CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION: Todays electronics provides pervasive systems that consume very small power (micro to milli watts) and are small (sq mm to few sq cm) and low cost . They need power all the time and depend upon battery power, so minimize are deployed within and on the human body, top of snow covered mountains, deep forests, deep in the buildings, earth, oceans all inaccessible areas. Energy harvesters that generate energy from ambient sources such as heat, light, and vibration among these sources, vibration is particularly important due to its abundance. Some vibration sources in the environment are vehicle motion, human movements, and seismic vibrations. The efficiency of these systems is proportional with the value of the vibration frequency. However, ambient vibrations are mostly at low frequencies (100 Hz), limiting the generated power density of these systems for daily applications.

1.2 TRANSDUCTION MECHANISM:

Kinetic energy harvesting requires a transduction mechanism to generate electrical energy from motion and the generator will require a mechanical system that couples environmental displacements to the transduction mechanism. The design of the mechanical system should maximize the coupling between the kinetic energy source and the transduction mechanism and will depend entirely upon the characteristics of the environmental motion. Vibration energy is best suited to inertial generators with the mechanical component attached to an inertial frame which acts as the fixed reference. The inertial frame transmits the vibrations to a suspended inertial mass producing a relative displacement between them. Such a system will possess a resonant frequency which can be designed to match the characteristic frequency of the application environment. This approach magnifies the environmental vibration amplitude
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by the quality factor of the resonant system and this is discussed further in the following section.

These transduction mechanisms are: piezoelectric, electromagnetic and electrostatic. Piezoelectric generators employ active materials that generate a charge when mechanically stressed. A comprehensive review of existing piezoelectric generators is presented, including impact coupled, resonant and human-based devices. Electromagnetic generators employ electromagnetic induction arising from the relative motion between a magnetic flux gradient and a conductor. Electromagnetic generators presented in the literature are reviewed including large scale discrete devices and wafer-scale integrated versions. Electrostatic generators utilize the relative movement between electrically isolated charged capacitor plates to generate energy. The work done against the electrostatic force between the plates provides the harvested energy.

The transduction mechanism itself can generate electricity by exploiting the mechanical strain or relative displacement occurring within the system. The strain effect utilizes the deformation within the mechanical system and typically employs active materials e.g., piezoelectric. In the case of relative displacement, either the velocity or position can be coupled to a transduction mechanism. Velocity is typically associated with electromagnetic transduction whist relative position is associated with electrostatic transduction. Each transduction mechanism exhibits different damping characteristics and this should be taken into consideration while modelling the generators. The mechanical system can be increased in complexity, for example, by including a hydraulic system to magnify amplitudes or forces, or couple linear displacements into rotary generators.

CHAPTER 2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

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2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

CHAPTER 3 CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

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3.1 CIRCUIT EXPLANATION: The vibrations are produced on piezoelectric principle. The piezoelectric plate acts as vibration sources. MEMS sensor placed on the beam, it will convert the mechanical energy generated from the movement of the beam into electrical energy. The output of MEMS is given to the ADC for analog to digital conversion and then to microcontroller in order to monitor the value of energy generated. The output of MEMS is also given to boost controller. The obtained energy is boosted up using Boost Controller and given to DCDC converter. The output of the DC-DC converter is stored in a storage device. The stored energy is inverted to AC voltage and is given to the relay and utilized for other purposes for lighting lamps for example. The voltage control is provided by the microcontroller.

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Fig 3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

CHAPTER 4 PIEZOELECTRIC PRINCIPLE

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4.1 PIEZOELECTRIC CONVERTERS:

Small vibrations like sounds, machine vibrations, foot sounds, vibrations in the train from train movements, vibrations outside a running train, ground vibrations on a high way.

Energy could vary considerably using an array of converters and piezoelectric materials. Vibration-powered generators are typically, although not exclusively, inertial spring and mass systems. Piezoelectric generators that rely on a compressive strain applied perpendicular to the electrodes exploit the d33 coefficient of the material whilst those that apply a transverse strain parallel to the electrodes utilize the d31 coefficient.

