What is Research ?

Research is defined as an organized, systematic, databased, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. Research provides the needed information that guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems. Types of Research Scientific Research Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among phenomena.

Business Research Business research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of phenomena of interest to managerial decision makers. Business research
can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a problem encountered in the work setting that needs a solution. Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide business decision. Scientific Business Research A specialized type of a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of phenomena of interest to managerial decision makers characterized by the testing of hypothetical relationships. Applied Research Research that is done to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting , demanding a timely solution is defined as applied research. Basic Research (Fundamental / Pure) Research that is done to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved. Reporting Research Calls for knowledge and skill with information sources and gatekeepers of information source. This study usually requires little inference or conclusion drawing it. Descriptive Research Discovers answers to the questions who, what, when, where and how. May or may not have the potential for drawing powerful inferences. Explanatory Research Attempts to explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive study only observes.

Predictive Research Predicts when and in what situations an event will occur after a reasonable explanation for an event. What is Good Research ? Good research generates dependable data, being derived by practices that are conducted professionally, that can be used reliably for managerial decision making. Good research follows the standards of the scientific method of which major characteristics are listed below;

Clearly defined purpose Research process defined in detail Research process planned thoroughly High ethical standards Limitations frankly revealed Adequate analysis for decision makers needs Findings presented unambiguously Justified conclusions Researchers experience reflected

Manager Researcher Relationship The manager researcher relationship is examined with attention to the conflicts that are inherent in the manager-researcher interface. The role of the manager in the research process is as both a specified and an evaluator of research projects. Thus, managers must have a basic research competence so that they can adequately judge the worth of the specific research proposals and findings that are presented to them. The relationship between manager and researcher is an important one. Both share the obligation of making a project meaningful. Several factors complicate this relationship. Among these are ethical considerations and the political environment. Managers should look / include the nine characteristics of a good research in Research Done by Others/ Self-Directed Research. Internal/External Researcher The manager often has to decide whether to use internal or external researcher(s). To reach such a decision, the manager should be aware of the strengths and weakness of both, and weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using either, based on the needs of the situation.

Advantages / disadvantages of internal / external researcher are summarized in the following table; Advantages Internal Researcher Readily accepted by the employees Less time to understand the organization Availability for the implementation of the recommendations Cost is considerably less than an external team Inhibition of any fresh ideas and perspectives Internal team may conceal, distort or misrepresent certain facts External Researcher Wealth of experience from having worked with different types of organizations Knowledge of current sophisticated problem-solving models through their periodic training programs

Disadvantages

Cost is usually high Considerable time to understand the organization Seldom a warm welcome

Recommendations of the internal Extra cost for implementation team may not be highly regarded and evaluation phases Findings might be less objective and hence less scientific

Role of Research in Decision Making Five major interrelated activities of decision making are as follows;

Problem recognition Information search Problem analysis Alternative evaluation Decision

The role of research in decision making is simply providing the decision maker with relevantand useful information with which to make decisions. Therefore research takes its place within above activities as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of phenomena as its definition implies.However, research is only one of four major means of obtaining information. The others are authority, intuitionand experience.

Research and Ethics Research ethics is concerned with the proper conduct of the research process in business inquiry. Researchers and managers involved in business research should be concerned about ethical issues in conducting research for the following reasons; Unethical research is morally wrong Unethical research can affect the image of the firm and management Unethical research can lead to poor-quality data and, ultimately to poor decisions New, potentially damaging ethical challenges are being created because of the explosive growth of technological capabilities in the research arena Research and Global Marketplace Global business opportunities are expanding at an ever-increasing rate. Advances in information technology have speeded up the integration of global markets and competition. Therefore, the application of research methods in an international setting has become essential. Researchers and managers must recognize the differences inherent in international research, then make the necessary adjustments in methodology to ensure the highest quality information for decision making. The differences between domestic and international research center on the following four major factors; 1.New parameters such as foreign currencies 2.New environmental factors such as language 3.Number of factors involved such as the combinations of factors involved in a ten-country study 4.Broader competition such as a whole host of new firms Scientific Research and Terminology Observation : Act of noting or sensing some object or the occurrence of some phenomenon in the immediate environment

Fact : The thing or the phenomena that is believed as true. Facts may be collected in the business research process by; Direct observation or sensing of natural phenomena or of experimental results Direct inference from other data that are directly observed Original documents Reports and publications of fact-gathering agencies and researchers Questioning of individuals Concept : Creations of the human mind that are used in the classification and communication of the essence of some set of observations. Concepts can be defined as abstract ideas generalized from particular facts. Construct : Specific type of concept that exits at higher level of abstraction and are invented for some special theoretical purpose. Constructs are inferred by some indirect method, such as questionnaires Definition : Constitutive Definition : Define concepts using other concepts and constructs Operational Definition : Specify the procedure by which the concept will be measured or manipulated Variable : A symbol or a concept to which numerals or values are assigned Types of variable according to its properties : 1.Dichotomous : Have only two values 2.Discrete : Only certain values are possible 3.Continuous : Take on values within a given range Types of variable according to its function within a research : 1.Independent 2.Dependent 3.Moderating 4.Intervening

