The Study of Height Variation On Outdoor Ventilation For Singapore's High-Rise Residential Housing Estates

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The study of height variation on outdoor
ventilation for Singapores high-rise
residential housing estates
Rou Xuan Lee
*
, Steve Kardinal Jusuf and Nyuk Hien Wong
Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of
Singapore, 4 Architectural Drive, Singapore 117566, Singapore
*Corresponding author:
g0800515@nus.edu.sg
Abstract
This article is concerned with external ventilation levels within a multi-story Housing and Development
Board (HDB) residential estate, focusing toward a deeper understanding of wind flow with respect to
different levels of height variation (HV). This study analyzed through parametric study, using
numerical simulations with the realizable k 1 turbulence model, the various scenarios of HV within a
typical residential HDB estate or precinct. It is found that external wind flow within the precinct for
both the pedestrian and mid-height levels are affected differently by the HV value. Some rules of
thumbs can be established for HVs in the efficient use of outdoor ventilation.
Keywords: precinct level; outdoor ventilation; height variation; Housing and Development Board;
ventilation ratio index
Received 1 November 2012; revised 3 February 2013; accepted 4 March 2013
1 INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is often associated with problems such as higher
air temperatures, high pollution concentration and lower wind
flow, compared with rural areas which are often due to the
buildings roughness and geometry. Unstructured and im-
proper urban morphology (geometry and placement) planning
are common in areas of rapid urbanization. One good way to
counteract or reduce outdoor ventilation problems is to go for
designs that are optimized for ample outdoor ventilation to
dissipate built-up heat within through the process of turbulent
transfer. A throughout literature review done by the author
revealed that there are basically seven main morphological vari-
ables that determine natural outdoor ventilation efficiency
within a said precinct area or development. They are orienta-
tion [13], geometry ratio [47], building shape [8], gross
building coverage ratio (GBCR) [3, 6, 913], height variation
[3, 14, 15], permeability [1, 9] and staggering [3, 13, 16, 17].
These studies by previous researchers postulate that there is an
association between the different morphological variables and
outdoor ventilation potential within a precinct. How some of
these planning and design parameters affect the ventilation po-
tential is a research question that needs careful investigation.
This article discusses a detailed parametric study on the
effects of one of the building morphological variables, build-
ings height variation (HV), on outdoor ventilation within a
typical high-rise Housing Development Board (HDB) public
residential precinct area. Parametric studies are conducted
with computational fluid dynamics (CFD), using the realizable
k 1 turbulent model, to study the various scenarios of HV. It
is found that external wind flow within a precinct for both the
pedestrian and mid-height levels are affected differently by the
HV value. The objective of the present work is to find out how
the HV values vary with the magnitude of outdoor ventilation
within a precinct. Some rules of thumbs can be established for
HVs in the efficient use of outdoor ventilation.
Many research findings point to the advantage of varying
building blocks height rather than having uniform heights
throughout, in order to provide better ventilation within an
estate. Ngs [3] research concluded that varying the heights of
blocks, with decreasing heights toward the prevailing wind dir-
ection, can help to optimize the wind-capturing potential of
the development. This is especially when height differences are
significant, and it is always better to have varying heights
rather than similar/uniform height for diverting winds to the
lower pedestrian levels. Chan et al.s numerical study findings
proposed that uniformity of building height in urban planning
should be avoided as nonuniformly constructed roof heights
provide better ventilation [14]. He proposed a ratio of leeward
building height to windward building height of 1.001.25, but
his findings are from a study of a field-sized long isolated
canyon. It focused more on the wind characteristics developed
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 0, 119
#The Author 2013. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com
doi:10.1093/ijlct/ctt013 1 of 19
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies Advance Access published April 16, 2013