The power output achieved in the compressive mode can be improved by increasing the piezoelectric elements thickness or by using multi -layer stacks. Compressive loading, however, is not a practical coupling mechanism for vibration energy harvesting in the majority of applications. Typically, in the case of piezoelectric films or piezoelectric elements bonded onto substrates, the elements are coupled in the transverse direction. Such an arrangement provides mechanical amplification of the applied stresses. Another important constant affecting the generation of electrical power is the electro-mechanical coupling coefficient, k. This describes the efficiency with which the energy is converted by the material between electrical and mechanical forms in a given direction.

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Fig 4.1 Piezoelectric Plate The efficiency of energy conversion, , for a piezoelectric element clamped to a substrate and cyclically compressed at its resonant frequency is given in equation where Q is the quality factor of the generator. This relationship suggests that the efficiency is improved by increasing k and Q, which provides a useful guideline when choosing materials and designing generators. Goldfarb et al have investigated the efficiency of a piezoelectric stack operated in compression. It was found that the efficiency was maximized at frequencies several orders of magnitude below the resonant frequency. This is due to the capacitance of the piezoelectric stack, which is in parallel with the load. Efficiency was also found to increase with increasing force and load resistance but these factors are less significant than frequency. Other relevant piezoelectric constants include the permittivity of the material , which is defined as the dielectric displacement per unit electric field and compliance s, which is the strain produced per unit of stress.
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Lastly, the piezoelectric voltage constant g, is defined as the electric field generated per unit of mechanical stress, or the strain developed for an applied charge density. These constants are anisotropic and are further defined using the system of subscripts described above. The piezoelectric properties vary with age, stress and temperature. The change in the properties of the piezoceramic with time is known as the ageing rate and is dependent on the construction methods and the material type. The changes in the material tend to be logarithmic with time, thus the material properties stabilize with age, and manufacturers usually specify the constants of the device after a specified period of time. The ageing process is accelerated by the amount of stress applied to the ceramic and this should be considered in cyclically loaded energy harvesting applications. Soft piezoceramic compositions, such as PZT- 5H, are more susceptible to stress induced changes than the harder compositions such as PZT5A. Temperature is also a limiting factor with piezoceramics due to the Curie point. Above this limit the piezoelectric material will lose its piezoelectric properties effectively becoming de-polarized. The application of stress can also lower this Curie temperature. The piezoelectric constants for common materials, soft and hard lead zirconate titanate piezoceramics (PZT-5H and PZT 5A), barium titanate (BaTiO3) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

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CHAPTER 5 MEMS
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5.1 MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems) Technology: MEMS (micro electro-mechanical systems) technology has gone from an interesting academic exercise to an integral part of many common products. In early MEMS systems a multi-chip approach with the sensing element (MEMS structure) on one chip, and the signal conditioning electronics on another chip was used. While this approach is simpler from a process standpoint, it has many disadvantages: The overall silicon area is generally larger. Multi chip modules require additional assembly steps. Yield is generally lower for multi chip modules. Larger signals from the sensor are required to overcome the stray capacitance of the chip to chip interconnections, and stray fields necessitating a larger sensor structure. Larger packages are generally required to house the two-chip structure. Of course, history teaches us that integration is the most cost effective and high performance solution. So Analog Devices pursued an integrated approach to MEMS where the sensor and signal conditioning electronics are on one chip. The latest generation ADXL2O2E is the result of almost a d ecades worth of experience building integrated MEMS accelerometers. It is the world's smallest mass-produced, low cost, integrated MEMS dual axis accelerometer. Polysilicon springs suspend the MEMS structure above the substrate such that the body of the sensor (also known as the proof mass) can move in the X and Y axes. Acceleration causes deflection of the proof mass from its centre position. Around the four sides of the square proof mass are 32 sets of radial fingers.

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These fingers are positioned between plates that are fixed to the substrate. Each finger and pair of fixed plates make up a differential capacitor, and the deflection of the proof mass is determined by measuring the differential capacitance. This sensing method has the ability of sensing both dynamic acceleration (i.e. shock or vibration) and static acceleration (i.e. inclination or gravity).The differential capacitance is measured using synchronous modulation

demodulation techniques. After amplification, the X and Y axis acceleration signals each go through a 32KOhm resistor to an output pin (Cx and Cy) and a duty cycle modulator. The user may limit the bandwidth, and thereby lower the noise floor, by adding a capacitor at the Cx and Cy pin. The output signals are voltage proportional to acceleration and pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) proportional to acceleration. Using the PWM outputs, the user can interface the ADXL2O2 directly to the digital inputs of a microcontroller using a counter to decode the PWM.