Problem : Can be defined as a question raised that is in need of a solution. All problems exhibit at least the following conditions for their existence; An individual who has a problem : the decision maker An outcome that is desired by the decision maker : an objective At least two unequally efficient courses of action that have the same chance of yielding the same objective A state of doubt in the decision maker as to which choice is best An environment or context of the problem Proposition : A statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena Induction : Drawing a conclusion from one or particular facts or pieces of evidence Deduction : A form of inference that derives its conclusions by reasoning through premises, which serve as its proof Hypothesis : Conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables that carry clear implications for testing the stated relations. A proposition that can be formulated for empirical testing can be called hypothesis. Types of hypothesis; Descriptive Hypothesis : State the existence, size, form or distribution of some variable Relational Hypothesis : Describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case Law : A well-verified statement of relationship about an invariable association among variables Theory : An interrelated set of statements of relationship whose purpose is to explain and predict Model : Can be defined as any highly formalized representation of a theoretical network, usually designed through the use of symbols or other such physical analogs Methods of Theory Construction Found in Research Basic methods of theory construction are as follows; Model Based Theory The emphasis up front is on defining a conceptual network, then subjecting it to empirical testing. The model is usually expressed mathematically so that it can be manipulated for testing Deductive Theory

Developed largely through the process of deduction. Emphasis is distinctly in the conceptual structure and its substantive validity Functional Theory Functional theories are those whose development is characterized by a continual interaction of conceptualizing and subsequent empirical testing

Inductive Theory Inductive theory building is characterized by a strictly empirical approach to finding generalization. Inductive reasoning relies on the repeated observation of reality then the development of summary statements to explain and classify what is observed Characteristics of Scientific Research Purposiveness : A research must have a definite aim or purpose Rigor : Connotes carefulness, thoroughness and the degree of accuracy in research investigation Testability : Testing logically developed hypothesis to see whether or not the data support the educated conjectures or hypotheses that are developed after a careful study of the problem situation Replicability : The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances Confidence : Refer to the probability that our estimations are correct (confidence level) Precision : Refers to how close the findings based on a sample, are to reality. Reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results based on the sample, to what really exists in the universe (confidence interval) Objectivity : The conclusions drawn should be based on the facts resulting from the findings from actual data, and not base on our own subjective or emotional values Generalizability : Refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings Parsimony : Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur and in generating solutions for the problem Besides the above characteristics, scientific research should own direct observation of phenomena, clearly defined variables, methods and procedures, empirically testable hypothesis,

the ability to rule out rival hypothesis, statistical rather than linguistic justification of conclusions, and self correcting process. Information Technology and Business Research Information technology can be helpful to managers and researchers for obtaining, retaining and analyzing data for decision making in a variety of instances, such as in developing marketing strategies, distribution systems, staffing patterns, stock control, production control, budget control and investments. Software programs are available to obtain, store, and analyze raw data collected through surveys such as SPSS, SAS, EXCEL and so on. Nowadays Internet, Intranet, e-mail, browsers and web sites are widely being used as information-gathering and information-disseminating tools. Data warehousing and data mining are now important tools for forming a central depository of the relevant information pertaining the companys finance, manufacturing, sales and such. Management Information Systems, Decision Support Systems, Executive Information Systems and Expert Systems help managers at different levels in the organizations to make decisions Although IT offers unbounded opportunities for organizations and facilitates decision making at various levels, it also imposes the following obligations on the part of its users; Privacy of all individuals Confidentiality of information Correct Information Honesty, trustworthy and carefulness in obtaining and recording data Business Research Process The business research process is a set of operations that aids the researcher in the systematic gathering, recording, and analysis of data to help solve decision making process. The steps are as follows; 1.Identification of the Broad Problem Area and Preliminary Data Gathering : Identification of the broad problem refers to the entire situation where one, through the process of observing and focusing on the situation, sees a possible need for research and problem solving. The specific issue that needs to be researched within this situation may not be identified at this situation. Preliminary data gathering refers to the collection of data through several methods to help the researcher to define the problem more specifically and evolve a theory, delineating possible variables that might influence the problem 2.Problem Identification and Proposal Development: Problem identification refers to narrowing down the problem from its original broad base and define more clearly the issues of concern and proposal development refers to the conclusion of manager-researcher interaction through which

management concerns are converted into management problems and ultimately to research problems. 3.Research Design : Refers to what is going to be done in technical terms. Is the structure of the research project to solve the particular problem. 4.Data Collection : Refers to the task of the researcher to collect data in an efficient and useful format for decision making 5.Analysis and Presentation of Data : Refers to the preparation of data for analysis and the selection of an appropriate analytical technique to summarize the data collected to solve the problem and to reach conclusions 6.Research Reporting, Evaluation and Presentation : Refers to the research report, its evaluation and presentation. The research report is the formal communication device between the manager and the researcher. The report conveys the findings of the study and the means used to obtain those findings.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE BROAD PROBLEM & PRELIMINARY DATA GATHERING Identification of the broad problem, which refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and problem solving, can be done through the process of observing and focusing on the situation. Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are surfacing in ones environment. When the observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important consequences, one would proceed to the next step. How one can observe phenomena and changes in the environment ? Usually manager can sense that things are not what they should be, although he may not understand what exactly is happening. A drop in sales, frequent production interruptions, low-yielding investments, and the like, could easily come to the managers attention, though why they occur may be a mystery. The specific issues that need to be researched within this situation may not be identified at this broad problem identification stage. Such issues might be relevant to;

Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved Areas in the organization that a manager believes need to be improved A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher to understand certain phenomena Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically

In order to be able to define the problem more specifically and evolve a theory, delineating possible variables that might influence the problem, interviews and library research would help the researcher to find the needed information. The nature of information needed by the researcher can be classified as follows; 1. Background information of the organization / sector contextual factors 2. Philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects 3. Perception, attitudes, and behavioral responses of organizational / sectorial members and client systems Information needed can be obtained through two types of data sources; 1. Secondary Data : Data gathered through existing sources, that is they are data that already exist and do not have to be collected by the researcher such as written company policies, etc. 2. Primary Data : Data gathered from the actual site of occurrence of events such as the perceptions and attitudes of employees obtained by talking to them, etc.

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In the preliminary data gathering stage, researchers mostly refer to secondary data that can be collected through methods given below, together with primary data collected through informal structured interviews;

Manual Methods

Researchers must become familiar with the basic means of finding data manually to satisfy information needs. The manual process usually leads through a maze of indexes, bibliographies, references, and all types of literature in search of relevant information.

Online Methods

The availability of information and every aspect of obtaining and using information on line have evolved in recent years. Internet has become a very important information tool. The arguments for the use of online retrieval services can be listed as follows; 1. 2. 3. 4. Time saving Carefulness Increased relevance Cost effectiveness

The documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher is called literature survey. The purpose of the literature review is to ensure that no important variable is ignored that has in the past been found to have had an impact on the problem. A good literature survey ensures that; 1. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study 2. Development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing are settled correctly 3. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced 4. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity 5. One does not run the risk of wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known 6. The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant Literature survey can be conducted through the following steps; 1. Identifying the relevant sources Whether done manually or online, three forms of databases are useful in reviewing the literature, as indicate below;

Bibliographic databases : Display only the bibliographic citations; the name of the author, the title of the article, source of publication, year, volume, and page number

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Abstract databases : Addition to bibliographic databases, provide an abstract or summary of the articles Full-text databases : Addition to abstract databases, provide the full text of the article

2. Executing the relevant information While reading the articles, detailed information on the problem that was researched, the design details of the study and the ultimate findings could be systematically noted in some convenient format. This facilitates the writing up of the literature review with minimum disruption and maximum efficiency. It should be taken into consideration that while reading the articles, it is possible that certain other factors may be found that are closely related to the problem at hand. 3. Writing up the literature review The documentation of the relevant studies citing the author and the year of the study is called literature review or literature survey. The literature survey is a clear and logical presentation of the relevant research work done thus far in the area of investigation. Such documentation is important to convince that; The researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area and has done the preliminary homework that is necessary to conduct the research The theoretical framework will be built on work already done and will add to the solid foundation of existing knowledge

Literature survey should bring together all relevant information in a cogent and logical manner instead of presenting all the studies in chronological order. A good literature survey also leads one logically to a good problem statement. All the articles considered in the literature survey should be listed as references using the appropriate referencing and citing formats. APA format is mostly used for this purpose.

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PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION & PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT Problem Identification Problem identification involves becoming aware that an undesirable or potentially undesirable situation exists for the firm. Mainly there may be two types of concerns related to problem identification; 1. It may sometimes be simple, but sometimes may be more subtle nature 2. There may be management's initial specification or misspecification of the problem

The following diagram shows the role of problem identification in the research problem development. In a narrowing process, present and future managerial concerns are passed through a number of "screens" until a specific research topic with stated objectives is identified.

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Problem Identification Screen : Problem identification screen is viewed as a filter through which general management concerns are translated into managerial problems. As the narrowing illustrates, not all concerns are converted into management problems. Quite simply, some concerns are not significant enough to need management attention. Others may never be perceived by management to be converted into problems. Overall, effective problem identification requires a mixture of creativity, knowledge, experience, and sometimes luck. Also, proper problem identification usually requires much communication between the manager and the researcher

Problem Formulation Screen : Once a problem is properly identified it must go through a "screen" that converts the general statement of management's problem into a researchable question that is capable of being invested. Some of the reasons for not all management problems being translated into research problems are as follows; Lack of Value : The research costs may be more than the benefits it is expected to produce Priorities : A problem may not be of sufficient importance to require researching at the present time

