Methodology (ELT)

I hope you enjoy it!!!

Using drama in the English class Theories for learning TEFL methodology

The Grammar Translation Method

Orrieux, C. (1989: 79) History of Ancient Civilizations

Latin and Ancient Greek are known as dead languages, based on the fact that people no longer speak them for the purpose of interactive communication. Yet they are still acknowledged as important languages to learn (especially Latin) for the purpose of gaining access to classical literature, and up until fairly recently, for the kinds of grammar training that led to the mental dexterity considered so important in any higher education study stream.

Morris, S. (1996: 12) Techniques in Latin Teaching

Latin has been studied for centuries, with the prime objectives of learning how to read classical Latin texts, understanding the fundamentals of grammar and translation, and gaining insights into some important foreign influences Latin has had on the development of other European languages. The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those objectives in mind, and came to be known as the Classical Method. It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method. The Grammar Translation Method Howatt in his book, The Empirical Evidence for the Influence of L1 in Interlanguage (1984: 98) points out The Classical Method (Grammar translation Method) was originally associated with the teaching of Latin and to a much lesser extent ancient Greek. The aim of teaching Latin and Greek was (and is) obviously not so that learners would be able to speak them. The aims were/are rather to develop : Logical thinking Intellectual capacities to attain a generally educational and civilizing effect An ability to read original texts in the languages concerned , at least in the better learners.

Interestingly, Howatt (1984: 131) also states: Grammar and Translation are actually not the distinctive features of GT, since they were already well-accepted as basic principles of language teaching. What was new was the use of invented, graded sentences rather than authentic literary texts in order to make language learning easier. Key features

According to Prator and Celce-Murcia in Teaching English as a Second Foreign Language (1979:3), the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows: 1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. 2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. 3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. 4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. 5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. 6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. 7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. 8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. Typical Techniques Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:13) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar Translation Method. The listing here is in summary form only. 1) Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language) 2) Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience) 3) Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words). 4) Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language) 5) Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples) 6) Fill-in-the-blanks

(Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type). 7) Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms) 8) Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words) 9) Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language) Disadvantages The Grammar Translation Method may make the language learning experience uninspiring and boring.

The Grammar Translation Method may also left the students with a sense of frustration when they travel to countries where the studied language is used (they cant understand what people say and have to struggle mightily to express themselves at the most basic level)
This method neither approaches nor encourages the students communicative competence.

Reasons why it still used

The Grammar Translation Method is still common in many countries even popular. Brown in his book Incremental Speech Language (1994) attempts to explain why the method is still employed by stating: This method requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers. Grammar rules and Translation Tests are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to test communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations and other written exercises. Conclusions The Grammar Translation Method was developed for the study of dead languages and to facilitate access to those languages classical literature. Thats the way it should stay. English is certainly not a dead or dying language, so any teacher that takes an approach for dead language study into an English language classroom should perhaps think about taking up Math or Science instead. Rules, universals and memorized principles apply to those disciplines pedagogy and communicative principles do not.

About these ads

Like this: Like Explore posts in the same categories: formative

This entry was posted on June 22, 2007 at 1:02 am and is filed under formative. You can subscribe via RSS 2.0 feed to this post's comments. You can comment below, or link to this permanent URL from your own site.

Leave a Reply
guest

Enter your comment here...

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

(required)(Address never made public)(required)( Log Out / Change )( Log Out / Change )( Log Out / Change )
Blog at WordPress.com. Theme: Sapphire by Michael Martine.

1365432995

<div style="display: none;"><img src="//pixel.quantserve.com/pixel/p-18mFEk4J448M.gif?labels=%2Clanguage.en%2Ctype.wpcom%2Cas" height="1" width="1" alt="" /></div>

Follow

Follow Methodology (ELT)

Get every new post delivered to your Inbox.
Enter your e

subscribe

1092615

http://osw aldoipc

loggedout-follow

4dbca8daca

/2007/06/22/the-g

Sign me up

Powered by WordPress.com
<img src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?v=noscript" style="height:0px;width:0px;overflow:hidden" alt="" />

Italiano Search Language tools Normal view

Visit www.tjtaylor.net/english E: info@tjtaylor.net Call us +39 02 4300 19075

Skip to menu Call us

The Audio-lingual Teaching Method

With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.