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within two canopies instead of an array of building structures
as per this present research. The results might not be applic-
able to the present study. Xie et al. [15] research shows that
different flow patterns are formed within the study canyon
with different variation in heights of ambient buildings.
In this present research, a parametric study approach will
be adopted, whereby the effects of HV within a precinct area
against the average outdoor wind speed at pedestrian level and
mid level will require a comprehensive systematic study on
many possible values and configurations (random and strati-
fied) of the HV variable. Such systematic studies are much too
difficult to be realized in real streets and relatively costly in
wind tunnels; hence, CFD simulations offer an appealing alter-
native at this moment for this article. The objective is to apply
the numerical simulation method to wind flow around build-
ings within a said precinct area under different HV values and
configurations. The methodology adopted and the results
obtained will be detailed in the following sections.
2 METHODOLOGY
In this study, an in-depth parametric study approach is
adopted for the investigation of HV on the implications of
average outdoor wind velocity within a said precinct. The HV
index that will be adopted in this study is simply the standard
deviation of the HV of all the high-rise buildings within the
precinct, which is formulated as
HV
H
i
H
ave
2
N 1
:
Numerical study is adopted to simulate the conditions of a
typical public Housing and Development Board (HDB) high-
rise residential housing estate, which is set to be a typical pre-
cinct size of 500 500 m. For comparison purposes, two
base case scenarios are used here, one for the point blocks
(each block dimension is 30 30 112 m) and another for
slab blocks (each block dimension is 100 20 50 m). The
base case spacing between the blocks is 20 m apart. All the
blocks are confined within an 500 500 m HDB estate,
assumed to be the maximum size we have for high-density
living in Singapore (Figure 1), given the current regulations
and control. The detailed variation in different scenarios will
be described in the following sections. The average outdoor
velocity magnitude values will be extracted at the pedestrian
level (2 m above ground level) and the mid-level (following
that of the base case) cut at a constrained horizontal plane
within the precinct area.
For the mid-level of the point blocks, it will be considered
at 56 m, which is the average of all the buildings mid-levels in
the precinct. For the mid-level of slab blocks, it will be consid-
ered at 25 m above ground, which is the average of all build-
ings mid-levels in the precinct.
2.1 Building shape
The most commonly adopted shapes for HDB flats are the
point block type and slab block type. The base case dimensions
of each and every block are as follows (L W H):
Point block: 30 30 112 m (can be built higher
structurally)
Slab block: 100 20 50 m (due to structural constraints,
a slab block cannot go too high).
Other less common shapes are not studied due to their rarity
and also their results are not easily being correlated to other
variables in a parametric study.
2.2 Orientation of wind flow
The 500 500 m precinct in the middle of the cylindrical
domain will be subjected to wind flow coming from five differ-
ent directions (08, 22.58, 458, 67.58 and 908) from North, so as
to study the behavior of each and every different HV and con-
figuration type, under different orientation effects on the
pedestrian-level and mid-level outdoor ventilation within the
precinct (Figure 2). Figure 3 shows the orientation of the wind
with respect to both the point and slab blocks in the base cases
(Figure 3).
Figure 1. Base case for point blocks arrangement (left) and slab blocks arrangement (right) in an 500 500 m estate area.
R. X. Lee et al.
2 of 19 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 0, 119

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2.3 Height variation values and configuration
types
The effects of HV values on the point and slab blocks (build-
ing shapes), under different wind directions (orientation) and
under different configuration types, will also be discussed.
There are two different types of HV configurations that will be
studied hererandom and stratified (Figures 47).
Random HV variation refers to the buildings, under different
HV values, will have their heights randomly varied from each
other. The spread of the HV will be as random as possible, in
order to ensure an even distribution of different buildings
heights. Figure 4 shows the configuration for point blocks,
and Figure 6 shows the configuration for slab blocks.
Stratified HV variation refers to the buildings with their varied
heights, increasing toward the precincts center part (most in-
terior area). Figure 5 shows the configuration for point blocks,
and Figure 7 shows the configuration for slab blocks.
The total volume of the blocks will be the same as the base
case in all the variations, regardless of the amount of change
in HVs. The spacing between the blocks will be the same as
the base case, i.e. 20 m. The focus in this article is to study the
HV behavior, all else being equal.
The HV values used in this parametric list are as shown in
Table 1 for both the point and slab blocks study.
2.4 Numerical simulations
In our research here, one of the Reynolds-averaged Navier
Stokes (RANS) model variantsrealizable k 1 turbulence
(RLZ) closure is selected for use in the simulation studies. This
model is a revised k 1 turbulence model and is proposed by
Shih et al. [18]. The six partial differential equations that need
to be solved are as follows:
Continuity equation
@u
j
@x
j
0: 1
RANS equations (in x-, y- and z-directions)
Figure 3. (a) BASE CASE: Point blocks layout in a 500 500 m HDB estate. Each block is 30 30 112 m in dimension with a spacing of 20 m from each
other. The numbers indicate the blocks height. (b) BASE CASE: Slab blocks layout in a 500 500 m HDB estate. Each block is 100 20 50 m in
dimension with a spacing of 20 m from each other. The numbers indicate the blocks height.
Figure 2. Wind coming from the different orientations into the cylindrical
atmospheric domain.
HVon outdoor ventilation for Singapores high-rise residential housing estates
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 0, 119 3 of 19

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@u
i
@t
u
j
@u
i
@x
j

1
r
@p
@x
i
m
r
@
2
u
i
@x
j
@x
j
@
@x
j
u
0
i
u
0
j
g
i
2
where u
j
is the j component of velocity (m s
21
), u
0
j
is the root-
mean-square of the velocity fluctuation j component, P is the
pressure in Newton per meter square (N/m
2
), t is the time (s),
x
j
is the j coordinate (m), r is the air density (kg m
23
), m is
the dynamic viscosity (m
2
s) and g
i
is the gravitational body
force (m s
22
).
The Reynolds stress is
u
0
i
u
0
j

1
r
m
t
_
@u
i
@x
j
@u
j
@x
i
_
2
3
kd
ij
;
where m
t
rC
m
k
2
=1 is the turbulent viscosity, where C
m
is a
Figure 4. HV value for point blocks in random configuration: (a) 21, (b) 34, (c), 52, (d) 63.
Figure 5. HV value for point blocks in stratified configuration: (a) 21, (b) 34, (c), 52, (d) 63.
R. X. Lee et al.

