of return to
connection with interest in satisfaction with
contrast with influence on search for
control over introduction to skill at
crime against involvement with solution to
cure for lack of success at/in
damage to link with sympathy for
decision about/on love for thought of
demand for loyalty towards threat of
desire for marriage to
32

Grammar Review

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Grammar Review

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I hope that the gramar tips I have written below will be useful to you, not only for

1.1 Modifying adjectives

1.2 Comparative and superlative adjectives

Two-syllable adjectives ending in “y”

Two or more syllable adjectives

Good better best

bad worse worst

1 opinion (lovely, nice, boring)

6 origin (German, Spanish, Greek)

I saw some lovely, old, gold earrings in a jeweller’s yesterday.

In speaking, we are more likely to say:

1.4 Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing

He was very frightened by the experience.

1.5 Compound adjectives

• a past participle (suntanned, old-fashioned, outspoken).

• a present participle (easy-going, hard-working, outgoing).

You have to have an outgoing personality if you want to be a successful

• a preposition (broken-down, well-off, worn-out).

2 Describing a sequence of events

a) The moment I saw him, I felt very nervous.

b) After I had left university, I travelled round the world.

3 Expressing wishes and regrets

• should have + past participle

4 Linking and contrasting ideas

You can contrast ideas in one sentence by using:

I didn't go to the party but Martin did.

• although, though, even though. You use these at the beginning or

While Stephen really enjoys listening to music, his brother

You can contrast ideas in two sentences by using:

• However, nevertheless. a) You use however at the beginning or

• On the other hand

He didn’t want to go to the cinema with his friends. On the

If you read the WHOLE

• Negative or restrictive adverbs or clauses (never, scarcely, rarely,

• Restrictive expressions beginning with only (only when, only if,

“I didn’t 'see Ann.” “Neither did I.”

“How old is he?” “25.”

I’ve never heard him sing, but I’d like to.

You must give in your homework by Friday.

You mustn’t wear jeans to work.

You mustn’t go out if you’re not feeling well enough.

• You use have to + infinitive for strong obligations that express

I have to work late tonight because my boss is away.

We had to wear a uniform when I was at school.

• You use needn’t have + past participle to talk about an action in

• You use didn’t need to + infinitive to talk about an action in the

7.2 Certainty and speculation (must, may, might, could, can’t)

You use a modal + have + past participle to express certainty or speculate

It’s very late; he must have forgotten we were meeting.

(be + -ing or have been + -ing).

7.3 Ability (can, could)

I can speak three languages.

For other tenses, you use be able to.

8 Gerunds (-ing forms)

• After prepositions and combinations of adjective + preposition and

9.1 Present Simple

Negative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

Interrogative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

You use the present simple:

The present simple is often used in spoken English:

• to give instructions and directions.

• to tell stories or jokes.