Explanation
Based on Skinner's Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback. This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language. "Emphasis is on the acquisition of patterns in common everyday dialogue." The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic. Some characteristics of this method are:

 Drills are used to teach structural patterns Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum Vocabulary is taught in context Audio-visual aids are used Focus is on pronunciation Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately

Modern Usage
The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teacher's point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect. Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio Shenker, who promoted guided self learning with the Shenker method in Italy, and Robin Callan, who created the Callan method.

Developments & Problems

This extensive memorization, repetition and over-learning of patterns was the key to the method's success, as students could often see immediate results, but it was also its weakness. The method's insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of context and knowledge in language learning. As the study of linguistics developed, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that errors were not necessarily bad. It was also claimed that the methodology did not deliver an improvement in communicative ability that lasted over the long term. By Daniela Bortolin Like what you read? Please support us by sharing
or tweeting this

The Humanistic approaches Direct & Grammar Translation Home About us Corporate courses Full immersion Brochures L+D resources o Articles & new ideas o Methodology

Traditional methods Audio-lingualism Humanistic approaches Communicative method Principled eclecticism o Training newsletter o Studies & surveys o ROI calculator o Management support o Useful links Contact us

For all the latest in corporate training and languages Click here and join us! Contact us | Print | Bookmark | Tell a friend | Share on facebook Share on linkedin Share on twitter More Sharing ServicesShare 2013 TJ Taylor Audio-lingual English Teaching Methodology and Techniques - Marketing - Sitemap Legal Notices - Privacy
<img src="http://www.tjtaylor.net/piwik/piwik.php?idsite=3&amp;rec=1" style="border:0" alt="" />

Examples
Inflection : Teacher : I ate the sandwich. Student : I ate the sandwiches. Replacement : Teacher : He bought the car for half-price. Student : He bought it for half-price. Restatement : Teacher : Tell me not to smoke so often. Student : Don't smoke so often!

The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session : Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat Students: There's a cup on the table Teacher: Spoon Students: There's a spoon on the table Teacher: Book Students: There's a book on the table Teacher: On the chair Students: There's a book on the chair etc.[2]

Oral drills
Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audiolingual method. (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986) These include

Repetition: where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it Inflection: Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated Replacement: Where one word is replaced by another Restatement: The student re-phrases an utterance

The Audiolingual method

The objective of the audiolingual method is accurate pronunciation and grammar, the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations and knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammar patterns. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering the building blocks of language and learning the rules for combining them. It was believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. Here are some characteristics of the method:

language learning is habit-formation, mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits, language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form, analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis, the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.

The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and drilling. Key structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. Lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students. Not only are the students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. It is taught inductively. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom.
Advantages

It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar translation method The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching.

Disadvantages

The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language doesnt amount to studying the parole, the observable data. Mastering a language relies on acquiring the rules underlying language performance. That is, the linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse competences. The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven its weakness. Noam Chomsky ( Chomsky, Noam (1959). A Review of B. F. Skinners Verbal behavior) has written a strong criticism of the principles of the theory.

References:

To read more on Situational Language Teaching and other methods: Richards, J. C. & Rogers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). New York: Longman Others sources:

Wikipedia: The Audiolingual Method

Purpose and theory

The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by tapping into the power of suggestion. Lozanov claims in his website, Suggestology and Suggestopedy,[2] that suggestopedia is a system for liberation; liberation from the preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process of learning that is established throughout their life in the society. Desuggestopedia focuses more on liberation as Lozanov describes desuggestive learning as free, without a mildest pressure, liberation of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and spontaneous acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits. The method implements this by working not only on the conscious level of human mind but also on the subconscious level, the minds reserves. Since it works on the reserves in human mind and brain, which are said to have unlimited capacities, one can teach more than other methods can teach in the same amount of time.