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Researchability : Some problems may inherently be unresearchable Limited Resources : Some problems may not get research attention simply because the research money or time is exhausted Problem formulation is important in the research process because it sets the direction and scope of the research endeavors that follow. A properly defined research problem clearly states the context of the problem situation and the associated conditions that surround it. Problem Selection Screen : This stage is the actual selection of the questions(s) to be studied. At this stage, the research problem is stated, and the objectives defining the goals of the investigation are agreed to by the user of the research and the researcher. Problem definition / statement is a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. Once a problem is adequately identified and defined, an assessment of the value of the research is needed. The expected value of the information obtained from a particular study should exceed the costs of obtaining it. Almost all research performed in business organizations must be costeffective and of demonstrable value to the decision maker. However, basic research, which can be accepted as inquiry undertaken for the purpose of expanding the frontiers of knowledge, may fail this assessment and still be instituted because of the intrinsic value of the work itself. Proposal Development A proposal is an individual's or company's offer to produce a product or render a service to a potential buyer or sponsor. The purpose of a research proposal is; 1. To present the management question to be researched and its importance 2. To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related management questions 3. To suggest the data necessary for solving the management question and how the data will be gathered, treated and interpreted. A proposal is also known as a work plan, prospectus, outline, statement of intent or draft plan. The proposal tells us what, why, how, where and to whom it will be done. Sections that may be included in research proposals are as follows; Executive Summary : It is an informative abstract, giving executives the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal without having to read the details. It should include brief statements of the management dilemma and management question, the research objectives / research questions(s), and the benefits of your approach. Problem Statement : This section should include the management dilemma, its background and consequences, and the resulting management question to convince the sponsor to continue reading the proposal. The problem statement should be clear without the use of idioms and clichs. Research Objectives : This section addresses the purpose of the investigation and is the basis for

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judging the remainder of the proposal and ultimately the final report. Literature Review : This section examines recent research studies, company data or industry reports that act as a basis for the proposed study. Discussion should be started with the related literature and relevant secondary data from a comprehensive perspective and then should be moved to more specific studies that are associated with the problem. If the problem has a historical background, the earliest references should be listed first, if not, logical flow should be preferred. This section should be closed by the summary of the important aspects of the literature and interpretation of them in terms of the research problem. Importance / Benefits of the Study : This section should describe explicit benefits that will accrue from the study. The importance of doing the study in time should be emphasized. This section should not be more than a few paragraphs. Research Design : This section describes what is going to be done in technical terms and should include as many subsections as needed to show the phases of the project. Information of the proposed design for tasks such as sample selection and size, data collection method, instrumentation, procedures, and ethical requirements. Data Analysis : A brief section on the methods to be used for analyzing data. Proposed treatment and the theoretical basis for using the selected techniques should be described. Nature and Form of Results : The objective that each goal of the research is going to be covered should be emphasized. This section should explain what types of information will be received. Statistical conclusions, applied findings, recommendations, action plans, models, strategic plans, and so forth are examples of the forms of results. Qualifications of Researchers : Relevant areas of experience and expertise of the researchers involved in this project should be included in this section. The entire CV of the researchers should not be included unless required. Budget : The budget should be presented in the form of the sponsor requests. The budget should be no more than one to two pages. It is extremely important that all information used to generate the budget should be retained. Schedule : Schedule should include the major phases of the project, their timetables and the milestones that signify completion of a phase. Exploratory interviews, final research proposal, questionnaire revision, field interviews, editing and coding, data analysis and report generation can be some of the major phases. Gantt chart or Critical Path Method (CPM) chart may be included in this section. Facilities and Special Resources : Often projects may require special facilities or resources such as computer-assisted telephone, other interviewing facilities, and etc. to run the research. The proposal should carefully list the relevant facilities and resources that will be used. Project Management : The purpose of this section is to show that the research team is organized in a way to do the project efficiently. A master plan for this purpose includes;

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* The research team's organization * Management procedures and controls for executing the research plan * Examples of management and technical reports * Research team relationship with the sponsor * Financial and legal responsibility * Management competence Bibliography : For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is necessary. APA format is usually used for the preparation of the bibliography. Appendices : May include; * Glossary : This is a simple section consisting of terms and definitions used within this research topic. * Measurement Instrument : Sometimes it may be appropriate to include samples of the measurement instruments if they are available during the preparation of the proposal. * Other : Any detail that reinforces the body of the proposal such as CV, budget details, and etc. can be included in an appendix. RESEARCH DESIGN Research Design Fundamentals What is Research Design? Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions Research design involves issues relating to decisions regarding the purpose of the study, where the study will be conducted, type of study it should be, the extent to which the researcher manipulates and controls the study, the temporal aspects of the study, the level at which the data will be analyzed Purpose of research design is to guide he investigator in answering the research problem Potential Sources of Error in the Research Design Process Many types and sources of errors can affect the results of business research. Potential sources of errors can be categorized in four major groups. Those categories and how managers should deal with them are summarized in the following table;

