44 M d i Ethi

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

Th t t l i i

" d i " lt f d ildi i fil di il d th I t t I thi h t I hll " d i " i h t i l t th di d i f i l l I ill i i t d i i t tht t f th di ll d i b d j l i Thi h t th i b t th thi fj l i I hll t di thil i that arise for art or popular culture nor shall I consider pornography Journalism has been slower than law and medicine to develop a set of principles idli dil th t h i l i f d b it titi Tht b b lik b i j l i t th f i tditill i d I th l f th di i h i id h t d bli li h b idt th t t f t tt ft W t t th d f i i t l it h f d thi ti i i l th b j t f bli ti d h come to engage in a good deal of ethical selfstudy

Deception and Dishonesty

th t i t t d l t thil i j l i t f b t d ith d t i d d i h t S h bl t t h l it f Th tb l t t i l th k i bliti f f l h d ll l i i f J t C k ' 1980 f b i t i f t i The Washington Post about a supposed eightyearold drug addict that won her a Pulitzer Prize (later retracted) to Stephen Glass's many inventions in the New Republic and other maga zines in the late 1990s I th t i t t i thil bl i it t i l tht j l i t t t k t i Bt h i btl i f th t f idiidl j l i t b t f th i t i t ti ithi h i h th k O ht t f ti it i bl t t di iti t tk i d t t f l h d d l i i Wht titt d ?N t h i iti f t i l h d tht d tth d b th i d th 597 A l

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

f j l i it i t i ith th l t f bl t d d Ath bl th b l i f th li bt f t d fiti hih i d d b t i f h i b l t d i lit th E lit h j t th hititi d f d th f it h t b d l l bt t t h l t b f d i th ld B t l t h h it b tbl t i l fl th i jtifiti f th f it i k tht t t b f t l A ll bl i th f tti tht h b l d d f d th lik hih t h f l th l i t l d h k C l d tti d i i th ld f j l i d h t t t i i t b l Still th t b i i f i t liit thi d it t l b bi h t d th li b t th iibl d th i i i b l I h b l i i d 1991 i l i th it f th New Yorker, J t M l l th US S C t hld t h t bli f libl d h it ttibt l t d tti t hi {Masson New Yorker Magazine, Inc., 501 US 496 [1991]) C t i thi t h i l i ti b t d t i d di h t J l i t ti d i i i t t h l t i t i f t i R l l i l d t i t i hlth k t d t i h b j l i t h th i l f hid b l tblid i d t d it d t l i i j l i t hid d fl t b kt h td bd f d h d l i ti (Thi l t ld t l i t i h i h F d Li S k t d th t f ABC N Th US C t fA l h l d i Food Lion, Inc. Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. (194 F 3d 505 [1999]) t h t th t " b h d thi dt fl l t d ittd t " b t it did t t h f f d d fi t d ti d it d i d F d Li bliti d ) S ill tht d t i ti b jtifid M t l h t h t f thi b l t i t iti A libl t h t i l t t jtif d t i i iht lik thi hth d t i i td i til d d th i t f th i f t i t b td th i t f th d t i i l d d th ilbilit l k f it f l t t i f ii th i f t i S i l B k (1989) h td th iti d t i ti i j t i f i d l if it ld b l dbtd d td t i d b fftd ti (It i h t t t t h t th t iti ld i l d th t til ) J l i t d i i btl ll J t M l l b i The Journalist and the Murderer ith d tht h i b f t i "E j l i t h i tt tid t fll f h i l f t ti ht i i k tht h t h d i ll i d f i b l H i k i d f fid i l' it i l l i ii thi t t d b t i th itht " (Mll 1990 3) M l l iti til b t J MGii h b k Fatal Vision h i l d th t i l d f Jff M D l d ti d f killi hi if d hild MGii h d b f i d d M D l d bf hi t i l d i t i d th 598

