SPECIATION AND EVOLUTION DNA carries all our inherited information. The Genome is all the DNA of an individual.

The Proteomes is all the proteins produced from the DNA of an individual. Proteomics is the study of the different proteins and how they come about. There are many different proteins than there are genes. Proteins differ through out life due to ; i) ii) Differential gene expressions where some genes are switched on/expressed while others are switched off/not expressed . Post transcriptional changes occurring in messenger RNA.

A gene is a part of DNA which contain instructions/ nucleotide sequences/bases to code for protein synthesis .Alleles are different forms of a gene which code for same feature/characteristic but give different expressions of the same feature/characteristic. For example, A gene that codes for eye colour has 4 alleles which give different eye color i.e. green, blue, black and brown. Mutations are changes in the structure of a DNA or gene. It can be point mutation which only affect a base sequence in a gene or may involve a whole or part of a chromosome. Mutations can either be neutral, beneficial by giving rise to an advantageous feature or lethal i.e. deadly. Mutations can increase the gene pool of a population by increasing the number of different alleles available. In population genetics, a gene pool is the complete set of unique alleles in a species or population. The relative frequency of a particular allele in a population is called allele frequency A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction, although as explained by genetic drift new genetic variants, that may cause an increase in the fitness of organisms, are more likely to fix in the population if it is rather small.

GENE FAMILIES What are gene families? A gene family is a group of genes that share important characteristics. In many cases, genes in a family share a similar sequence of DNA nucleotides/bases. These genes provide instructions for making proteins that have a similar structure or function e.g. haemoglobin, taste buds receptors and olfactory receptors. In other cases, dissimilar genes are grouped together in a family because proteins produced from these genes work together as a unit or participate in the same process. Gene families are therefore sets or multiple copies of genes which code for proteins with similar function. These genes may or may not occur on the same chromosome. Since mutations are random events some of the genes may be affected by the mutation resulting to formation of a slightly different protein.

Classifying individual genes into families helps researchers describe how genes are related to each other. Researchers can use gene families to predict the function of newly identified genes based on their similarity to known genes. Similarities among genes in a family can also be used to predict where and when a specific gene is active (expressed). Additionally, gene families may provide clues for identifying genes that are involved in particular diseases.

Gene families and haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a conjugated protein made up of a globin protein and ironcontaining haem. The globin molecule consists of two -globin and two -globin chains which make the adult haemoglobin. The gene family which code for -globin chain is found on chromosome 16 and has 3 functional members . The gene family which codes for -gene is found on chromosome 11 and has 5 functional members. During foetal development, different members are expressed i.e. Switched on while others are switched off. This results to formations of slightly different types of globin chains with different affinity for oxygen e.g. Adult haemoglobin, faetal haemoglobin and myoglobin. Normal haemoglobin (HBA) form a biconcave disc shaped Rbcs which can move smoothly in blood capillaries .

Sickle-cell anaemia is a genetic disease caused by a mutation at position 6 of the polypeptide -globin chain where T replaces A in the codon GAG which codes for Glutamine a hydrophilic amino acid. This resultsto the formation of GTG which codes for valine a hydrophobic amino acid which make the haemoglobin protein (HBS) not to fold properly at low oxygen concentrations .This makes the Rbc to form a rigid structure- a sickle cell shape. Homozygotes for Sickle cell anaemia experience the following complications ;severe anaemia with symptoms of pallor, muscle cramps, weakness, and susceptibility to fatigue. Additional symptoms include heart enlargement, brain cell atrophy, and severe pain in the abdomen, back, head, and extremities (see diagram below). Many victims of sickle-cell anaemia die before the age of twenty, though some survive past fifty. The symptoms of this disease arise from the tendency of the victim's red blood cells to "sickle," that is, to take on irregular shapes. These cells last for only half as long as normal red blood cells; they tend to rupture and are destroyed by the body. In addition, sickled cells often get caught in the capillaries, the narrowest blood vessels, where they clump and produce a blockage. The resulting impaired circulation causes damage to various tissues, in many cases leading to premature death.

The carriers for mild because the more than However if malaria they have infection. following i)

heterozygotes/ sickle cell experience symptoms of anaemia normal allele makes 50% normal Rbcs. they are infected with parasites/plasmodium resistance to malarial This is because of the happens; In a carrier, the presence of the malaria parasite causes the red blood cells with defective haemoglobin to rupture prematurely, making the plasmodium unable to reproduce. Further, the polymerization of defective -globin chain affects the ability of the parasite to digest Hb in the first place. The malaria parasite lack oxygen in the sickle cells and die. Infected sickle cells sickles and are destroyed by spleen together with the parasites.

ii) iii) iv)

Therefore, in areas where malaria is a problem, people's chances of survival actually increase if they carry sickle-cell trait (selection for the heterozygote). SPECIATION
A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed in nature to produce a fertile. A species is also a group of organisms where the genes can flow amongst the individuals.