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Examples for those errors are as folows; Planning Error : Management's real concern may be increasing worker productivity rather than ensuring a worker's presence of absence on any particular day. In other words, management is actually concerned with getting the employees to work more productively when they are on the job, tarher than getting them to show up for work more often. Collection Error : Collection errors arise during the actual collection of data. If researcher goes ahead and study absenteeism instead of productivity, and then measure this concept inappropriately, this will cause collection error. Analytical Error : Different results may be derived from the same data, depending on what analytical techniques are used. Reporting Error : Arises from the incorrect interpretation of the results of the study. Such errors can be either intentional, which is unethical, or unintentional which usually result from ignorance or honest mistake. Research Design Considerations

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Validity Concerns Validity has to do with limiting research errors so that the results are accurate and usable when delivered and there are two types of validity; Internal Validity : The degree of confidence that the results are true given the study situation. Is strongest when any alternative interpretations of the study's results are ruled out. Major classes of variables that may affect a study's internal validity are history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection and mortality. External Validity : The degree to which the study's results can be generalized across populations, settings and other similar conditions. Major classes of variables that may affect a study's external validity are testing interaction, selection interaction and serring interaction Reliability Concerns Reliability is the notion of consistency. Reliability is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a measurement is free of random or unstable error. Stability, equivalence and internal consistency are the perspectives on reliability. Stability : A measure is said to be stable, if you can see secure consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person with the same intrument. Equivalence : Equivalence considers how much error may be introduced by different investigators or different samples of items being studied. Internal Consistency : Tests consistency or homogeneity among the items. Split-half technique, a measurement tool that has many similar questions or statements to which the subject can respond, may be used for this purpose. Practicality Concerns Practicality has been defined as economy, convenience and interpretability. Economy : Some trade-off is usually needed between the ideal research project and the budget. Instrument length, method of data collection, test materials, etc. can be the main concerns for this purpose. Convenience : A measuring device is said to be convenient if it passes the convenience test and is accepted as an easily administrated device. Interpretability : This aspect of practicality is relevant when persons other than the test designers must interpret the results. In such cases, several key pieces such as scoring key and scoring instructions, evidence about reliability, guides for test use, etc. can make the interpretabilty possible. Managerial Concerns The general managerial considerations in design can be summarized using the following concerns; There is no single correct design for a research problem Design research to answer the research problem All research design represents a compromise A research design is not a framework to be followed blindly, without deviation International Concerns The same types of research can be used in international and domestic research. The primary difference is how the designs are applied in the foreign setting. Major factors that create theses differences can be listed as language, culture, literacy and infrastructure Elements of Research Design The various issues involved in research can be categorized as; purposive of the study, types of

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investigation, extent of researcher interference, study setting, units of analysis, time horizon, measurement and measures, sampling design, and data-collection methods. Purpose of the Study Exploratory Exploratory research appropriate for the total study in topic areas where the developed data are limited. In most other studies, exploration is the first stage of a project and is used to orient the researcher and the study. The objective of exploration is the development of hypotheses, not testing. It is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or when no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past. Descriptive Descriptive studies are those used to describe phenomena associated with a subject population or to estimate proportions of the population that have certain characteristics. Quite frequently, descriptive studies are undertaken in organizations in order to learn about and describe the characteristics of of a group of employees. The goal of a descriptive study is to offer a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest to the researcher from an individual, organizational, industry-oriented or other perspective. Causal Causal studies seek to discover the effect that a variable(s) has on another (or others) or why certain outcomes are obtained. The concept pf causality is grounded in the logic of hypothesis testing, which in turn, produces inductive conclusions. Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation. Types of Investigation A manager should determine which of the following studies is needed to find an answer to the issue at hand; * Casual study : Done when it is necessary to establish a definite cause and effect relationship * Correlations : Done if identification of the important factors associated with the problem is required * Group differences, ranks, etc. : Done if identification of differences between groups, individuals, sectors, etc. is important Extent of Researcher Interference In terms of the researcher's ability to manipulate variables, differentiation exists between experimental and ex post facto designs. In experimental designs, researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in the study, whereas in ex post facto designs, the investigators

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have no control over the variables in the sense of being able to manipulate them. Types of variables concerned can be categorized as follows; Independent Variable : Is the one that the researcher believes precedes and affects the dependent variable Dependent Variable : Changes in the dependent variable are needed to be predicted, understood or explained by the independent variable Moderating Variable : Is the one that has a strong effect on an independent-dependent variable relationship Intervening Variable : Is the one that emerges as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in a situation and helps to explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s). The schematic diagrams of the above variables illustrated by an example are given below.