[edit] In practice
Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident",[3] and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization sance), and elaboration.[2][4] Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content. Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music (Pre-Classical) is played in the background. Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games. Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production.[2][4] Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in a playful manner instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner. Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly. Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while the teacher acts more like a consultant.[2] Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.

[edit] Teachers
Teachers should not act in a directive way, although this method is teacher-controlled and not studentcontrolled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs naturally and genuinely. [2] In the concert session, they should fully include classical

art in their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, factors such as communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying there techniques etc. are crucial.[4] The teachers need not only to know the techniques and to acquire the practical methodology completely but also to fully understand the theory, because, if they implement those techniques without complete understanding, they will not be able lead their learners to successful results, or they could even cause a negative impact on their learning. Therefore, the teacher has to be trained in a course taught by certified trainers. Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.[2]
1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material. 2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way: global-partial partial-global, and global in the part part in the global, related to the golden proportion. 3. As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be a highlyregarded professional, reliable and credible. 4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent expectation of positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of the teacher training course). 5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, classical arts, and pleasure.

[edit] Method for children (preventive Suggestopedia)

The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement,[2] and materials that are appropriate for adults. Children, however, get impacts from the social suggestive norms differently and their brains are more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with different materials should be applied to children, which better matches their characteristics. Lessons for children are more incidental and short, preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions of Society. It is important to tell the parents about the method and their roles because they could influence children both negatively and positively, depending on how they support the kids.[4]

[edit] Side effects

Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning, but also in producing favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other subjects.[2]

The Silent Way

The Chomskyan criticism of the theories upon which the audiolingual method was founded led to an interest in not only the affective factors but also on the cognitive factors. While Community Language Learning, drawing from Carl Rogers philosophy, focused on the importance of the affect, new methods were developed in the 70s to highlight the cognitive domain in language learning. The Silent Way is one of these innovative methods. In Fact, Caleb Gattegno, the founder of the Silent Way,devoted his thinking to the importance of problem solving approach in education.He contends that the method is constructivist and leads the learners to develop their own conceptual models of all the aspects of the language. The best way of achieving this is to help students to be experimental learners.

Features

The Silent Way is characterized by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem solving and the use of accompanying materials. Richards and Rodgers (1986:99) summarized the method into three major features.
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The Silent way belongs to the tradition of teaching that favors hypothetical mode of teaching (as opposed to expository mode of teaching) in which the teacher and the learner work cooperatively to reach the educational desired goals. (cf Bruner 1966.) The learner is not a bench bound listener but an active contributor to the learning process. 2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The Silent Way uses colorful charts and rods (cuisinere rods) which are of varying length. They are used to introduce vocabulary ( colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs) and syntax (tense, comparatives, plurals, word order ) 3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned. This can be summarized by Benjamin Franklins words: Tell me and I forget Teach me and I remember Involve me and I learn A good silent way learner is a good problem solver. The teachers role resides only in giving minimum repetitions and correction, remaining silent most of the times, leaving the learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp of its mechanism.

Disadvantages

The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom. With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning itself at stake. The material ( the rods and the charts) used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other materials will have to be introduced.

Advantages

Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters: o creativity, o discovery, o increase in intelligent potency and o long term memory. The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning

References

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. H. Douglas Brown (1987). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education.[1] It was first introduced in Gattegno's book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way in 1963.[2] Gattegno was skeptical of the mainstream language education of the time, and conceived of the method as a special case of his general theories of education.

The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation, and much time is spent practising it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus, and structures are constantly reviewed and recycled. The choice of vocabulary is important, with functional and versatile words seen as the best. Translation and rote repetition are avoided and the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test. The teacher uses silence for multiple purposes in the Silent Way. It is used to focus students' attention, to elicit student responses, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. Even though teachers are often silent, they are still active; they will commonly use techniques such as mouthing words and using hand gestures to help the students with their pronunciation. Teachers will also encourage students to help their peers. Silent Way teachers use specialized teaching materials. One of the hallmarks of the method is the use of Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything from introducing simple commands to representing abstract objects such as clocks and floor plans. The method also makes use of color association to help teach pronunciation; there is a sound-color chart which is used to teach the language sounds, colored word charts which are used to teach sentences, and colored Fidel charts which are used to teach spelling.

