Chapter 5 Radiation

(Material presented in this chapter are based on those in Chapter 12, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth Edition by Incropera and DeWitt) Radiation, besides conduction and convection is another important mode of heat transfer. Heat transfer by thermal radiation requires no matter. It is important in several industrial applications such as industrial heating, cooling and drying processes.

5.1

Introduction

Consider a solid that is initially at a temperature Ts which is higher than that of the surrounding temperature Tsurr (Fig. 5.1). Assume that the space between the solid and the surrounding surface is under vacuum conditions. Solid will loose internal energy in the form of heat to the surroundings and eventually reach a thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. This is due to the emission of thermal radiation from the surface. Thermal radiation from a material is dened as the rate at which energy is emitted by the material as a result of its nite temperature. All forms of matter emit radiation. Emission occurs via the release of energy due to oscillations or transitions of the many electrons that constitute matter. Oscillations are sustained by the internal energy and thus the temperature. Gases and semi-transparent solids such as crystals emit radiation from every local location in the whole volume. Emission from a nite volume of matter in these cases are the cumulative radiation of location emission 57

58

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

Figure 5.1: Radiation between a solid and surroundings. throughout the volume. Therefore radiation in these media is a volumetric phenomenon (Fig. 5.2a). However, in the case of most solids and liquids, radiation is a surface phenomena (Fig. 5.2b). This is due to the fact that the radiation emitted by the interior molecules is strongly absorbed by the adjoining molecular. Therefore, typically the radiation emitting from these objects originates from the molecules that are within a distance of approximately 1m from the exposed surface.

Figure 5.2: Radiation emission. (A) Volumetric phenomenon (B) Surface phenomenon. Radiation that is emitted by a surface requires transportation through a medium to another matter that may absorb radiation. There are two

5.2. DEFINITIONS

59

theories that explain the mechanism of such a transport. One theory suggests that radiation propagates as a collection of photons or quanta. However, an alternative theory suggests radiation as the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In this lecture notes, it is assumed that radiation has the standard wave properties of frequency and wavelength , which are related by = c (5.1)

where c is the speed of light. Radiation typically occurs in the wavelength range 0.1 to 100m range, which spans over a part of UV range and full visible and IR range (Fig. 5.3). The magnitude of the radiation varies with the

Figure 5.3: Electromagnetic radiation spectrum. wavelength, that is, radiation has a spectral distribution. Additionally, the magnitude of the radiation is also directional dependent. Figure (5.4) shows a qualitative sketch of the dependence of the magnitude of the radiation on the wavelength and the direction of emission. As a result, characterization of radiation requires the treatment of both spectral and directional distribution.

5.2
5.2.1

Denitions
Radiation Intensity

Consider the emission from a body with dierential area dA1 in a 3-dimensional space with spherical co-ordinates in (r, , ) as the co-ordinate system (Fig.

60

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

Figure 5.4: (A) Spectral distribution (B) Directional distribution 5.5). The spectral radiation intensity I,e - subscript e represents emission is dened as the radiant energy emission rate at a wavelength in the direction (, ), per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction, per unit solid angle d about this direction and per unit wavelength interval d about . Dierential solid angle is dened by a region between the rays of a

Figure 5.5: Emission from surface dA1 . sphere (Fig. 5.5). Solid angle is measured as the ratio of the element of area

5.2. DEFINITIONS dAn and the square of the radius of the sphere and is given by d = dAn r2

61

(5.2)

From geometry (Fig. 5.6), The area dAn normal to the (, ) direction is given by dAn = r2 sin dd substituting which into Eq. (5.2) leads to d = sin dd Note that the units of solid angle is steradians. (5.3)

Figure 5.6: Emission from dA1 into a hypothetical hemisphere encompassing dAn with dA1 as the center. Using the above denition for solid angle, spectral radiation intensity I,e can be written as dq (5.4) I,e (, , ) = dA1 cos dd If (dq/d = dq is the rate at which the radiation of wavelength leaves dA1 and passes through dAn , Eq. (5.4) can be re-written as dq = I,e (, , )dA1 cos d (5.5)

If dq is the radiation ux of wavelength that leaves dA1 and passes through dAn , after substituting for d into Eq. (5.5), the radiation ux can be written as dq = I,e (, , ) cos sin dd (5.6)

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CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

Integration of Eq. (5.6) gives the heat ux associated with emission into any nite solid angle and over a nite range of wavelengths. In particular, it is useful to know the emission over the hypothetical hemispherical surrounding over dA1 (Fig. 5.7). This hemispherical spectral heat ux is
2 /2

q () =
0 0

I,e (, , ) cos sin dd

(5.7)

Figure 5.7: Hypothetical hemisphere over a dierential element dA1 .