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l t i h i f f t d hil iti th b t l l i b k tht ld ld b ti M D l d ' ilt ( T h t M l l h l f d fj l i t i b t l h d i b d b h l t d th d f Jff M f h d f th F d A h i iht lik i ti ti hd t M l l h l f d tht h d t i i i l l it) M l l ' i i l t til t t d b t it i t t i iht j l i t lik ll h k kid f t df it l l t i h i t ft thi bjt d h d thi ti Th l li t b d h bt th iibl d th i i i b l th tbl d th t d i i l l f lit df l ( K t i i t d tht t t t th solely th ti i j t h t l i i t thi d i t i ) O l t f t i th lti hititi f th bjt th Th i th bli b td t d t d th l f th j l i t i d it i bl t l d t h t th l f t l t i t h bli ffiil d bli f i l d ( A i libl l i i l l d i t i i h bt bli f f i i l d bli fi th h d d di l th t h ) Wh j l i t i t i th i i th f th h h ht t b b t ht h d d ill d A t t i The New York Times Magazine i l l t t th i t Th t Mihl L i t l d th t f h i h h l t d t f b b N J h d $800000 th t k kt t h h I t t tiit h d b th S i t i dE h C i i f t k k t f d (H d hi t tll ttld t f t ith th SEC) L i h d th b ' t ( i l l hi f t h ) b d S i l i k h t Th t l til d d d t th i t t f th t d f it h b t l t h h it h d b i th b i bl i d b th b ' tiiti Y t it i ti b t th t ' d hi d H did h t ht h di t th f i l ? W th fh th iht th t ? It ld b bl t i tht j l i t t th f t t h f t l f d b j t f th t i th it d h l i ith ffit diti f t tbl t N t h l j l i t dt d ith i h th t t h l t d bjt di h t h h thi k th t th t th bli

A Riht t
At th

K?

l t h l i l l t t th fliti ibiliti lit f t O id i th j l i t ' h l t i h i ith th bjt dh dt tt lit l t t th t t l Th d t i th th id diffilt t d i b t idtif J l i t ti k f thi bliti t tll t th it thi bliti th t t h t th bli i t t O th t l k b t "th bli' i h t t 599

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

k " I d d th S i t fP f i l J l i t Si D l t Chi t tht the public's right to know is "the overriding mission of the mass media" and that "journalists must be free of obligation to any interests other than" promotion of this right Cll h th b l iht t k iht t k thi d thi I d d th l f iht i t t i l l hlfl h th i hih iht l i b l k f iht t k it i i b d Oft fid thi t th d i t k Th ti i ht f t l t t didi hth i f t i d i t idiidl ht t b b l i h d I th fil Absence of Malice, i suspect's friend provides an alibi for him to a reporter claiming the suspect accom panied her to an abortion during the time when the crime was being committed The friend is emotionally unstable and a devout Catholic and commits suicide h th t ildi h i b l i h d th t d i th l l Th t li t h t th dibilit f th t i hih th i t ' tti i t tk d d d iti th ' Hd th t t d t h t th iht it i i d f h d i i iht h b difft d ll k h l t th t hld have been to the risks In addition the claim that the credibility of the story depended on using a real name must be evaluated in the light of the widespread use of unnamed sources in news stories also staunchly defended by journalists Phili M i th l f i t Midt b i tii i Flid h hi h t l b d (M 1987 26) Th i i t l i t hi th h d i j d d i d t i f i th h t l t Th b i t h t i i d if hi i b l i h d i th t b hi h t S h l d th b l i h th t it i i t h t hi itti th l ? O h l d it kill th t ? T did h li l t th i t f th t th likelihood and magnitude of harm to the individual; the relevance of the disputed information to the story (can the story be usefully told without it?); and finally the extent to which the person in question has chosen the limelight or is responsible for fidi h i l f i it E h f th ti b diffilt t ( B t th t b Attti t th f t ld t l l i t Mihl L i ' t l f th h i h h l t d t d hi t) Wh l i t th i b ki b t th it f ti tibl i t b h i ( h l tiit) f bli f f i i l bli fi th ti b diffilt W t h t th t the question "When should reporters write about the private lives of public offi cials?" is "When the behavior is relevant to their fitness for office" But agreement about when that condition is fulfilled is difficult to achieve There is profound dis t i W t it ( h l i th iti t l t di t t i l i d ) b t hth t ht t t ' i t h t d h t fl l thi i i f i t b t hi bilit t l d dt Nthi i i l i f i d b th f t t h t th bliit j l i t t b thi t dill h th bli i t d t h f l lt th 600