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Figure 6. HV value for slab blocks in random configuration: (a) 11, (b) 17, (c), 21, (d) 27.
Figure 7. HV value for slab blocks in stratified configuration: (a) 11, (b) 17, (c), 21, (d) 27.

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model constant which is not fixed.
C
m

1
A
0
A
S
kU
=1
;
where A
0
4.04,
A
s

6
p
cos w;
w
1
3
cos
1

6
p
W
_ _ _ _
;
W S
ij
S
jk
S
ki
=
~
S
3
;
~
S
S
ij
S
ij
_
;
S
ij

1
2
@u
j
=@x
i
@u
i
=@x
j
;
U

~
S
S
ij
S
ij
_
(where there is no rate of rotation in the stationary reference
frame for this study).
Two turbulence closure equations for realizable k 1 (RLZ):
Turbulent kinetic energy (k) (m
2
s
22
)
@k
@t
u
j
@k
@x
j
1
r
@
@x
j
m
m
t
s
k
_ _
@k
@x
j
_ _
G
k
r
1; 3
where G
k
is the turbulent kinetic energy production (kg m
21
s
22
).
The dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy (1) (m
2
s
23
)
@1
@t
u
j
@1
@x
j
1
r
@
@x
j
m
m
t
s
1
_ _
@1
@x
j
_ _
C
1
S1C
2
1
2
k

v1
p ; 4
where S is the scalar measure of deformation tensor or mean
strain rate (m
2
s
22
); n is the molecular kinematic viscosity (m
t
/
r); s
k
(1.0) and s
1
(1.2) which are the turbulent Prandtl
numbers for k and 1, respectively;
C
1
max 0:43;
h
h 5
_ _
;
whereby h Sk=1, where S
2S
ij
S
ij
_
is the scalar measure of
the deformation tensor. C
2
( 1.9) is also a model constant
[18, 19].
All the computational calculations are performed using the
Star-CCM1 code from CD-Adapco. Solutions to the problem
here utilized the above RLZ turbulence model, in which the
NavierStokes equations are discretized using a finite volume
method and the SIMPLE algorithm is used to handle pres-
surevelocity coupling. The above set of discretized algebraic
equations is solved by the segregated method. Studies showed
that it provides best performance in separated flows and flows
Table 1. Tabulated values of HV for the parametric study.
Case Description Min. height (m) Max. height (m) Average height (m) HV (m)
Point blocks
1 Point blocks: BASE (B-1.5 m, G-24.0 m, G-96.0 m) 112.00 112.00 112.00 0.00
2 Point blocks: HV 30120 WA 112, SD 21 30.00 120.00 112.00 21.00
Slab blocks
1 Slab blocks: BASE (B-1.5 m, G-24.0 m, G-96.0 m) 50.00 50.00 50.00 0.00
2 Slab blocks: HV 3060 WA 50, SD 11 30.00 60.00 50.00 11.00
R. X. Lee et al.

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with complex secondary flow [20]. This is provided it is prop-
erly coupled with a two-layer all y
wall treatment near