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Study Setting Organizational research can be done in the natural environment where work proceeds normally or in an artificial settings. Depending on the degree of normality or artificiality, study settings can be categorized in four groups; Fields Studies : Combination of literature searches, experience surveys, and case studies, where the researcher attempts to identify significant variables and their relationships in a problem situation. Generally leads to a more rigorous study at a later date

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Surveys : Usually use standardized questionnaire. Probably the most widely used type of design in business research. Also probably the best method for studying and describing large populations. Field Experiments : Research studies in a realistic setting, where the researcher intervenes and manipulates independent variables(s). Characterized by a high degree of reality, but afford the researcher much less control than a laboratory experiment. Laboratory Experiments : Studies in an artificial setting, where the researcher intervenes and manipulates independent variable(s). Researcher can control most sources of error. Its drawback, of course, is to be carried out in artificial settings. Units of Analysis The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. Major types of units of analysis are as follows; Individuals : Employees' individual motivation in an organization Dyads : Husband-wife interactions in families Groups : Usage of newly installed information systems by the production, sales and operations personnel Divisions : Profitability of various divisions in an organization Organizations : Absenteeism in different organizations Industry : Proportion of the workforce employed by different industries Countries : Profitability of subsidiaries in different countries Cultures : Mother-child relations in different cultures Time Horizon There are two types of studies in terms of time horizon; Cross-Sectional Studies : Are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time Longitudinal Studies : Are repeated over an extended period Measurement and Scaling Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers to empirical events in compliance with a set of rules. This definition implies that measurements are a three-part process: (1) selecting

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observable empirical events, (2) using numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the events, (3) applying a mapping rule to connect the observation to the symbol. In measuring, one devises some mapping rule and then transfers the observations of property indicants using this rule. Several types of data are possible. Data classification employs the real number system. The most accepted basis for scaling are; order of numbers, order of differences between numbers and unique origin "0" for the number series. Combination of these characteristics of order, distance and origin provide the following four widely used classification of measurement scales; Nominal : Nominal scales are used to classify things into categories and are the weakest of the forms of measurement. No order, distance, or origin. e.g.: Software types (word processor, spreadsheet, database & graphing program) Ordinal : Ordinal scales allow classification, as do nominal scales, but ordinal scales also imply rank ordering. Order but no distance or unique origin. e.g.: Ranking of an advisor (extremely helpful, very helpful, moderately helpful, not very helpful & not helpful at all) Interval : Interval scales possess the characteristic that the intervals between each of the numbers are equal. Order and distance but no unique origin. e.g.: Measurement of temperature (15-19 oC, 20-24oC, 25-29oC & 30-34oC) Ratio : Ratio scales are similar to interval scales but have an absolute zero. Order, distance, and unique origin. e.g.: Length measured by a ruler (0,5,10, 15 & 20 cm) Validity, reliability and practicality are the characteristics of a good measurement tool. But besides those, research designer should also try to get rid of the following problems for his/her research; . leniency : problem caused by respondents who are easy raters . central tendency : problem that occurs when respondents rate everything as average . halo effect : problem that arises when the impression formed in one question carries into the next question Sampling Design Sampling can be defined as the selection of a sufficient number of elements in a population to draw conclusions about the entire population. Basic definitions related to this area are as follows; Element : Is the unit from which the necessary data is collected. eg. : individual Population : The complete set of units of analysis that are under investigation. eg. : all BU students for a research done for BU students Sampling Units : Nonoverlapping elements from a population. eg. : student Sampling Frame : A physical representation of objects, individuals, groups, and so on, important to the development of the final study sample. It is the actual list of sampling units at any stage in the selection procedure. eg. : list of all BU students

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Sample : The subset of units of analysis chosen for study from a population. eg. : 50 BU students Parameter / Statistic : The objective of sampling is to make inferences about a specified population of interest based on the information contained in the sample. Parameters are summary descriptors of a given variable in the population; a statistic is the summary descriptor of a given variable in the sample. Sample Plan : The formal specification of the methods and procedures to be used to identify the sample chosen fo study. Sample Design : Is the method used to select the units of analysis for study. Such methods can be classified in a variety of ways; the most usual breakdown is into probability and nonprobability sampling designs. Following table summarizes the sampling design categories.

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Sampling process can be thought of as series of steps summarized below; 1. Select the Population : Includes four components; elements, sampling units, extent and time 2. Select Sampling Units : Designates the appropriate units for sampling 3. Select a Sampling Frame : The means of physically representing the population 4. Select a Sample Design : The method by which a sample is ultimately selected 5. Select Size of Sample : The selection of the number of people or objects to study in the population. Sample size depends on a number of factors, including (1) homogeneity of sampling units (2) confidence (3) precision (4) statistical power (5) analytical procedures (6) costs, time, and personnel 6. Select a Sampling Plan : The development of the specific procedures by which the sample will be chosen. Besides the explicit statement of steps 1 through 5 of the sampling process, it includes a statement of how and when sampling procedures will be conducted. 7. Select the Sample : The actual activities that are performed in the process of selecting a sample. The sampling plan is activated.

