Partial fractions:

Writing:

6
------------x2 + 2x - 8

1
=

1
------x - 2

-------

6
means that you have expressed ----------fractions...
x2 + 2x - 8

x + 4

in partial

There are three main "methods" that allow us to do this:

(1) Substitution of strategic values
(2) Solving with coefficients
(3) Cover up method (can only be used on fractions without
powers in the denominator)

Method 1
Substitution of strategic values
========================
Problem:
Express as a partial fraction
x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)
========================
Solution:

First write the fraction as

x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)

A
-------(3x - 5)

B
------(x - 3)

Notice that I have taken the two terms that are in brackets and
placed them on their own
as seperate fractions using 'A' and 'B' as numerators.
A and B are the mystery numbers we need to discover.
Next, multiply denominator (the bottom bit of the big fraction)
by both sides of the equation to cancel out terms

So we now have
x - 1

A(x - 3)

B(3x - 5)

In order to get rid of either the 'A' or 'B' term, we can

substitute a 'strategic' value to make it equal to zero.
For example, to get rid of A(x - 3), let's make x = 3, so (3 3) ends up as 0. Gone.
Remember that you have to do this to all of the x's in the
equation
3 - 1
=
A(3 - 3)
the 'A' component becomes zero.
3 - 1
2

=
=

4B

so, 2/4

or, 1/2

B(9 - 5)

B(3*3 - 5) you can see

We've discovered what B is, now we can repeat the process to

discover A
Let's make x = 5/3 to get rid of the 'B' part of the equation...
so,

B(5/3 * 3) = 5

and,

B(5 - 5)

= 0

The B(3x - 5) term is gone! So we can plug this value into the
entire equation to find A
5/3 - 1

A(5/3 - 3)

2/3

A * -4/3

2/3
------4/3
-1/2

=
=

A
A

We now have A and B, and the answer to our problem.

x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)

-1
--------2(3x - 5)

1
-------2(x - 3)

################################################################
#############
Method 2
Solving by coefficients
========================
Usually people use this method in conjunction with another method (e.g. substitution of values),
however there is nothing wrong with using this method on its own if you prefer it.
========================
Problem:

Express as a partial fraction

x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)
========================
Solution:
First write the fraction as
x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)

A
-------(3x - 5)

B
------(x - 3)

The first step (just as in the first method) is to multiply the

denominator by both sides
x - 1

A(x - 3)

B(3x - 5)

It may help if the A and B parts are expanded but this step can
usually be missed.
x - 1
x - 1

=
=

A*x - A*3
Ax - 3A

+
+

B*3*x - 5B
3Bx - 5B

now look at this and try to equate coefficients for 'x'

Ok, we've now done the first step, let's do the same again but
with somthing else (like x2 or

constants (the constants are the actual number's, i.e not x's
which can be anything).
Coefficient for constants
-1

-3A

5B

we now have a simultanious equation...

1

3B

---

equation (1)
-1

-3A

+ (-5B)

--- equation

(2)
We can easily solve this
First, multiply equation (1) by -3
-3
equation (1a)

= -3A

+ (-9B)

---

Next, subtract equation (1a) from equation (2)

2

4B

2/4

0.5

Then we can plug this value into equation (1) to get A

1
1
-0.5

=
-

3 * 0.5

3 * 0.5

=
= A

So we now know A and B

x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)

-0.5
--------(3x - 5)

0.5
-------(x - 3)

Finally, the "0.5's" can be written with "1/2's" instead

x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)

-1
--------2(3x - 5)

1
-------2(x - 3)

################################################################
#############
Method 3
Cover up method
========================
This method is (in my opinion) the easiest of all the three methods, but it can be misleading if
you follow it like a cookbook recipe without knowing how it really works. Be wary that it cannot
be used with "non-linear" fractions (explained after this section).
========================
Problem:
Express as a partial fraction
x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)
========================
Solution:
Delete
3x - 5
3x - 5
3x
x

first term in the denominator

= 0
= 5
= 5/3

Plug 5/3 as 'x' into what is left of the fraction

5/3 - 1
------------5/3 - 3

2/3
------------4/3

-1
--2

We now have the answer for the (3x - 5) expression in the

partial fraction.
Let's repeat for other expression
First, delete second term
x - 3
x - 3 = 0
x
= 3
Plug in 3 as 'x' for what is left of the fraction
3 - 1
----------3*3 - 5

2
--4

1
--2

This is the answer for the (x - 3) expression of the partial

fraction
so,
x - 1
--------------(3x - 5)(x - 3)

-1
--------2(3x - 5)

1
-------2(x - 3)

Done.
################################################################
#############Strange exception 1 (repeated-linear fractions)
Where a fraction has a repeated linear part, e.g. (1 + x)2 the
format will look something like
numerator
C
--------------------------expression*(1 + x)2
x)2

A
=

-----------expression

B
+

--------(1 + x)

+
(1 +

Notice that becuase (1 + x)2 is in the denominator it also has an (1 + x) not squared to go with it.

Example
========================
Problem:
Express as a partial fraction
1
--------------(x - 3)(x + 1)2
========================

Solution:
1
--------------(x - 3)(x + 1)2

A
=
------(x - 3)

B
+
------(x + 1)

C
+
-------(x + 1)2

Multiply both sides by the denominator

1

A(x + 1)2

B(x - 3)(x + 1)

C(x

- 3)
Expand out (in this case its only the 'A' term)
1

A(x + 1)(x + 1)

B(x - 3)(x + 1)

C(x - 3)
Find A by making x = 3 (this is an 'substitution of strategic
values' part)
1

A(3 + 1)(3 + 1)

A*16

1/16

Lets also get C by making x = -1

1

C(-1 - 3)

C*-4

-1/4

We now know A and C, so can easily get B. Lets make x = 1, so

nothing gets cancelled out.
In full,
C(1 - 3)

A(1 + 1)(1 + 1)

B(1 - 3)(1 + 1)

A*4 + B*-4 + C*-2

(1/16)*4 + B*-4 + (-1/4)*-2

1/4 + -4B + 2/4(-1/4)*-2

3/4 - 4B

1 - 3/4

= -4B

1/4

= -4B

-1/16

Solved.
1
-------------------------(x - 3)(x + 1)2
4(x + 1)2

1
----------16(x - 3)

1
-----------

1
-

16(x + 1)

################################################################
#############
Strange exception 2 (quadratics in the denominator)
If you have got a quadratic in the denominator i.e. x2 + 3x + 2 the format of the partial fraction
should look like this

fraction

A
= --------factor

Bx + C
-----------quadractic

Example
========================
Problem:
Express as a partial fraction
x - 1
-------------------(x + 3)(x2 + 3x + 2)
========================
Solution:
x - 1
-------------------(x + 3)(x2 + 3x + 2)

A
=

Bx + C
--------+
------------x + 3
x2 + 3x + 2

First multiply by denominator

x - 1

A(x2 + 3x + 2)

(Bx + C)(x +

3)
Using our substitution of strategic values method, we can make x
= -3 (at this point
be careful that your selected value doesn't also make the
quadratic equal zero as well!)
-3 - 1

A((-3)2 + 3*(-3) + 2)

-4

A(9 - 9 + 2)

-4

2A

-2

We can use the coefficient method, looking at the coefficients

of x2
0

A + B

-2 + B

Similarly, looking at the coefficients of x

1

3A + 3B + C

3*(-2) + 3*(2) + C

Done.
x - 1
-------------------(x + 3)(x2 + 3x + 2)

-2
=
--------(x + 3)

2x
+

+ 1
--------------x2 + 3x + 2