the wall boundary condition. Superiority of the realizable
k 1 model (RLZ) has been established for flows including
boundary layers under strong adverse pressure gradients, separ-
ation and recirculation [18, 21] when compared with other
RANS models. This simulation exercise is executed under
steady-state and isothermal conditions. In addition, air within
the street canyons is regarded as incompressible turbulent inert
flow, according to the valid assumption at low subsonic speeds,
the air densities are assumed to be constant under varying
pressures. This reasonably applies for lower atmospheric envir-
onment as described by Sini [7].
2.5 Near-wall treatment
A two-layer zonal model treatment is adopted here. This near-
wall flow treatment is suitable for situations that encounter both
strong body forces and important 3D characteristics of boundary
layer. It separates the computational domain into a viscosity-
affected region (in neighborhood of the wall) and a fully turbu-
lent region. The demarcation between these two regions is based
on a turbulent Reynolds number Re
y
yk
1=2
=v, where y stands
for the normal distance from the wall to the grid cell centers, k
stands for the turbulence kinetic energy and v stands for the
kinematic viscosity (Figure 8).
The realizable k 1 (RLZ) turbulent model is employed in
the fully turbulent region (Re
y
.200) as previously described.
On the contrary, in the viscosity near-wall region (Re
y
, 200),
a one-equation model (only for the turbulent kinetic energy)
is employed [22]. In comparison with a classical low Reynolds
number approach, the two-layer zonal model treatment leads
to an improved convergence, requires less mesh elements in
the viscosity sublayer and introduces properly the distribution
of the turbulent length scale near walls [23, 24].
2.6 Computational domain
Selection of computational domain size depends mainly on the
expected air flow patterns and wakes around the buildings
dimensions and local terrain under investigation. Researchers
have commonly determined the domain size as a multiple of
building dimensions. Domain size testing should be done to
find a large enough size whereby further size increase does not
affect the computed values significantly. The reason is that un-
necessary size increase not only increases the number of grid
nodes, but also demands more CPU resources and stability.
The computational domain adopted here consists of a large
cylindrical atmospheric volume of radius 1800 m and height of
800 m (Figure 9). The domain radius follows the rule as sug-
gested by Singapores Building Control Authority (BCA) [25]
whereby the computational domain radius is extended from the
development edge, three times of the longest distance length
which is measured across the boundary of the development
(include the development of interest, immediate surroundings
and buildings), to the domain edge. The domain height follows
the rule as suggested by COST Action 732 [26] whereby the
minimum height of the domain from a building should extend
at least six times the tallest buildings height from the highest
building in the whole development. The reason for selecting
both requirements from different agencies is both are the strict-
est among those suggested by all previous researchers and
guidelines. For example, some of the other suggestions include
five times the height of the tallest building for the inlet and
domain height, or up to 15 times of the maximum building
height for the outlet. But for the study case here, it is still not
considered the strictest amongst all suggestions.
We used the height of the point blocks (112 m), which are
taller compared with the slab blocks (50 m). The development
is 500 500 m, of which 500 m is the largest dimension
within a development. The derivation of the dimensions is as
follows:
(a) Domain radius:
Longest development dimension 500 m.
Distance from development to domain edge three times of
longest development dimension 3 500 1500 m.
Half of longest development dimension 250 m.
Radius of domain 250 m 1500 m 1750 m% 1800 m.
(b) Domain height:
Highest building height in development 112 m.
Distance from tallest building in development is six
Figure 9. The computational domain, the middle estate area of 500 500 m
will be subjected to various morphological variations.
Figure 8. Schematic illustration of the two-layer zonal model [22].