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CHAPTER 6 ATMEL MICRO CONTROLLER

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6.1 MICRO CONTROLLER: The AT89S52 is a low-power, high performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the Indus-try standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed insystem or by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-grammar. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highlyflexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

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6.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATION: Parallel connections between the microcontroller and peripherals established over I/O ports are the ideal solution for shorter distances up to several meters. However, in other cases, when it is necessary to establish communication between two devices on longer distances it is obviously not possible to use parallel connections. Then, serial communication is the best solution.

Fig 6.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATION FOR ATMEL 6.3 PIN DIAGRAM:

Fig 6.3 PIN DIAGRAM

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Port Pin P1.0 P1.1 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 P3.0 P3.1 P3.4 P3.5

Alternate Functions T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2),clock-out T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger control) MCSI (used for In-System Programming) MISO (used for In-System Programming) SCK (used for In-System Programming) RXD (serial input port) TXD (serial output port) T0 (Timer 0 external input) T1 (Timer 1 external input) Table 6.1 PIN DESCRIPTION

6.4 WORKING OF MICROCONTROLLER: Even though there is a large number of different types of microcontrollers and even more programs created for their use only, all of them have many things in common. Thus, if you learn to handle one of them you will be able to handle them all. A typical scenario on the basis of which it all functions is as follows: Power supply is turned off and everything is still the program is loaded into the microcontroller, nothing indicates what is about to come. Power supply is turned on and everything starts to happen at high speed! The control logic unit keeps everything under control. It disables all other circuits except quartz crystal to operate. While the preparations are in progress, the first milliseconds go by. Power supply voltage reaches its maximum and oscillator frequency becomes stable. SFRs are being filled with bits reflecting the state of all circuits within the microcontroller. All pins are configured as inputs. The overall electron is starts operation in rhythm with pulse sequence. From now on the time is measured in micro and nanoseconds.

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Fig 6.4 WORKING DIAGRAM

Program Counter is set to zero. Instruction from that address is sent to instruction decoder which recognizes it, after which it is executed with immediate effect. The value of the Program Counter is incremented by 1 and the whole process is repeated several million times per second.

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CHAPTER 7 ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONVERTER

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7.1 INTRODUCTION: The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. 7.2 PIN DIAGRAM:

Fig 7.2 PIN CONFIGURATION The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic.
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The ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals. The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer address inputs and latched TTL TRI-STATE outputs. The design of the ADC0808, ADC0809 has been optimized by incorporating the most desirable aspects of several A/D conversion techniques. The ADC0808, ADC0809 offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability, and consumes minimal power. These features make this device ideally suited to applications from process and machine control to consumer and automotive applications. For 16-channel multiplexer with common output (sample/hold port) see ADC0816 data sheet. ADCs are integral to current music reproduction technology. Since much music production is done on computers, when an analog recording is used, an ADC is needed to create the PCM data stream that goes onto a compact disc or digital music file. The current crop of AD converters utilized in music can sample at rates up to 192 kilohertz.

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 High bandwidth headroom allows the use of cheaper or faster antialiasing filters of less severe filtering slopes. The proponents of oversampling assert that such shallower anti-aliasing filters produce less deleterious effects on sound quality, exactly because of their gentler slopes. Others prefer entirely filter less AD conversion, arguing that aliasing is less detrimental to sound perception than pre-conversion brick wall filtering.

Considerable literature exists on these matters, but commercial considerations often play a significant role. Most high-profile recording studios record in 24-bit/192-176.4 kHz PCM or in DSD formats, and then down sample or decimate the signal for Red-Book CD production (44.1 kHz or at 48 kHz for commonly used for radio/TV broadcast applications).

Digital Signal Processing: AD converters are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be processed, stored, or transported in digital form. Fast video ADCs are used, for example, in TV tuner cards.

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CHAPTER 8 RELAY
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8.1 RELAY: A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

Fig 8.1 RELAY DIAGRAM 8.2 NORMALLY CLOSED RELAY: The operation of a normally closed relay is the same to that of a normally open relay, except backwards. In other words, when the relay control coil is NOT energised, the relay switch contacts are closed, completing the circuit through pins 2 and 4.when the control coil is energised, the relay switch contacts opens, which breaks the circuit open and no continuity exists between pins 2 and 4.