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Data-Collection Method There are mainly four data-collection methods that a researcher can use; 1. Investigation To get information related to facts & figures, financial status, organizational contexts, and document types & problems, the technique of investigation can be used as a data gathering method. Types of current hard data to investigate are; Quantitative Documents: They include records used for decision making, performance reports, records that provide periodic updates of the business, and data capture forms Qualitative Documents: They include memos, signs on bulletin board or in work areas, corporate web sites, manuals, and policy hand books There is also the possibility of investigating archival documents. However, this has some drawbacks as well as advantages. The advantages of using archival data are first, they are paid for by someone else, second, data is not changed. The disadvantages of using archival data are (1) uncertainty exists if the data is only a subset or original data, (2) the records that survive may not be the most important or meaningful (3) may be biased because someone originally decided what to file, and (4) new data are difficult to obtain from equivalent samples. 2. Interviewing To get the opinions & feelings of the people in the organization related to the current state of the system, organizational & personal goals, and informal procedures, the technique of interviewing can be used as a data gathering method. Steps of interviewing are as follows; a. Planning the interview Interview planning that is the preparation of interview includes the following steps: (a) Reading background material (b) Establishing interview objectives (c) Deciding who to interview (d) Preparing the interviewee (e) Deciding on question types and structure. Related to the planning of an interview, following concepts should be taken into consideration. Question Types Open-Ended Questions : Open-ended questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to what length they wish. Open-ended questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of reply. Benefits of using open-ended questions are; . putting the interviewee at ease . allowing the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee's vocabulary, which reflects his or her education, values, attitudes, and beliefs . providing richness of detail . revealing avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped . making it more interesting for the interviewee . allowing more spontaneity . making phrasing easier for the interviewer Drawbacks of using open-ended questions are; . asking questions that may result in too much irrelevant detail

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. possibly losing control of the interview . allowing responses that may take too much time for the amount of useful information gained . potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared . possibly giving the impression that the interviewer has no real objective for the interview. Closed Questions : Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses. Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data which is easy to analyze. The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer. Benefits of using closed questions are; . saving interview time . easily comparing interviews . getting to the point . keeping control of the interview . covering a large area quickly . getting to relevant data Drawbacks of using open-ended questions are; . being boring for the interviewee . failing to obtain rich detail . missing main ideas . failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee Question Forms There are two types of question forms; Positively Worded Questions and Negatively Worded Questions. Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable to include some negatively worded questions as well, so the tendency of respondents to mechanically circle the points toward on end of the scale is minimized. Biases in Questions Leading Questions : Leading questions tend to guide interviewees into responses apparently desired by the interviewer. These questions should be avoided to reduce bias and improve reliability and validity. eg. : "Don't you think that in these days of escalating costs of living, employees should be given good pay raises?" Double-Barreled Questions : Double-barreled questions are questions that have only one question mark, but are actually asking two separate questions. These questions should be avoided because interviewees may answer only one question, leading to difficulties in interpretation. eg. : "Do you think there is a good market for the product and that it will sell well?" Ambiguous Questions : Some questions might be ambiguously worded and the respondent may not be sure what exactly they mean. eg. : "To what exetent would you say you are happy?" Recall-Dependent Questions : Some questions might require respondents to recall experinece from the past that they are hazy in their memory. eg. : "What was you salary when you first started working in this organization?" Loaded Questions : Questions should not be phrased in an emotionally charged manner. eg. : "To what extent do you think management is likely to be vindictive if the union decides to go on strike ?"

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Social Desirability : Questions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable responses. eg. : "Do you think that older people should be laid off?" Length of Questions : Simple, short questions are preferable to long ones. Usually it is said that a question should not exceed 20 words. Structuring of the Questions in an Interview Pyramid Structure : An interview structured like a pyramid begins with very detailed, often closed questions, and expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses. A pyramid structure is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or if interviewees seem reluctant to address the topic. Funnel Structure : A funnel structure begins with generalized, open-ended questions and concludes by narrowing the possible responses with the use of closed questions. The funnel structure is useful in providing an easy, no threatening way to begin an interview. The structure is also useful when the interviewee feels emotionally about the topic and needs freedom to express those emotions. Diamond-Shaped Structure : A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific way, then general issues are examined, and finally concludes in a specific fashion. The diamond structure is useful in keeping the interviewee's interest and attention through a variety of questions. Making a Record of an Interview It is very important to be able to make a permanent record during an actual interview. One can use either audio recording or note taking for this purpose. Audio Recording : Advantages and disadvantages of audio recording are given below; Advantages are; . providing a completely accurate record of what each person said . freeing the interviewer to listen and respond more rapidly . allowing better eye contact and better rapport between interviewer and interviewee . allowing replay of the interview for other team members Disadvantages are; . possibly making the interviewee nervous and less apt to respond freely . possibly making the interviewer less apt to listen since it is all being recorded . difficulty in locating important passages on a long tape . increasing costs of data gathering Note taking : Advantages and disadvantages of note taking are given below; Advantages are; . keeping the interviewer alert . aiding recall of important questions . helping recall of important interview trends . showing interviewer interest in the interview . demonstrating the interviewer's preparedness Disadvantages are; . losing vital eye contact . losing the train of conversation . making the interviewee hesitant to speak when notes are being made . causing excessive attention to facts and too little attention to feelings and opinions Before an Interview The day before the interview, interviewee should be contacted to confirm the time and place of the interview. Dressing should be appropriate for The interview. Researcher should arrive a little early for the interview.