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t th fit ti S f l i h t bli tht litil leader's sexual peccadillos are not in and of themselves relevant to his fitness for office but also that once these become public knowledge or the object of public obsession the formerly private behavior no longer is When Franklin Roosevelt or Jh K d id ith t thi i it t bli k l d t l t tl b j l i t f th ti h t i d i t i b t h t th k S i h t till t h t th i d i t i t l l fl b t t h t th d i d th idt' bli d t Bt l thi l d i t f d i d i t b tki t h ti ditti th f i t t bli b i it i i l i b l to maintain that such acts unknown to the public could be relevant to evaluating their public success We may wish for a kind of moral unity in the universe according to which all the virtues go together and all the vices do too but alas th i ti b t i t lit d bli t Ulik t h i d t j l i t h h t t th l tiiti f litii S th t ibilit f thi idbl l t l i hli t d t i th fh i t i l t bt l i ki thi t tht iht t h t h i b t such as that a politician's sexual practices are relevant to his ability to lead Of course journalists and news organizations are likely to argue that as long as other journalists cover these issues they have little choice but to report them if they h t i i b i Th titi df i i d d It i l it i At th l t if l di tlt td t ( tht ld i li ti h i d k ) td h t i ft t k lif f t h i tht k it h d f j l it t i th J l i t i ti tht d th h d i f" t i th b d " ll t b h i h f l ffi t d b th di But they can also include practices that offend audiences such as the use of profan ity or the publication of shocking pictures In some cases we may find both at once: the photographer who pushes himself on the grieving family taking pictures of d d hild tht h k d th i i di Y t it b d t h t th bl f t i lit t l t th i th b i f dil d i t d j l i th th th kid f lit d d fil d i b MGii M l l d L i i t th b t l f d bjt M l l h i bt th th it t l t i h i i hih bth j l i t d h interest in remaining on good terms even at the cost of other values they are supposed to serve To be effective in their respective positions the ournalist needs the source especially when the source is a politician public official or some other fi ith d i l d th litii bli f f i i l d th j l it B t h biti l t i h i d th j l i t ' l tth k d thd f th bli i t t Thi t i bt th lit' dt ltit d th i t fd t h t f th lt i f d flit f i t t d bi i th i hih t td ll i t t t td 601

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

M d i Bi
Thi b i t b d ti b t bi bjtiit d tlit li Th i i l f l F i t it i ti t l b t thi b t b t i t l ht k h k d th liit t d t i t k l d S d it b t l th b h i fidiidl j l i t bt t l t h th i t i t t i ithi hih they operate The subject is complicated also because although in our society the accusation that journalists are biased is widespread according to a recent poll (ASNE 1999) 78 t fA i d l t bli th i bi i th di t i th i tht f j l i t di d d f tth d bjtiit i ibl d bi i i i t b l B t th d i t tht " h t " i l i " " it ld b fi t itii j l i t f di h t th t hl di If it i i i b l f l t thi t "f thi t i " ( d f thi i t i l t t l ) t t t t b bjti i fitl It ld t k t f fild t id th l i t h t i j l i d broadly objectivity and truth are impossible even as ideals (but see Lichtenberg 2000) So I shall assume here that they are possible and plausible ideals I shall ask what lies behind accusations of journalistic bias and to what extent they are justi fid T l t th ti d t k dititi O i b t d ii N iti d h li b t th d d i t i l id f thi ti Th ti f bi i i l d ith tt ditil hih d t b " b i d " (Thi t t t l th dd h t f th t " b i " O th h d th t i j t i l describe a view as biased if we mean to condemn it or the person who holds the view On the other hand the popular outcries of bias in the media suggest that a view is equivalent to a bias Deeply embedded here is the assumption that views b t il litil tt t b t bt i l th t i l i t t f th h h l d th i t I hll t t i th t t i ) It i ibl t ti th it it f th li bt d ditil b f l ktii i bjtiit f th t j t t i d b f th ltd i tht f t " t h l d " " l l d " b f th i di i l d i " l sis" that partakes of both news and opinion Nevertheless I shall take the distinc tion between news and opinion to have some validity even if the line is not sharp Another distinction relevant to evaluating the accusation of bias is between ndi idl j l i t th iti f hih d ithi h i h th k d thi " d t " th lti f thi l b Wht i t f t b t f th S f l i 1996 " t f 179 d i l d i i d t i l h f l Dl d th t f 111 " hil P i d t C l i t d l itfi (Gibb 1996 7) At th ti di t tdi d t d b th A i S i t fN 602