5.2.2

Emissive Power

Emissive power quanties emission. Spectral, hemispherical emissive power E is dened as the rate at which the radiation of wavelength is emitted in all directions from a surface area per unit wavelength d about and per unit surface area and is given by
2 /2

E () =
0 0

I,e (, , ) cos sin dd

(5.8)

5.2. DEFINITIONS Total emissive power is given by

63

E=
0

E ()d

(5.9)

If the emitter is diuse, that is if the intensity of the emitted radiation is independent of direction, in which case, I,e (, , ) = Ilambda,e () and E () is given by
2
2

E () = I,e
0 0

cos sin dd = I,e

(5.10)

5.2.3

Irradiation

Incident radiation (Fig. 5.8) is characterized by I,i (, , ). Irradiation is the radiation received by a surface from all directions and is given by
2 /2

G () =
0 0

I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

(5.11)

Total irradiation can be obtained by integrating Eq. (5.11) over the whole wavelength spectrum and is given by

G=
0

G ()d

(5.12)

Diuse irradiation is given by G () = I () (5.13)

5.2.4

Radiosity

Radiosity is the total radiation that leaves a surface (Fig. 5.9). Radiosity is essentially sum of emission and reection. Radiosity intensity is given by I, +r . The spectral, hemispherical radiosity is given by
2 /2

J =
0 0

I, +r (, , ) cos sin dd

(5.14)

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CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

Figure 5.8: Incident radiation and the total radiosity is given by

J=
0

J ()d

(5.15)

and diuse radiosity is given by J () = I (, + r) (5.16)

5.3

Blackbody radiation

Blackbody is an ideal surface having the following properties Absorbs all incident radiation at all wavelengths and directions. No body can emit more than blackbody for a given temperature and wavelength Radiation emitted by a blackbody is independent of direction. Therefore blackbody is a diuse emitter.

5.4. PLANCKS DISTRIBUTION

65

Figure 5.9: Radiosity Blackbody, being a perfect absorber and emitter serves as a standard for characterizing radiation from a real surface. A cavity (Fig. 5.10) is the closest approximation to a blackbody.

5.4

Plancks distribution
2 2hC0 hC0 1 5 exp kT

Blackbody spectral distribution is given by Plancks distribution: I,b (, T ) = (5.17)

where h, k , C0 are Plancks, Boltzmann constants and speed of light. As blackbody is a diuse emitter, E,b (, T ) = I,b (, T ) =
2 2hC0 hC0 1 5 exp kT

(5.18)

Figure (5.11) shows the Planck distribution for a few temperatures. Emitted radiation continuously varies with wavelength and at any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature.

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CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

Figure 5.10: Properties of isothermal blackbody cavity. (A) Complete absorption. (B) Diuse emission. (C) Diuse irradiation of interior surface. More radiation appears at shorter wavelengths as temperature increases. When T 5800K , radiation is typically in the visible range, and when T 800K , emission is predominantly in the infrared region of the spectrum.

5.5

Wien displacement law

Figure (5.11) shows that there is a maxima for every temperature and the corresponding wavelength is max . max can be obtained by equating the hC0 rst dierential of Eq. (5.17) to zero and solving for kT results in max T = C3 = 2897.3mK (5.19)

5.6

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
2 2hC0 d hC0 1 5 exp kT

Total emissive power of a blackbody Eb is given by Eb =

0

(5.20)

Integration of Eq. (5.20) leads to Eb = T 4 (5.21)

5.7. BAND EMISSION

67

Figure 5.11: Planck radiation distribution where = 5.67 108 mW 2 K 4 is Stefans constant. As blackbody is diuse emitter, total intensity associated with blackbody is Ib = Eb (5.22)

5.7

Band emission

Design of several radiation equipments often require the fraction of total emission in a certain bandwidth. At a certain temperature, the fraction of emission up to a certain wavelength is the integral under the Planck distribution curve up and is given by
T

F0 =

0 0

E,b d = E,b d

E,b d T 4 =

E,b d(T ) T 5 = f (T ) (5.23)

Based on the expression in Eq. (5.23), the fraction of emission for the

68 wavelength range is given by

2

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

E,b d F1 2 =
1

T 4

E,b d

0 4 T

E,b d = F02 F01 (5.24)

Expression in Eq. (5.23) has been calculated for various T and the corresponding fractional emission are reported in a table in the textbook Incropera and DeWitt. Figure (5.12) shows the eect of T on the fraction of emission.