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Fig 8.2 NORMALLY CLOSED RELAY 8.3 ACTUAL RELAY DESIGN: Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The iron core intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power from the power source to go to the load.

Fig 8. 3 ACTUAL RELAY DESIGN

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8.4 WORKING:

Fig 8.4 SYMBOLS FOR A RELAY A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification. Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.

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Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

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CHAPTER 9 INVERTER
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9.1 INVERTER: AC power from low voltage DC energy (from a battery or solar panel). This makes them very suitable for when you need to use AC power tools or appliances but the usual AC mains power is not available. Examples include operating appliances in caravans and mobile homes, and also running audio, video and computing equipment in remote areas. Most inverters do their job by performing two main functions: first they convert the incoming DC into AC, and then they step up the resulting AC to mains voltage level using a transformer. And the goal of the designer is to have the inverter perform these functions as efficiently as possible. So that as much as possible of the energy drawn from the battery or solar panel is converted into mains voltage AC, and as little as possible is wasted as heat. As you can see the DC from the battery is converted into AC very simply, by using a pair of power MOSFETs acting as very efficient electronic switches. The positive 13.8V DC from the battery is connected to the centre-tap of the transformer primary, while each MOSFET is connected between one end of the primary and earth (battery negative). So by switching on Q1, the battery current can be made to flow through the top. Half of the primary and to earth via Q1. Conversely by switching on Q2 instead, the current is made to flow the opposite way through the lower.

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CHAPTER 10 DC-DC BOOSTER

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10.1 DC-DC BOOSTER:

The DC-DC booster is a step-up converter which converts the lower input voltage to a higher output voltage. When battery voltage is switched on, the booster automatically controls the output voltage so that it is suitable for connection to the DC link of the frequency converter.

DC to DC converters offer a method of generating multiple controlled voltages from a single battery voltage, thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries to supply different parts of the device. A boost converter is simply is a particular type of power converter with an output DC voltage greater than the input DC voltage. This type of circuit is used to step -up a source voltage to a higher, regulated voltage, allowing one power supply to provide different driving voltages.

A boost converter is used as the voltage increase mechanism. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it unusable for a normal load.

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CHAPTER 11 STORAGE DEVICE

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11.1BATTERY:

The least expensive option for any significant size of electrical battery storage is the lead-acid battery. Lead-acid batteries have a nominal fully charged voltage of 2V per cell, so a 12V battery typically has six cells in series. A lead-acid battery will only withstand a certain number of chargedischarge cycles, before it fails and needs to be re-placed. The greater the depth of discharge (that is the more on average that the battery is 'flattened'}, the fewer cycles it will survive. For example a battery that is discharged regularly by 80 per cent of its total capacity may last 800 cycles, but if it is discharged by only 20 per cent each time it may last 6000 cycles. If the battery were discharged at 20 per cent rather than 80 per cent, the rated capacity will have to be four times larger to deliver the same energy, but will last at least four times as long. The size of the battery is therefore a compromise between making it large but too expensive, and small and affordable but too easily discharged and therefore too shortlived. A lead-acid battery's capacities are usually specified for 25C operating temperature. The capacity is typically reduced by 1 per cent per 1C going down to 0C, but increases approximately 1 per cent per 1C, going up from 25C to 40C. The problem is that the life of the battery decreases with increased temperature so, in a tropical climate, a battery should be kept whenever possible in a cool and well ventilated room.

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CHAPTER 12 CONCLUSION
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CONCLUSION

A Vibration Based Electromagnetic Energy Harvester using Frequency Up-Conversion Method is used to generate continuous electrical power from the mechanical vibrations. A new vibration-based electromagnetic energy harvester Using a mechanical frequency up-conversion method for low-frequency vibrations is presented. A mechanical barrier that converts low-frequency vibrations to a higher frequency, which is the resonance frequency of the cantilever. In addition to this, higher external vibration frequency values naturally increase the performance of the proposed harvester. Although the feasibility of the method is shown by using electromagnetic transduction, it can easily be adapted to piezoelectric and electrostatic type of energy harvesters. Mechanical durability can be improved by proper material or coating selection. It has been observed through experiments that the wearing is significantly reduced if similar materials for the cantilever tip and the mechanical barrier are used.

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