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times 6 112 672 m.
Height of tallest building 112 m.
Height of domain 112 m 672 m 784 m % 800 m.
The middle portion of this cylindrical atmospheric domain,
which consists of an estate area (500 500 m) of HDB blocks,
will be subjected to a parametric study. The average outdoor
ventilation of the estate will be studied with variations in differ-
ent HV morphological changes. Wind will be coming from the
sides of the cylinder (inlet) at various angles. The cylinder top is
a symmetry plane (slip wall) and the cylinder bottom (nonslip
wall) is the floor of which the boundary layer of the wind will
slowly develop from the inlet before reaching the estate area.
With such a domain, there is no need to set an outlet.
2.7 Boundary conditions
The mean velocity profile is usually obtained from the loga-
rithmic profile corresponding to the upwind terrain via the
roughness length Z
0
or from profiles of wind tunnel simula-
tions [26]. Available information from Singapores nearby me-
teorological stations is used to determine the wind speed at the
reference height.
The inlet is placed at a distance of 1500 m from the edge
of area of interest (building estate cluster) to allow the wind
flow to develop naturally from a distance away. A logarithmic
wind profile is generated, using the velocities of the four
prevailing wind directions, obtained from the National
Environmental Agency (NEA) for a period of 18 years, aver-
aged to a single value of 2.7 m s
21
(at reference height of
15.00 m; Table 2), is used for the parametric study here [25].
The other input variables are as shown in Table 3. Under low
subsonic speeds in this case, the air densities are assumed con-
stant under varying pressure condition and flow can be
regarded as an incompressible inert flow [7]. In the study here,
different wind directions are to be simulated with the same cy-
lindrical computational domain; hence, the lateral inlet
boundary becomes the inflow and outflow boundaries with
corresponding boundary conditions.
2.8 Meshing type and size
Unstructured polyhedral grids are generated for the whole
computational domain and used in all the computations
(Figure 10). For the grid-independence study here, one of the
nominal flow conditions, e.g. velocity magnitude, was taken
as the parameter to evaluate a few grids densities and deter-
mine the influence of the mesh size on the solution. It is
observed how the calculated flow reaches an asymptotic value
as the number of cells increases, in other words, size of the
meshes decreases [27, 28]. Meshes of sufficient refinement
(resolution and accuracy) are required in order to resolve local
solution gradients whereby further refines do not affect the
results (grid-independent solution). Figure 10 shows an
example of the pattern for unstructured polyhedral meshing
that is used for this study.
Owing to the large number of simulation cases, the base
cases for both the point and slab HDB blocks were used for
this study. The optimal localized approximated mesh size for
the blocks will be used throughout all the simulation studies.
In this study, it is carried out by running the exactly identical
case on different grids and checking that results are smaller
than a specific tolerance [29] and a tolerance of 0.01 is used.
The base cases for both the point and slab HDB blocks were
Table 2. Tabulation of prevailing wind direction and speed obtained
from NEA over a period of 18 years [25].
Wind direction Mean speed (m s
21
)
North 2.0
Northeast 2.9
South 2.8
Southeast 3.2
Table 3. Input variables for the inlet boundary conditions.
Parameter Value Input Reference
Power law
exponent (a)
a 0.21 [31] Power law: to approximate the vertical upwind profile flow in medium
density suburban areas
DePaul and
Shieh [32]
Roughness length
(Z
0
)
Z
0
0.5 (Suburban terrains, forest, regular
large obstacles etc.) [33]
Ensuring that the minimum threshold speeds of 2 m s
21
for the
development of canyon vortices observed by DePaul and Shieh was
comfortably exceeded Turbulence
intensity (T
i
)
5% (low speed flows for ventilation)
Turbulent kinetic
energy (k)
At T
i
5%, occurs at H 467 m above
ground of the logarithmic wind profile worked
out.
k 3=2U
r
T
i
2
, where T
i
represents the turbulence intensity, U
r
is the
reference velocity at the level where T
i
5%.
Wind velocity at this height is Ur 5.56 m s
21
[31].
Turbulent
dissipation (1)
1 C
3=4
m
k
3=2
=l Empirical constant C
m
0.09 and l 0.07 l, where l is the
characteristic length and in this case, the longest distance measured across
each estate, i.e. the length of the estate 500 m.
Von Karman
constant
K 0.41 (urban areas)
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used. The average external wind velocity (coming from one
direction, 08 North) readings taken at the horizontal plane
(within 500 500 m precinct) of 2 m above ground
(pedestrian level) and mid-level (of the base case) were
extracted. For the point and slab blocks, mesh independence
occurs when the localized mesh size for the blocks approaches
Figure 10. Unstructured polyhedral meshing for domain: (a) overall view, (b) plan view (2 m above ground) and (c) side view (Section AB from Figure 10b).