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

Rhagoletis pomonella on an apple fruit

Rhagoletis pomonella is a fruit fly which lived only in hawthorn bushes and laying their eggs to hawthorn fruits. The larvae used to respond to haw thorns fruits and return to hawthorn bushes as adults too reproduce .150 years latter apple orchards were planted along Hudson river valley in united states. Apples are genetically closely related to hawthorns. Some of R.pomonella flies laid their eggs to

apples either by mistake or because there were no hawthorn available. The larva which survived started responding to apple smell and not hawthorn and would come to apple bushes to breed as adults. We now have two breeding groups apple and hawthorn breeding groups. Since apples and hawthorns reproduction cycles are different, we now have reproductive isolation as apple-dwelling and hawthorn dwelling fruit flies emerge from their pupa at different times of the year. This means new species will emerge since the two breeding groups reproductive cycles are completely out of synchronization. MECHANISMS OF SPECIATION Speciation refers to the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. There are two main ideas concerning the emergence of new species (Modes of Speciation/mechanisms of speciation).These are ; i)Allopatric speciation-when populations are geographically isolated from one another. ii) Sympatric speciation- when there is no geographical barrier between populations but reproductive barriers/isolation. Reproductive isolation is crucial to speciation .It occurs when; a)Fertilization is prevented- prezygotic reproductive barriers. b)Zygote fails or is unable to breed-postzygotic reproductive barriers. prezygotic reproductive barriers (i)Habitat isolation-populations select different habitats in the same area so they dont come into contact during reproductive season e.g. Rhagoletis pomonella (ii)Temporal isolation-This is when organisms have very short mating or flowering periods such that if they fall out of synchronization they can mate or pollinate each other e.g. Rhagoletis pomonella (iii) Mechanical isolation-Mutation may result to formation of a complex sexual organ hence organisms fail to mate. E.g. insects (iv)Behavioral Isolation-If animal mating behavior change then organisms fail to recognize members of same species hence mating fails. Change of behavior in pollinators also determine whether speciation in plants occurs or not. (v) Gametic isolation-If a mutation occurs which ensures that the male gamete/sperm cant penetrate an ovum or egg cant attract a sperm or a pollen grain fail to germinate on stigma of the same species then fertilization fails to occur and two separate species may develop. Postzygotic reproductive barriers

(i)Low hybrid zygote vigor-Zygote fails to develop properly hence die during embryonic development or offsprings have severe deformities hence cant mate or reproduce successfully. (ii)Low hybrid adult viability-offspring fail to thrive and grow properly. (iii)Hybrid infertility-offspring appear healthy but is infertile e.g. mule which is an offspring of horse (Equus caballus) and donkey (Equus asinus)which are from same genus. IDENTIFYING INDIVIDUAL SPECIES There are several methods used to identify organisms but each has its own weakness. These are; (i)Phenotype-comparative anatomy has been used and is still in use to identify individual species. The weakness of this method is that some organisms of same species may appear different species due to the differences in the environment they are in e.g. Red deer stags that live in woodlands have bigger and broader antlers than those that live in highland mountain side and therefore you may mistake them as different species yet DNA evidence shows they are the same species.

(ii)DNA profiling This is a very accurate method of identifying individual species.It is based on regions of DNA which are the non-coding regions(introns). Introns have very unique patterns for each species and also between individuals of the same species.The more differences /mutations there are in the DNA from two individuals, the longer the time since they had a common ancestor. Using an agreed mutation rate as a kind of `molecular clock we can estimate how long ago that common ancestor lived. The weaknesses are; (a)DNA fragments can only survive for a short time 50-100,000 years.

(b)Different parts of DNA mutates at different rate. (iii)Proteomic evidence The study of the types and nature of proteins present in related species together with the DNA can help in identifying closely related species or give a difference between species which appear to be the same yet they are different species all together. (iv)Fossils-It is clear that fossils from old rocks are less complex than those from new rocks whi9ch means increase in complexity of newly formed species than old specieis .However fossils have week nesses if used to identify species . these weaknesses are ; a) DNA cant be used to identify fossils which are more than 100000 years old. b) There are several missing links i.e. stages of evolution missing. c) Only parts of fossils are available e.g. a piece of bone. d) Invertebrates fail to get fossilized . (v)Use of DNA bar code The consortium for the bar code of life(CBOL) is a large group of scientific organizations who are developing bar coding as a global standard for species identification. Bar coding involves looking at short genetic sequences from a part of genome common to particular groups of organisms. CBOL is using a region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 gene (co1) which contain around 650 bases as the standard bar code for most animal species e.g. fish, fly and bird species. It is used in animals because it evolves to fast such that it can be used to give differences between species. However it cant be used in plants since it evolves slowly in plants and therefore cant give sufficient difference between species. However scientists have identified other gene regions to be used as standard barcode for plants. Some scientists have doubts about the project bar code because; a)Ability of bar coding to distinguish between relatively newly evolved species. b)It may undermine the traditional study of taxonomy and comparative anatomy. NB: The advantage of using DNA bar code is that the tests needed to get the barcode from DNA are both fast and relatively cheap such that within the next 20 years all the species will be bar coded and identified based on DNA analysis.

DNA bar codes for butterfly and owl species-each color represent a different base.

Use Of DNA And Human Lice To Unravel Human Evolution DNA evidences suggests that the ancestors of humans, chimpanzees and Gorillas diverged about 6 million years ago. Modern humans have three types of parasitic lice-pubic , head and body lice(which hang onto clothes ).6 million years ago human and chimps head lice diverged meaning humans and chimps had head lice ancestors together.DNA analysis shows that gorilla lice is the only closely related to human pubic lice. Gorilla and human pubic lice ancestors diverged about 3 million year when man had lost most of the body hair and texture of pubic and head hair were different.DNA shows that head lice and body lice formed separate species about 72000 years ago when woven clothes became common .This shows that humans have been evolving alongside lice, gorillas and chimps.

Role of scientific community in validating new evidence A research article undergo the following stages before it is declared reliable and valid; i)When a piece of research produces useful result and conclusions, it is submitted to a scientific journal. Some journals are famous while other are smaller but very specialized.

ii)The submitted article goes through a process of peer review. Here it is read by a number of experts who to see if it is reliable. If it is reliable it is published. iii)Other scientists then carry out similar investigations so that the conclusions can be validated. iv)At scientific conferences scientists working together in the same field then come together to discuss ideas so that they can come up with new techniques in research as well as provide opportunities to challenge the validity of the results being presented. NB: Several evidences from various sources must be used to validate the research .