Figure 5.12: Band emission

5.8

Surface emission

In this section, surface emission from a real surface will be characterized. Blackbody is an ideal emitter. No body can emit more radiation than a blackbody and therefore blackbody serves a good reference while describing surface emission from a real surface.

5.8.1

Emissivity

Emissivity is dened as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The spectral

5.8. SURFACE EMISSION

69

distribution and the directional dependence of radiation from a real surface are dierent from those in the case of a blackbody. (Note that blackbody is a diuse emitter and a real surface need not be so.) Figure (5.13) presents a comparison of the spectral distribution and directional dependence of a real surface and a blackbody.

Figure 5.13: Comparison of (A) spectral distribution and (B) directional dependence of the the radiation from a real surface and a blackbody.

Spectral, directional emissivity Spectral, directional emissivity , (, , , T ) of a surface at a temperature T is dened as the ratio of the intensity of the radiation emitted by a surface at a wavelength and in the direction (, ) to the intensity of the blackbody radiation at the same T and . The expression for , (, , , T ) is
, (, , , T )

I,e (, , , T ) I,b (, T )

(5.25)

Total, directional emissivity The total, directional emissivity is given by

(, , T )

Ie (, , T ) Ib (T )

(5.26)

70 Spectral, hemispherical emissivity

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

The spectral hemispherical emissivity is given by

2
2

E (, T ) = (, T ) = E,b (, T )

0 0

I,e (, , , T ) cos sin dd

2

(5.27) I,b (, T ) cos sin dd

0 0

Using the denition of spectral, directional emissivity (Eq. 5.25), Eq. (5.27) can be re-written as
2
2

E (, T ) = (, T ) = E,b (, T ) If

0 0

, (, , , T ) cos sin dd 2
2

(5.28) cos sin dd

0 0 ,

is independent to , which is many times valid for most real surfaces,

2

(, T )

=2
0

, (, , T ) cos sin d

(5.29)

Total, hemispherical emissivity Total, hemispherical emissivity, which is an average over all wavelengths and direction, is dened by

E (T ) (T ) = = Eb (T )

()E,b (, T )d

Eb (T )

(5.30)

Figure (5.14) presents typical total, normal emissivity values for both conductors and non-conductors and Fig (5.15) shows the eect of wavelength and temperature on the total, normal emissivity, which is the emissivity when = 0. (Note that the approximation of a surface being a diuse emitter is not always valid. However, as the emissivity varies only marginally over a wide range of for both conductors and non-conductors and therefore it is reasonable to use total, normal emissivity as a representative emissivity instead of directional dependent emissivity.)

5.9. SURFACE ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION71

Figure 5.14: Total, normal emissivity for various surfaces.

5.9

Surface absorption, reection and transmission

Irradiation incident on a surface can be absorbed, reected and transmitted, if the surface is semi-transparent (see Fig. 5.16). Radiation balance on the medium forces G = G,ref + G,abs + G,trans (5.31)

where the subscripts ref , abs, and trans refer to reected, absorbed and transmitted. If the system is opaque, G,trans = 0. Absorption, reection and transmission are characterized by absorptivity, reectivity, and transmittivity.

5.9.1

Absorptivity

Spectral directional absorptivity, , (, , ) is dened as the fraction of the spectral intensity incident in the direction and that is absorbed by the

72

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

Figure 5.15: (A) Eect of wavelength and (B) Temperature on the total, normal emissivity for various surfaces.

Figure 5.16: Surface absorption, reection and transmission.

5.9. SURFACE ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION73 surface and is given by , (, , ) = I,i,abs (, , ) I,i (, , ) (5.32)

Spectral, hemispherical absorptivity The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity is given by

2
2

G,abs () = () = G ()

0 0

, (, , )I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

2
2

(5.33) I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

0 0

If incident radiation is distributed diusely and if absorptivity is independent of ,

2

() = 2
0

, (, ) cos sin d

(5.34)

Total, hemispherical absorptivity Total, hemispherical absorptivity is given by

()G ()d
0

(5.35) G ()d

5.9.2

Reectivity

Spectral directional reectivity, , (, , ) is dened as the fraction of the spectral intensity incident in the direction and that is reected by the surface and is given by , (, , ) = I,i,ref (, , ) I,i (, , ) (5.36)

74 Spectral, hemispherical reectivity

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

The spectral, hemispherical reectivity is given by

2
2

G,ref () () = = G ()