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Edit A i j l i t " likl t ffilit ith l toward' the Democratic party (53 percent of the journalists vs 35 percent of the public)" (ASNE 1999) Clearly the distinction between news and opinion is also relevant here; the owners f iti t l th d i t i l id f th ti d d t i ht ii th hil ki j l i t th id B t iti d b t di bi t thi it b i l i d t b tht ditil lii th l t f it O th d i t i l d d d t t fid l' ii it i i th hih dt b t l d b i d tht j l i ' iidi b btl l t l itself It will be easier to evaluate this charge by making it more specific I shall there fore focus on the common claim that the American news media suffer from a liberal bi l t h h f ht I li ll t ti f th t f bi Th h f l i b l bi i ll d i t d t th l t i l di h t k t th t i f l t i l h The New York Times d The Washington Post, d th f bli di dt l i i T l t it dt t t l l t i (1) First it is worth noting how relative the notion of liberalism is What passes for liberal bias in the United States would be considered rightofcenter in many European countries whose conservative parties generally lie to the left of the A i D t i t (2) O i f id ti f f d f th l i t h t th i t A i di h l i b l bi i t h t t A i lit l i b l (Gldb 2001) B t th l i tht t h f thi li t l b libl i non sequitur d d t t h t If td i ldi tht l i b l j l i t t d libl j l i th it i ll l i b l t h t ti j l i t t d ti l ism; more generally journalists of persuasion X must produce journalism of persua sion X On this view truth or accuracy are hopeless ideals; no one can escape his or her biases I have already rejected this view To make the complaint about bias th t t d i t t tht t t h d libl idl Th ti i h jd apart f idti f th j l i t ' litil l i hth i b i d (3) T f til t i i b i d i t it t th f t t h t it it l t f t t h t it i t t f t t i i til dittd T k tht t th f t omits relevant facts would seem to require an independent source of information about the situation In some cases when we ourselves have been participants n or eyewitnesses to an event we may be in a position to judge that media coverage i dittd f l d Bt t f th ti t h i f t i itlf d d di d i th t f th thi b i l b l Of t bi itht tll h i i d d t f t i b t i t I l l likl t t tht t i b i d if it flit ith d i thi litil i M tht t h t fA i d bli th di b i d d th t l ll 603

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th litil t (ASNE 1999) C t i d t t l i b l bi hil members of minority groups find bias in coverage about their groups Accusations of bias may be more farreaching involving the claim not simply that this or that story is told in an unfair or distorted way but that important issues or problems are i d d l d b th di hil th i d i t i t Th ti t l b t th i l l diffilt t d l t (4) Th ti f l i b l bi td i ti ith th t i t f idiidl j l i t i th id ti bi f th di It iht b d t h t th t i t t d t i t f ht i d t i get covered and how (not to mention what does not get covered) are not the beliefs or values of individual journalists but rather the structures and institutions within which they work Massmedia organizations are vast corporate entities; they are th thtb d th h f d i t t i ti tt i th th th P t b d i t bt ft th ill b btl d i l i i t (At th ti th ft ti f di iti ti ll i t t h i th i l itil i t t i til l t th i th b f Th profit motive can contain its own sorts of biases: not so much political biases as biases toward the sensational the entertaining and the accessible) The adherence of journalists to the standard norms of their profession such as their reliance on ffiil l fft ht t d d h d tibt t ti t d i i di F l li t h i t t i i t i i d lti ith t ffiil h il fi f t i Th lt b kidl t t t f th fl

Is Neutrality a Virtue?
S f th t h t f thi d i i h b t t t th l i t h t i t di h l i b l bi Ih d t h t th f t t h t lit t d t b libl d t tht thi j l i i l i b l t h t th fl ti bi i th di t l t i t t libl d tht "libl" i lti t t h t i th A i t t i t f t th lft Ath t t ld b t d tht i t th di h l i b l bi d t t h t thi i t il b d thi C i d example of the kind of coverage that raises the ire of conservatives A recent story on National Public Radio's All Things Considered described the experiences of gay teenagers and how they have changed over the past few years Although the story did t liitl d i t i l i th b j t it td b lbi it d bhdl t h t i t th bl t f tii td b H Riht W t h th h t f t b thi A h d i l d b ft t l i i d th kl i d t d f thi t h i t t i d " " th ibilit f bi l l l i d l i l l t l li i 604