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1.5 m. This is shown in the tables and figures below
(Figure 11).
2.9 Wind velocity ratio
The wind velocity ratio (V
R
) is used as an indicator of good
ventilation in this study. It is measured and defined as
V
R
V
p
=V
1
, where V
1
is the wind velocity at the top of an
urban boundary layer not affected by the ground roughness,
buildings and local site features (typically assumed to be at a
certain height above the roof tops of the city center and is site
dependent; Figure 12). According to the incoming Singapore
logarithmic wind profile as mentioned above, V
1
will be fixed
(for all V
R
calculations) at a certain height above ground. It is
taken as the height level where the change in incoming wind
velocity between the selected level (1 m interval between each
level) to the top (assumed to be the top of the cylindrical
domain at 800 m above ground) becomes 1% or less. V
p
is the
wind velocity at pedestrian level (2 m above ground) or it can
be any other levels, after taking into account the effects of
Figure 11. Mesh independence study for (a) point blocks at 2 m pedestrian level, (b) point blocks at 56 m mid-level, (c) slab blocks at 2 m pedestrian level,
and (d) slab blocks at 25 m mid-level. Values are measured within a constrained plane within the precinct in BASE cases at 08 North wind.
Figure 12. Velocity ratio (V
R
) explained [30].
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buildings [30]. V
R
indicates how much of the wind availability
of a location could be experienced and enjoyed by pedestrians
on the ground taking into account the surrounding build-
ingsa simple indicator used to assess the effects of different
proposals, the higher the value, the lesser are the buildings
impact on wind availability.
At the top of the domain at 800 m above ground, according
to logarithmic profile stipulated by the boundary conditions,
the wind velocity at this level is 6.22 m s
21
. At the level of
745 m above ground, the wind velocity obtained is 6.13 m s, of
which is 1% difference from it. So, we use V
1
as 6.13 m s
21
for working out the wind velocity ratio (V
R
). The average
outdoor velocity magnitude values for V
p
will be extracted at
the pedestrian level (2 m above ground level) and the mid-level
(56 m for point blocks and 25 m for slab blocks), averaged
within a constrained horizontal plane that is confined within
the precinct area (500 500 m).
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Point blocks, pedestrian level
Figure 13 shows the overall results for point blocks under the
random and stratified HV configurations for pedestrian level.
3.1.1 Point blocks, random configuration, pedestrian level
From the results of the parametric study, we observed that as
the HV value increases, the V
R
readings decreases for both the
random and stratified configurations in all the different orien-
tations. The possible explanation is that when HV is low, the
variation in height is lesser, less turbulence being created and
this translates into a more stable and consistent wind flow at
the pedestrian level as we can see in Figure 14a of which the
HV 21 (Figure 14a). But when the HV becomes higher, as
we can see in Figure 14b of which the HV 63, the different
heights of the buildings causes the wind flow to be highly tur-
bulent and erratic, resulting in the wind at higher levels unable
to reach the pedestrian levels. When some of the buildings are
too high, winds that hit the walls are not able to reach the ped-
estrian levels and in many cases, counter-rotating vortices are
forms at the lowest levels (Figure 14b). The erratic winds also
spoilt the streamline flow from both direction of intersecting
canyons.
The other observation is that point blocks have more or less
similar readings for all the different orientations studied when
compared with the slab blocks. This is because when compared
with the slab blocks, they have more symmetrical dimensions
(four equal sides) and that translates to a higher number of
urban canyons. Wind that is flowing into the precinct is more
predominantly affected by the height differences of the build-
ings rather than the winds orientations (Figure 15a). Whereas
for slab blocks, the different number of canyons in both inter-
secting directions have strong implications to the wind speed
values in different orientations (Figure 15b).
3.1.2 Point blocks, stratified configuration, pedestrian level
The decreasing V
R
values with increasing HV values have the
same reasons as for the random configuration as mentioned in
Section 3.1.1. For point blocks arranged in a stratified config-
uration, the behavior of the pedestrian level is similar to the
random configuration. Generally, the V
R
readings of stratified
configuration for pedestrian level are slightly lower than
random configuration, especially for winds coming at an angle
of 458. The reason for this is that for the stratified configur-
ation, as it is arranged with the tallest buildings in the center
of the precinct, about half of the whole precinct is being
blocked by the first half of the taller buildings (Figure 16). But
as the number of canyons is high in both directions within the
precinct, compared with that of the slab blocks, the effect of
the stratified arrangement do not lower the readings too much
compared with the random arrangement.
For the lower readings of the 458 orientation, the reason is
due to the winds coming equally in both directions of the
Figure 13. Pedestrian level V
R
against HV for Random (top) and Stratified
(bottom) configuration of POINT BLOCKS.

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canyon and this act as an opposing wind flow from both
(Figure 17a). This happens here and not for the random con-
figuration as the reason is due to the turbulent winds produced
by the random configuration which tends to neutralize this op-
posing canyon winds and hence, this behavior is not apparent
in the random configuration (Figure 17b). Furthermore, in the
Figure 14. (a) Point blocks: random configuration08 North wind orientation. HV 21 (section view). (b) Point blocks: random configuration08 North
wind orientation. HV 63 (section view).
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stratified case, half of the precinct is blocked by the first half
which is facing the wind direction. Those that are behind are
not able to receive the wind flow due to the blockage.
3.2 Point blocks, mid-level
Figure 18 shows the overall results for point blocks under the
random and stratified HV configurations for mid-levels.
3.2.1 Point blocks, random configuration, mid-level
From the parametric study results, there is an increasing V
R
value
with increasing HV values. The reason for this behavior is that
the turbulence created and also the wind that hits on the build-
ings surfaces is being channeled down onto the lower levels.
These benefit more especially those of the mid-levels whereby the
distribution of the wind flow is felt the most (Figure 19). In
further levels down, the creation of counter vortices from the
above wind do not benefit those at the pedestrian levels.
Figure 15. (a) Point blocks: random configuration08 North wind orientation, HV 21 (plan view, 2 m above ground). (b) Slab blocks: random
configuration 08 North wind orientation, HV 21 (plan view, 2 m above ground).
Figure 16. Point blocks: stratified configuration08 North wind orientation. HV 52 (section view).