Contents
[hide]

1 Background and principles 2 Design and goals 3 Process o 3.1 Teaching techniques o 3.2 Teaching materials 4 Reception and influence 5 Notes 6 References

[edit] Background and principles

Caleb Gattegno, the creator of the Silent Way

Gattegno was a rank outsider to language education when Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools was first published in 1963. The book was conspicuously lacking the names of most prominent language educators and linguists of the time, and Gattegno's works were only cited rarely in language education books and journals.[3] He was previously a designer of mathematics and reading programmes, and the use of color charts and colored Cuisenaire rods in the Silent Way grew directly out of this experience.[4] Gattegno was openly sceptical of the role linguistic theory of the time had in language teaching. He felt that linguistic studies "may be a specialization, [that] carry with them a narrow opening of one's sensitivity and perhaps serve very little towards the broad end in mind".[5] The Silent Way was conceived as a special case of Gattegno's broader educational principles, rather than a method specifically aimed at teaching languages. Gattegno developed these ideas to solve general problems in learning, and he also applied them to his work in the teaching of mathematics and the mother tongue. Broadly, these principles are:[6]
1. Teachers should concentrate on how students learn, not on how to teach 2. Imitation and drill are not the primary means by which students learn 3. Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate experimentation, suspending judgement, and revising conclusions 4. In learning, learners draw on everything that they already know, especially their native language 5. The teacher must not interfere with the learning process

These principles situate the Silent Way in the tradition of discovery learning, that sees learning as a creative problem-solving activity.[4]

[edit] Design and goals

The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain basic fluency in the target language, with the ultimate aim being near-native language proficiency and good pronunciation.[7] An important part of this ability is being able to use the language for self-expression; students should be able to express their thoughts, feelings, and needs in the target language. In order to help them achieve this, teachers emphasize self-reliance.[8] Students are encouraged to actively explore the language,[9] and to develop their own 'inner criteria' as to what is linguistically acceptable. [10] The role of the teacher is that of technician or engineer. The teacher's task is to focus the students' attention, and provide exercises to help them develop language facility; however, to ensure their self-reliance, the teacher should only help the students as much as is strictly necessary.[11] As Gattegno says, "The teacher works with the student; the student works on the language."[12] For example, teachers will often give students time to correct their own mistakes before giving them the answer to a question.[13] Teachers also avoid praise or criticism, as it can discourage students from developing self-reliance.[13]

A sound-color chart for English; these charts are used right from the beginning stages to teach pronunciation and word stress.

In the Silent Way students are seen as bringing a vast amount of experience and knowledge with them to the classroom; namely, their first language. The teacher capitalizes on this knowledge when introducing new material, always building from the known to the unknown.[14] The students begin their study of the language by studying its sound system. The sounds are associated to different colors using a sound-color chart that is specific to the language being learned. The teacher first introduces sounds that are already present in the students' native language, and then progresses to sounds that are new to them. These sound-color associations are later used to help the students with spelling, reading, and pronunciation.[12] The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus. The teacher will typically introduce one new language structure at a time, and old structures are continuously reviewed and recycled.[8] These structures are chosen for their propositional meaning, not for their communicative value.[15] The teacher will set up learning situations for the students which focus their attention on each new structure.[12] For example, the teacher might ask students to label a floor plan of a house in order to introduce the concepts of inside and outside.[16] Once the language structures have been presented in this way, learners learn the grammar rules through a process of induction.[15] Gattegno saw the choice of which vocabulary to teach as vital to the language learning process. He advised teachers to concentrate on the most functional and versatile words, to help students build a functional vocabulary.[15] Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and instead emphasis is placed on conveying meaning through students' perceptions, and through practicing the language in meaningful contexts.[17] In the floor plan example, the plan itself negates the need for translation, and the teacher is able to give the students meaningful practice simply by pointing to different parts of the house.[16] The four skills of active listening, speaking, reading, and writing are worked on from the beginning stages, although students only learn to read something after they have learned to say it.[18] Evaluation in the Silent Way is carried out primarily by observation. Teachers may never give a formal test, but they constantly assess students by observing their actions. This allows them to respond straight away to any problems the students might have.[19] Teachers also gain feedback through observing students' errors; errors are seen as natural and necessary for learning, and can be a useful guide as to what structures need more practice.[13] Furthermore, teachers may gain feedback by asking the students at the end of the lesson.[9] When evaluating the students, teachers expect them to learn at different rates, and students are not penalized for learning more slowly than their classmates. Teachers look for steady progress in the language, not perfection.[13]