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b. Conducting the actual interview The researcher should start an interview in a way that will help establishing credibility and trustworthiness. Next step should be to ensure the respondent about the confidentiality. Then depending on the structure, the interview should either start with open-ended question or closed one. the interview should not take too much of time (approximately 45 minutes). During the interview, through summarizing or paraphrasing, double-checking may be done to ensure if everything is understood well enough or not. The end of the interview may be a natural time for asking a key question to catch up the untouched topics (e.g.: "is there anything that we haven't discussed and you think is important"). After the conclusion of the interview, interviewee should summarize and provide feedback on the overall impressions and set up future appointment times for follow-up interviews, if necessary. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or by telephone. c. Writing the interview report The essence of the interview should be captured through a written report. To assure the quality of interview data, the interview report should be written as soon as possible. After preparing an initial summary, to go into more detail, sample interview forms, noting the main points of the interview and the opinions, should be used. Interview reports may later be reviewed together with the respondent. 3. Questionnaire To gather data on attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and characteristics from key people in the organization, technique of using questionnaires can be used as a data gathering method. Using questionnaires is appropriate if; (1) the respondents are widely dispersed, (2) many people are involved in the systems project and it is meaningful to know what proportion of a given group approves or disapproves of a particular feature, (3) an exploratory study for gauging overall opinion is desired, and (3) problem sensing with the current system is desired. Steps for the use of questionnaires are as follows; a. Planning for the Use of Questionnaires Related to the planning of a questionnaire, following concepts should be taken into consideration. Writing Questions Same as in interview, two basic question types (open-ended and closed) are mostly used in questionnaires, but the biggest difference is that in an interview the analyst has an opportunity to refine a question whereas it is not possible for questionnaires. Two main reasons for using a closed question on a questionnaire are (a) when the researcher is able to list effectively all the possible responses to the question and (b) when the analyst wants to survey a large sample of people. On the other hand two main reasons for using open-ended questions on a questionnaire are (a) when it is impossible to list effectively all possible responses to the question and (b) when exploratory situations occur. Guidelines to choose language for a questionnaire are as follows; . use the language of respondents whenever possible . work at being specific rather than vague in wording . keep questions short . do not patronize respondents by talking down to them through low-level language choices

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. avoid bias in wording . target questions to the right respondents . ensure that questions are technically accurate before they are included Using Scales in Questionnaires In order to be able to (a) measure the attitudes or characteristics of the people answering the questionnaire and (b) to have the respondents judge the subjects of the questionnaire, scales could be used within the questionnaire. Some commonly used scaling methods in business research are summarized in the following table.

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b.Designing and Administering the Questionnaire Stylistic considerations and guidelines for designing a questionnaire are as follows; * Related to questionnaire format; . Allow ample white space . Allow adequate space for responses . Ask respondents to circle their answers . Use objectives to help determine format . Be consistent in style * Related to order of questions; . Questions of importance to respondents go first . Cluster items of similar content together . Employ respondents' associational tendencies . Bring up less controversial items first Deciding who will receive the questionnaire is done in conjunction with the task of setting up objectives and sampling helps the researcher to determine what kind of respondents should receive the questionnaire. Five methods of administering the questionnaire are: . convening all concerned respondents together at one time . personally handing out blank questionnaires and taking back completed ones . allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire at work and drop it in a centrally located box . mailing questionnaires to employees and supplying a deadline, instructions, and return postage. . administrating the questionnaire electronically and receiving and storing the responses electronically. 4. Observation To gain information about decision makers and their environments that is unavailable through any other method, to help confirm what has been found through interviewing and questionnaires, and to negate or reverse what was found with other method; the technique of observation can be used as a data gathering method. Observation must be structured and systematic to make the findings interpretable. Five steps to help the analyst observe the decision maker's typical activities are: . Decide what is to be observed . Decide at what level of concreteness activities are to be observed . Create categories that adequately capture key activities . Prepare appropriate scales, checklists, and other materials for observation . Decide when to observe Time and event samplings are the two possibilities for the decision of when to observe. Time Sampling : Time sampling allows the analyst to set up specific intervals at which to observe managers' activities. The advantages of time sampling of observations are: . it cuts down on bias introduced by sampling "just anytime," . it allows the analyst to set up specific intervals at which to observe managers' activities . it allows for a representative view of frequently occurring activities The drawbacks of time sampling of observations are: . it gathers data in a fragmented fashion that doesn't allow time for a decision to unfold . misses infrequent but important decisions

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Event Sampling : Event sampling addresses observing an entire event. The advantages of event sampling of observations are: . allows observation of behavior as it unfolds . allows observation of an event designated as important The drawbacks of event sampling of observations are: . takes a great deal of analyst's time . misses a representative sample of frequent decisions Decision makers at all levels of the organization interact with the system and hence should be observed in all details such as body language, etc. Systematic techniques for recording those observations include category systems, checklists, scales, field notes, and play scripts.

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