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Generally, the readings show higher V
R
readings for all the
wind orientations 208, 22.58, 67.58 and 908 compared with
those at pedestrian level, whereas for the 458 wind flow, it is
much lower compared with the rest at the same level. This is
because, when wind comes from 458, the inflow from both
directions of the canyon provides an opposing flow that slows
down the overall outdoor wind flow compared with the others
which are either parallel or oblique to the canyon orientation,
which translates to more unobstructed air movement.
3.2.2 Point blocks, stratified configuration, mid-level
For point blocks arranged in a stratified configuration, the
behavior of the pedestrian level is similar to the random con-
figuration. Generally, the V
R
readings of stratified configuration
for the pedestrian level are slightly lower than random config-
uration, especially for winds coming at an angle of 458. The
reason for this is that for the stratified configuration, as it is
arranged with the tallest buildings in the center of the precinct,
about half of the whole precinct is being blocked by the first
half of the taller buildings. But as the number of canyons is
high in both intersecting directions within the precinct,
compared with that of the slab blocks, the effect of the strati-
fied arrangement do not lower the readings too much.
3.3 Slab blocks, pedestrian-level
Figure 20 shows the overall results for slab blocks under
the random and stratified HV configurations for pedestrian
level.
3.3.1 Slab blocks, random configuration, pedestrian-level
From the parametric study results, there is a slight increasing V
R
value with increasing HV values for both the 08 and 22.58 wind
orientation, whereas for the other three orientations (458, 67.58
and 908), there is a slight decreasing relationship. The reason
for the 08 and 22.58 orientation behavior is that there are less
canyons (three numbers) facing the wind direction and this
translates to higher wall areas of the buildings facing the wind
Figure 17. (a) Point blocks: stratified configuration458 North wind
orientation. HV 21 (plan view, 2 m above ground). (b) Point blocks:
random configuration458 North wind orientation. HV 21 (plan view,
2 m above ground).
Figure 18. Mid-level V
R
against HV for random (top) and stratified
(bottom) configuration of point blocks.
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direction, thus creating higher blockages (Figure 21). The pres-
ence of HV in the precinct morphology helps to channel more
airflow into the lower levels with these blockages and also create
more wind turbulence to improve the overall ventilation within
the precinct (Figure 22). This is unlike the point blocks, which
have lower wall areas to capture the incoming wind; slab blocks
can utilize the benefits of HV more. Furthermore, as slab blocks
are usually shorter than point blocks, the winds are able to
reach the pedestrian levels better than point blocks which are
much taller (creating more counter vortices). For winds at 458,
67.58 and 908, the readings have a more constant gradient. One
of the reasons given is that there are much more canyons for
winds oblique or parallel to the 908 orientation and also there is
lesser wall surface facing these directions. In these cases, HV will
not play such an important role in helping to improve ventila-
tion in the overall precinct as the situation is more dominated
by the clear canyon pathways found there.
3.3.2 Slab blocks, stratified configuration, pedestrian-level
The readings for the stratified arrangement are slightly lesser
than that of random configuration. The reasons is similar to
the above-mentioned stratified cases whereby the benefits of
having HVs is only felt at the front areas toward wind direction,
whereas those at behind the taller buildings are being more or
less blocked. The V
R
readings for the 08 and 22.58 orientation
increase with HV values, whereas for 458, 67.58 and 908 orienta-
tions, the V
R
readings decrease with increasing HV values. The
reasons for this behavior are very similar to the case for random
configuration, as mentioned in Section 3.3.1.
3.4 Slab blocks, mid-level
Figure 23 shows the overall results for slab blocks under the
random and stratified HV configurations for mid-level.
3.4.1 Slab blocks, random configuration, mid-level
The readings for the mid-level is generally higher than that of
the pedestrian level due to the higher airflow at higher levels
and the wind turbulence generated by the HV is able to show
more benefits here. The overall readings are also higher than
that of the point blocks because of the generally shorter heights
whereby the rotating vortices driven by the ambient winds are
able to reach the middle levels more effectively (Figure 22).
As for the different orientations of the wind, the absolute
magnitude of the velocities increases progressively from 08 to
908. The reason is due to the increase in the number of unob-
structed canyons that are orientated in the 908 direction;
Figure 19. Point blocks: random configuration08 North wind orientation. HV 52 (section view).