[edit] Process
[edit] Teaching techniques
Just as the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more of the talking.[20] Being silent moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students,[21] and can encourage cooperation among them.[13] It also frees the teacher to observe the class.[9] Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct;[13] they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.[22] When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once so that students learn to focus their attention on them.[9] A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction. Students are encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble with any particular feature of the language. This help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one. One of the teacher's tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do not interfere with students' learning.[23]

[edit] Teaching materials

A set of Cuisenaire rods

The silent way makes use of specialized teaching materials: colored Cuisenaire rods, the sound-color chart, word charts, and Fidel charts. The Cuisenaire rods are wooden, and come in ten different lengths, but identical cross-section; each length has its own assigned color.[20] The rods are used in a wide variety of situations in the classroom. At the beginning stages they can be used to practice colors and numbers, and later they can be used in more complex grammar. For example, to teach prepositions the teacher could use the statement "The blue rod is between the green one and the yellow one". They can also be used more abstractly, perhaps to represent a clock or the floor plan of a house.[24]

A Fidel chart for English; these charts are used to teach spelling.

The sound-color chart consists of blocks of color, with one color representing one sound in the language being learned. The teacher uses this chart to help teach pronunciation; as well as pointing to colors to help students with the different sounds, she can also tap particular colors very hard to help students learn word stress. Later in the learning process, students can point to the chart themselves. The chart can help students perceive sounds that may not occur in their first language, and it also allows students to practice making these sounds without relying on mechanical repetition. It also provides an easily verifiable record of which sounds the students and which they have not, which can help their autonomy.[23] The word charts contain the functional vocabulary of the target language, and use the same color scheme as the sound-color chart. Each letter is colored in a way that indicates its pronunciation. The teacher can point to the chart to highlight the pronunciation of different words in sentences that the students are learning. There are twelve word charts in English, containing a total of around five hundred words.[25] The Fidel charts also use the same color-coding, and list the various ways that sounds can be spelled. For example, in English, the entry for the sound /ey/ contains the spellings ay, ea, ei, eigh, etc., all written in the same color. These can be used to help students associate sounds with their spelling.[26]

[edit] Reception and influence

As of 2000, the silent way was only used by a small number of teachers. These teachers often work in situations where accuracy or speed of learning is important. Their working conditions may also be challenging, for example working with illiterate refugees
Introduction

Total Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordination of speech and action. It was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California. It is linkedto the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be.
Approach Theory of language

Asher does not directly adress his view of languag, but Richards and Rodgers state that the labeling and ordering of classroom activities seem to be build on the structural view of language.
Theory of learning

Asher's language learning theories seem similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. There are three principles he elaborates;

Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes Listening should develop before speaking Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that too Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech devlops naturally and effortlessly out of it. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns Delaying speech reduces stress.

Design Objectives

Here are some of the objectives of Total Physical Response

Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level Using comprehension as a means to speaking Using action-based drills in the imperative form

The syllabus

TPR uses a sentence-based grammatical syllabus.