0 0

, (, , )I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

2
2

(5.37) I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

0 0

Total, hemispherical reectivity Total, hemispherical reectivity is given by

()G ()d
0

(5.38) G ()d

5.9.3

Transmittivity

Transmittivity is dened only for transparent and semi-transparent surfaces. Spectral, hemispherical transmittivity The spectral, hemispherical transmittivity is given by () = G,trans () G () (5.39)

Total, hemispherical transmittivity Total, hemispherical transmittivity is given by

()G ()d
0

(5.40) G ()d

5.10. KIRCHOFFS LAW

75

5.9.4

Summation Rule

As the incident radiation can only absorb, reect and transmit, the above definitions leads to the following relationship between absorptivity, reectivity and transmittivity: + + = 1 (5.41) and ++ =1 Note that for opaque surfaces, = 0 and = 0. (5.42)

5.10

Kircho s law

Consider a large, isothermal enclosure at temperature Ts (Fig. 5.17). Assume that several small bodies with temperatures T1 , T2 etc and areas A1 , A2 etc suspended in the enclosure.

Figure 5.17: Enclosed surface with several small bodies.

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CHAPTER 5. RADIATION

The enclosure surface will encounter multiple reection and emissing. These small bodies will have negligible inuence on the radiation eld. Therefore, such an enclosures surface forms a blackbody cavity and the emission from the surface which is incident irradiation experienced by the small suspended bodies is equal to the blackbody radiation at Ts , that is, Gi = Eb (Ts ) (5.43)

Under steady state conditions, thermal equilibrium will exist and the temperature of all the small bodies will equal that of the surface temperature, that is, T1 = T2 = ... = Ts and the net rate of energy transfer to each surface must be zero. Energy balance on the control volume around a small body gives: E1 (Ts ) = Eb (Ts ) (5.44) 1 GA1 E1 (Ts )A1 = 0 1 where, 1 is the total absorptivity of body 1. The energy balance derived in Eq. (5.44) is applicable to all the bodies; hence E1 (Ts ) E2 (Ts ) = = ... = Eb (Ts ) 1 2 (5.45)

Equation (5.45) is called Kirchos law. As the absorptivity alpha 1, E (Ts ) Eb (Ts ), no real surface can have an emissive power greater than that of a blackbody at the same temperature. Based on the denition of the total, hemispherical emissivity, Eq. (5.30), an alternative form of Kirchos law is
1

= ... = 1

(5.46)

Equation (5.46) shows that the total, hemispherical emissivity of the surface is equal to its total, hemispherical absorptivity. Another form of Kirchos law derived for spectral conditions is given by

(5.47)

and that for the spectral, directional conditions as well is given by

,

= ,

(5.48)

5.11. THE GRAY SURFACE

77

5.11

The gray surface

Kirchos law in the earlier session presents the case when the incident irradiation is due to blackbody radiation from an isothermal surface, then the emissivity and absorptivity of a surface are equal. In this section, the relationship between emissivity and absorptivity will be extended to other conditions and to real surfaces. From the denitions of spectral emissivity (Eq. 5.28) and absorptivity (Eq. 5.33) of a surface, when will the relationship
2 ()
2

0 0

, (, , ) cos sin dd 2
2

0 0

cos sin dd
2

0 0

, (, , )I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

2
2

= () (5.49) I,i (, , ) cos sin dd

0 0

will be satised? Since , = , , Eq. (5.49) will satisfy only if either of the following two conditions are satised: I,i is independent of direction, that is, irradiation is diuse.
,

and , are independent of and .

From the denitions of total emissivity (Eq. 5.30) and absorptivity (Eq. 5.35) of a surface, when will the relationship
()E,b (, T )d 0

E (T ) = (T ) = Eb (T )

()G ()d
0

Eb (T )

= G ()d

(5.50)

will be satised? Since = , Eq. (5.50) will satisfy only if either of the following two conditions are satised:

78

CHAPTER 5. RADIATION Irradiation corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the surface temperature T, in which case G () = E,b (, T ), G = Eb (T ). =

are independent of (Surface is gray.

Note that the condition = may not be valid for all wavelengths. It may be valid only for a certain range of wavelength (see Fig. 5.18a). For instance, a particular surface may be highly absorbing to radiation in one spectral region and virtually nonabsorbing in another region (see Fig. 5.18b and c). For the surface whose spectral emissivity is equal to the spectral absorptivity in the wavelength range 1 to 4 (Fig. 5.18a), the surface behavies like a gray surface in the range 1 4 .

5.11. THE GRAY SURFACE

79

Figure 5.18: Conditions under which gray surface may be assumed.

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CHAPTER 5. RADIATION