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A d t th t t t h t j l i t f th l t i l iti tend to be urban bicoastal affluent and well educated they are likely to cover and impart the cultural and political points of view associated with those traits Is this a problem? If so what is the appropriate response to it? One answer is ditl l t d t th i t f th l t ti Th t h d ti t d i f th di ht t b t t d ith l i b l th Milli d tht t t h ill t likl f th d i l t i l i t t i bt th O iht l ll t h t d i f f t h i i t b l bi ith th d i f f t bi d litil t d i It b t l t l t i til l t l t t tht i i t i bti flibli d tht ations are not We might say in other words that there exists a division of political labor That mainstream journalism is more liberal than the general public f it is is not necessarily problematic Of libl likl t ith thi t th ti tl t i tb th b i l i d t d t h t l i b l bi is bi A d thi b i t th d f i t th h f l i b l bi hih i t l f ti b t tlit l d th ibilit f t t h C i d i th t b t th t hih iti iht exhibits the liberal cultural biases of our society's elites A more sympathetic ap praisal might see it instead as one element in the movement to expand the circle of human rights to include not only women and ethnic and racial minorities bt l l ith d i b i l i t i d th ith t d d l itti D th h d l i b l bi td i th f bli tht thti fi t t i f f t i Littl R k M t ii l l fld? Th l ti iht b t thi i th thi bjtil iht b t ti blk h iht? Ad l d l ith d i b i l i t i i i l l titld t th i h t ? If ( d f Id t pretend that everyone would agree nor that it is obvious what the human rights in question amount to) we can ask how this should affect the journalist's stance The standard view in American journalism has been that the journalist should be neu t l Sh h l d t tk iti bt hld t d t d t th iti th t k Y t thi i ll t d i t t h th fliti t i l iti b t h t th t t h i I lbl i tki l ? Did G W B h t l th 2000 l t i ? W ft i d ll th h i li tht l ft b t hil l h blif b t h iht i l th i t t f th h hold them Nevertheless as certain values become entrenched in a society as civil rights for racial minorities for example have become entrenched in ours they come to be seen as "true" or "objective" and one is no longer required or expected ( ibl ittd) t b t l b t th (Th BBC d t h l "Bt d d il t tl") A lt d t d b i d thti j l i t i t l f l ffi l t ijti d d t tj l i t t b d t h d d t l b t h tt Tht i tl d f t th ll j t i i f th t "bi" W it t f th ti t

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ld i t d t h t bi i h i d thi S i i l l th f thetic portrayals of gay teenagers If you believe that they ought to be treated as others are treated and not punished for their sexual orientation then you will say either that sympathetic media portrayals of them are not biased (because they th i h t i ) l t h t th b i d b t t h t bi i h i dbl Th ti th t th h t f th j l i t ' iti i i th l t itti d i h t T ht t t hld t i i t tlit l tditill tlld i A i j l i ? N t l i t ' l h b bjtd t hll i t f variety of sources including not only critics on the left but also proponents of "civic" or "public" journalism who readily acknowledge that their values do and ought to shape their reporting (Lichtenberg 1999; Rosen 1999) The foregoing d i i t tht thik b t di i t tlit l h th j l i t ' i t t diff bttill f f i td t b t l b t ht ll i th t th d Wh th j l i t ' l d di f th f hi di th d i i t ill ll b t Ad h thi i i th d th b t h f tht b able to recognize a dissenting perspective for what it is For then we can employ our critical faculties to determine how that perspective colors the stories that are told how they are told and which stories still lie in the shadows

References A i Sit fN Edit (ASNE) (1999) E i i Cdibilit P t i f th Pbli d th Ps available at: wwwasneorg/kiosk/reports/99reports/1999exam i i d i b i l i t / B k S i l (1989) Li Ml Chi i Pit d Pbli Lif N Y k V i t Gibb D t h (1996) D l i i d t Edit d Pblih N b 9 7 E h th Mdi Ditt th Ns Wash Goldberg Bernard (2001) Bi A CBS Iid i t DC R L i M i h l (2001) J t h Lbd' t i l tiiti Th N Yk Ti M i Fb 25 26 Lichtenberg Judith (1999) Beyond the public journalism controversy In Robert Fullinwider ( d ) Ciil Sit D d Cii R l 34154 L h MD R d Littlflld (2000) In defense of objectivity revisited In James Curran and Michael Gurevitch (eds) M Mdi d Sit 3d d 23854 L d E d d Ald Mll J t (1990) Th J l i t d th Md N Yk K f M Phili (1987) Ethil J l i N Yk L Rosen Jay (1999) Wht J l i t f? New Haven CT: Yale University Press

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Further reading
Christians, Clifford, Fackler, Mark, Rotzoll, Kim, and McKee, Kathy (2001) Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning, 6th edn. New York: Longman. Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael (eds) (2000) Mass Media and Society, 3rd edn. London: Edward Arnold. Fallows, James (1997) Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy. New York: Vintage. Gross, Larry, Katz, John Stuart, and Ruby, Jay (1988) Image Ethics: The Moral Rights of Subjects in Photographs, Film, and Television. New York: Oxford University Press. Kieran, Matthew (ed.) (1988) Media Ethics. London: Routledge. Klaidman, Stephen and Beauchamp, Tom (1987) The Virtuous Journalist. New York: Oxford University Press. Schudson, Michael (1995) The Power of News. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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