Types of learning techniques and activities

Activitis where a command is given in the imperative and the students obey the command isthe main activity in TPR.
Procedure

Asher gives step-by step accounts of how to use TPR for English or other languages

The Direct Method

The Direct Method

The Direct Method was the outcome of a reaction against the Grammar Translation Method. It was based on the assumption that the learner of a foreign language should think directly in the target language. According to this method, English is taught through English. The learner learns the target language through discussion, conversation and reading in the second language. It does not take recourse to translation and foreign grammar. The first verses are taught while pointing to objects or pictures or by performing actions. According to H.G. Palmer, The Direct Method has the following: 1. Translation in every shape or form is banished from the classroom including the use of the mother tongue and that of the bilingual dictionary. 2. Grammar, when it is taught, is taught inductively. 3. Oral teaching precedes any form of reading and writing. 4. The use of disconnected sentences is replaced by the use of connected texts. 5. Pronunciation is taught systematically in accordance with the principles of phonetics and phonology of the target language. 6. The meanings of words and forms are taught by means of object or natural context. 7. The vocabulary and structure of the language are inculcated to a large extent by the teacher and answered by students. Aims: The Direct Method aims at establishing the direct bond between thought and expressions and between experience and language. It is based on the assumption that the learner should experience the new language in the same way as he experienced his mother tongue. In the Grammar Translation Method, the foreign concept or idea is first translated into the mother tongue and then understood. But in the Direct Method the intervention of the mother tongue is done away with the learner understands what he reads or hears in the second or foreign language without thinking of the mother tongue equivalence. Likewise, he speaks or writes the foreign language without the need of translating his thought or idea from the mother tongue into the second/foreign language. He acquires, what Champion calls that instinctive, unerring language sense which we all possess in variant degree in the mother tongue, and which superseding all rules, grammar and dictionaries, resting at bottom on the direct association between experience and expression, is the only sure guide in the use of language.

Principles: 1. Oral Training The direct Method emphasizes the value of oral training in learning a foreign language. The pupil is given sufficient practice in listening to the language and then speaking it. It also lays emphasis on the knowledge of phonetics so that the learner may be able to acquire intelligible pronunciation. Oral training helps in establishing direct association between the words of the foreign language and the ideas for which they stand.

2. Inhibition of the Mother Tongue Another way of securing bond between experience and expression is to inhibit the use of the mother tongue. Pupils are taught new words by actually showing them the objects for which they stand or performing actions or by suitable illustration in context. This enables them to think in English and respond directly in English.

3. Sentence is the Unit of Speech Therefore, the teaching of a language starts with the teaching of sentence patterns rather than individual words. This enables the learner to internalize the structure of the target language. New vocabulary items are introduced gradually based on the principle of selection and gradation. They are taught through material association, explanation or use in suitable context.

4. Inductive Teaching of Grammar In the direct method, grammar of the target language is not taught for its own sake. It is a means to an end. Its aim is to enable the learner to correct errors in his speech and writing. Grammar is taught inductively. It may be pertinent to point out here that in the Direct Method also lessons are prepared by the teacher or the author of textbooks according to some grammatical plan. The quantum of exposure to the language enables the learner to form his own hypothesis and rules of the language. Advantages: 1. It is a natural method. It teaches the second/foreign language in the same way as one learns ones mother tongue. The language is taught through demonstration and conversation in context. Pupils, therefore, acquire fluency in speech. They are quick at understanding spoken English. They can converse in English with felicity and ease.

2. No gap between active and passive vocabulary. This method does not differentiate between active and passive vocabularies. According to this method whatever is required for understanding through English is also required for expressing through it. If English is taught through the mother tongue, the gulf between the active and passive vocabularies is

widened. The learner acquires more of passive vocabulary because he concentrates on understanding English rather than expressing through it.

3. This method is based on sound principles of education. It believes in introducing the particular before general, concrete before abstract and practice before theory.