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hence, more wind flow is able to reach more areas of the pre-
cinct. In terms of the gradient of increase, it is noticed that
from 08 to 908 orientation, the increase in V
R
with increase in
HV decreases in the gradient. The reason is because the benefit
of HV is more apparent in situations where the wall areas are
higher (less canyons at 08) compared with another case where
there are less wall areas (more canyons at 908) to capture the
wind flow to bring it to lower levels.
3.4.2 Slab blocks, stratified configuration, mid-level
The readings for stratified configurations are generally slightly
lower than that of the random configuration for mid-levels.
The reasons for the lower readings are similar to the above-
mentioned in those of stratified configurations.
4 CONCLUSION
A detailed parametric study on HV within a precinct area
was carried out by the use of numerical simulation. The HV
index used is simply the standard deviation of the different
heights of all high-rise blocks within the studied precinct. It
yields different consistent trends in the V
R
that can be seen from
its variation under different orientations, building types and
configurations.
The general observations of the study can be summarized
into the following points:
At the pedestrian level for point blocks in random configur-
ation, when HV increases, there is a general decrease in V
R
for point blocks. The reason is that when HV becomes
higher, the different building heights causes the wind flow to
be highly turbulent and erratic, resulting in the wind at
higher levels unable to reach the pedestrian levels.
Furthermore, there is the formation of counter-vortices at the
lowest levels that hamper good ventilation. Next, the higher
number of canyons in both intersection directions for point
blocks leads to them not to be so much affected by the differ-
ence in wind orientation compared with slab blocks.
At the pedestrian level for point blocks in stratified config-
uration, the only difference of it from random configura-
tions is the lower V
R
readings. The reason is that, for
stratified configurations, about half of the whole precinct is
being blocked by the first half of the taller buildings facing
the wind due to the stratified arrangements. But as the
number of canyons is high in both directions within the
precinct, compared with that of the slab blocks, the effect of
the stratified arrangement do not lower the readings too
much compared with the random arrangement.
At the mid-level for point blocks in random configuration,
as HV values increase, V
R
value increases. The reason is due
to the higher turbulence created at the upper levels whereby
the wind is channeled down to the lower levels. These bene-
fits more especially to mid-levels compared with the pedes-
trian levels where the creation of counter vortices from the
above air circulation does not benefit the lowest levels.
At the mid-level for point blocks in stratified configur-
ation, the behavior of the pedestrian level is similar to the
Figure 20. Pedestrian level V
R
against HV for random (top) and Stratified
(bottom) configuration of slab blocks.
Figure 21. Slab blocks: random configuration08 North wind orientation.
HV 27 (plan view, 2 m above ground).
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random configuration. Generally, the V
R
readings of strati-
fied configuration for the pedestrian level are slightly
lower than random configuration. The reason for this is
about half of the whole precinct is being blocked by the
first half of the taller buildings as mentioned. But as the
number of canyons is high in both intersecting directions
within the precinct, compared with that of the slab
blocks, the effect of the stratified arrangement do not
lower the readings too much.
At the pedestrian level for slab blocks in random configur-
ation, if there are lesser canyons facing the wind, which
translates to higher area of wall facing the wind direction
(higher blockages), the effect of HV will be that of an in-
crease in V
R
with an increase in HV and vice versa. HV will
only play an important and beneficial role when the build-
ings blockages are higher facing the wind direction com-
pared with one where there are more canyons orientated to
the wind direction. In the later case, HV increase does not
help in improving ventilation at the pedestrian level.
At the pedestrian level for slab blocks in stratified configur-
ation, the readings are slightly lower than for random
configuration. The reasons are similar as above-mentioned.
Otherwise, the general behavior can be explained as similar
to the random configuration.
At the mid-level for slab blocks in random configuration, as
HV increase, V
R
increases as well for all the orientations. As
for the different orientations of the wind, the absolute mag-
nitude of the velocities increases progressively from 08 to
908. The reason is due to the increase in the number of un-
obstructed canyons that are orientated in the 908 direction;
hence, more wind flow is able to reach more areas of the
precinct. The gradient of increase is less apparent when
there are more canyons alighted toward the wind direction,
and this is due to lesser wall areas capturing the wind flow
to bring it to lower levels.
At the mid-level for slab blocks in stratified configuration,
the readings are only less than its random configuration
counterpart. The reasons are the same as above-mentioned
for all stratified configurations.
This study sheds some light as to how HVof the buildings can
affect the wind flow at both the pedestrian and mid-levels.
There is a general improvement to wind flow at mid-levels
when the HV increases in value. The improvement can be
quite significant at the upper levels; however, the benefits are
not so apparent at the pedestrian levels. One possible way to
improve the pedestrian levels wind might include having a
wider canyon width or having higher porosities in the form of
Figure 22. Slab blocks: random configuration08 North wind orientation. HV 27 (section view).

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void decks and sky gardens in the building blocks. In this
study, it has demonstrated that consistent relationships
between HV and V
R
can be observed and explained. It gives us
a better understanding of the behavior of morphological varia-
tions of all buildings within a precinct; in this case, the HV, for
both the pedestrian and mid-levels. Through a better under-
standing of morphological variation effects, high-density
estates can be planned optimally and sustainability.
Furthermore, this also supports the high possibility of develop-
ing an overall ventilation potential model using HV and then
subsequently in future, including the rest of the six standar-
dized morphological variables (in index forms) as independent
variables for input into this overall model. This helps to facili-
tate the comparison of influence and correlation of each inde-
pendent variable to the outdoor wind velocity ratio index (V
R
)
as the dependent variable, for determination of estate-level
outdoor ventilation potential, which serves as good guide for
future urban planning.
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The Study of Height Variation On Outdoor Ventilation For Singapore's High-Rise Residential Housing Estates

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