Defects: 1. There are educationists, who hold the view that the Direct Method does not take into account all aspects of language teaching. Dr. Michael West considers that the best thing about this method is that it links the foreign word with idea that it represents. Hence, instead of being called a Direct Method it should be called a Direct Principle. 2. Not Comprehensive Language learning involves acquisition of skills listening, speaking, reading and writing. The Direct Method concentrates on listening and speaking but not reading and writing. That is why many of those who have learned English through the Direct Method feel that they do not get adequate command over written language. A comparison between the Direct Method and the Grammar Translation Method must take into account the following points:

i. The Direct Method: 1. avoids close association between the second or foreign language and the mother tongue. 2. lays emphasis on speech. 3. follows the childs natural way of learning a language. 4. teaches the language by use and not by rule. 5. does not favour the teaching of formal grammar at the early stage. ii. The Grammar Translation Method: 1. maintains close association between the foreign language and the mother tongue. 2. lays emphasis on speech. 3. follows the adults natural way of learning a language. 4. teaches the language by rule and not by use. 5. teaches formal grammar from the very beginnin

The grammar translation method appeared as soon as people of the western world wanted to learn such foreign languages as Latin and Greek. It is focused on learning grammatical rules and learning vocabulary and language declensions and conjugations by heart. Characteristic classroom activities and homework comprises text translation and written exercises. Traditional teachers from the grammar translation schools coming into class would insist to their students to get it right from the beginning. They highlight speech, but are disinclined to let their students use it impulsively. The reason is that they are anxious about their students shaping bad, unattractive habits that they cannot break. Since habits are hard to break, it is better to stop them. So the method lies in the teachers presenting a grammar translation class in the students native tongue, and students are not actively confident to use the target language in class. The teacher gives complicated explanations of the grammatical details of the target language, and frequently concentrates on the form and intonation of words. Accuracy takes delivery of a great deal of stress. Vocabulary study takes the form of learning lists of frequently isolated words, and the rules of grammar offer the proposal for putting words together. Students start early to read classical texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. There is little stress on the content of those texts. Grammar translation classes remained in the West until well into the 1970s, and the method is still used in some schools, particularly in less-developed countries. Students learning by this method obviously did better when communicative activities were added to their lessons. As a result many adults have a preference of these structure-based methods despite their limitations.

The Audio-lingual Teaching Method

With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.

Explanation
Based on Skinner's Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback. This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language. "Emphasis is on the acquisition of patterns in common everyday dialogue." The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic. Some characteristics of this method are:
Drills are used to teach structural patterns Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum

Vocabulary is taught in context Audio-visual aids are used Focus is on pronunciation Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately

What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student- student interaction? Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the students. There is little student initiation and little studentstudent interaction. Nature of interaction
GT method as a traditional method highly emphasizes the role of teacher. The teacher is considered as the primary source of knowledge, composer of knowledge and meaning. The teacher is responsible for determining the content of what to teach. The teacher remains as the authority in the class where the teacher provides deductive rules of grammar and vocabulary lists for the students to memorize so that it will be helpful for them in reading, writing and translating literary texts from native to target language and vice-versa. The teacher simply asks and instructs students to state the grammar rule. The primary goal of teacher who uses this method is to make students able to read literature in target language. The teacher also plays a role of initiator of interaction in the language classroom. The role of teacher also seems like a facilitator and guide as they check students and present them from making mistakes. The role of a learner is that of a consumer of knowledge who does whatever his/her teacher instructs him/her to do. However, the seemingly passive learner has to memorize vocabulary lists, grammar rules required for reading, writing and translation skills actively. The learner has to learn about the form of target language. There is very little initiation of interaction from learners part. The role of the learner is similar to a translation of language as he/she is supposed to have translated literary text from target language to his/her native language and sometimes vice-versa. Nevertheless, GT method merely teaches students about the target language and native language translation but does not reasonably talk about the ways of using it. Since the learner does not concentrate on listening and speaking the role of learner simply becomes as mere participant, reader, writer, rote-learner and translator. The teacher simply instructs students by initiating a task for the students to do reading, writing, and translation by rote memorization of vocabulary lists and deductive grammar rules. The role of teaching learning instructional materials according to this method is to provide literary texts and encourage students to do translation activity. The texts also incorporate vocabulary lists and grammar rules for the students to memorize necessary for developing reading, writing and translation skills rather than listening and speaking.