Composite Structures 67 (2005) 417426 www.elsevier.

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Load-carrying capacity of thin-walled composite structures

Z. Kolakowski *, T. Kubiak
Department of Strength of Materials and Structures (K12), Technical University of Lodz, 1/15 Stefanowskiego St., 90-942 Lodz, Poland Available online 27 February 2004

Abstract In the paper some basic ideas in approach to stability, post buckling behaviour and load carrying capacity of thin-walled composite structures are presented. Authors do not present equations that could only make the understanding of this issue harder. Thin walled composite beam-coloumns with open and closed cross-section (channel and square cross-section) are calculated as an example. In order to analyse the stability and the structure performance after its loss, the ANSYS 5.7 package and authors software has been used. Results obtained from both applied methods are compared. Presented examples show that the sole application of the FEM does not guarantee to obtain correct results of load carrying capacity and postbuckling path. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Since their appearance in the 1960s, modern composite materials have shown promising future. New manufacturing technologies (of, e.g. glues, sealings) and theoretic advances in a development of anisotropic multi-layer composite structures have extended the area of their application. Progress in the theory of elasticity and stability, as well as in the theory of plates and shells have in turn given rise to their father development. Another stimulus has come from new computer science technologies, including new computational methods, especially the nite element method. All these factors have secured a signicant position of composites in new technological applications, rst of all in a variety of industries such as aircraft, shipbuilding, automobile, machine building, construction, chemical as well as in agriculture. The majority of composite materials are manufactured from synthetic or organic bres with high resistance: BRFP (boron-reinforced plastics), CRFP (carbon-reinforced plastics), ARFP (aramid-reinforced plastics), GRFP (glass-reinforced plastics) impregnated with epoxy, vinyl or polyester resins. The aim of the matrix is to maintain the geometry of bres and to prevent their damage. It can both provide thermal, chemical, humidity insulation and be characterised by
Corresponding author. Tel.: +48-42-631-22-23; fax: +48-42-63122-14. E-mail address: kola@mail.p.lodz.pl (Z. Kolakowski). 0263-8223/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2004.01.019
*

the requested re resistance. The reinforcing bres are several times lighter than steel. A carbon-reinforced plastic (CRFP) has a very high Youngs modulus of elasticity comparable with the modulus of steel, a high tensile strength reaching 2 GPa, the maximum actual strain corresponding to failure can be even equal to 2.0%, and a low coecient of linear expansion equal to 2 106 K1 . Homogeneous materials (e.g. metals) crack easily whereas in brous (non-homogeneous) composites bres can sometimes inhibit crack growth. Composites can alter their properties and yet guarantee safety despite this fact. It can be said that these materials do not exhibit congenial defects. The advantages of multi-layer structures are, among others, as follows: an advantageous weight-to-load ratio of the structure while maintaining or increasing performance characteristics e.g. good thermal and vibroinsulating properties, resistance to corrosion, resistance to fatigue load, a proper nishing of the outer surface, longer wear life of multi-layer structures in comparison to other structures. On the other hand, their main disadvantages are following: a rather dicult and expensive manufacturing technology, low resistance of the structure to concentrated loads, a lack of sucient quantitative and qualitative experimental verication of the assumed mathematical formulas that describe the distribution of stresses, strains and displacements, an impossibility of application of commonly known strength criteria

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(e.g. HuberMisesHenkys hypothesis), delamination, susceptibility to a loss of stability and a complex mathematical model describing a loss of stability, which enforces an application of justied simplications and makes allowances for an occurrence of inevitable imperfections. Imperfections (or, in other words, initial or preliminary strains) in thin-walled structures should be understood as deviations from the ideal geometric shape of the structure, variable thickness of plates, errors in assembly, pre-strains, etc. Further progress in applications of composites may depend on a better education within engineers on how to design composite structures, which is sometimes decient. The strength of composites throughout the reinforcing bres is a few times higher than along other directions. Therefore, they demand more attention during the designing process than metals. An unpredicted change in the loading direction or nature may result in a failure of the composite. In thin-walled structures, the load-carrying ability is often not limited by the structural strength, but by its stability. A deeper understanding of the phenomena which occur during a loss of stability and as its aftereect is necessary to design new structures properly due to increasing parameters and requirements imposed by the users. Mathematical models that are more precise and closer to real structures allow a more accurate analysis of these phenomena. A fast development in science and technology allows an increasingly broader range of applications of thin-walled structures made of composite materials. Some basic ideas in the approach to stability, postcritical states and load-carrying capacity of thin-walled structures are presented herein. The only problem to which the authors wish to attract engineers attention is that of stability of thin-walled composite structures. Therefore, the paper does not include equations that could only make the understanding of this issue harder. The load-carrying capacity of such structures has been estimated on the basis of the linear modal analysis of critical states. It has been compared to the results obtained with the professional nite element method (FEM) package (ANSYS 5.7). Special attention should be paid to the fact that the sole application of the FEM does not guarantee that the thin-walled structure will be modelled and evaluated correctly.

2. Theoretical basis of the interaction between buckling modes (the so-called coupled buckling) of thin-walled structures In [8] published in 1990, the current state of knowledge on the interaction between various buckling modes of thin-walled isotropic structures was discussed.

In thin-walled structures the critical value at which a transition from one form of equilibrium to another (loss of stability)is possible to occur is achieved with an increase in load. This phenomenon is exemplied by a change of the basic form of equilibrium from an initially ideal straight bar, at the critical value of the compressive force, into a new form of the stable equilibrium, to which a deected axis of the bar corresponds. During stability loss, apart from basic stresses that correspond to the primary form of equilibrium, some additional lateral stresses appear that can even lead to a failure of the structure in certain cases. In the theory of bifurcation, the load critical value (eigenvalue) is referred to as a bifurcation point because a bifurcation into two or more post-buckling paths corresponds to it. In the linear theory of stability the potential energy of a system is the square form of generalised displacements. Due to the orthogonality of linear modes of buckling the values of loads for various buckling modes are determined independently. In the non-linear theory the functional of potential energy also includes terms of the third- and fourth-order with respect to displacements. Generally, the terms that correspond to individual modes of buckling cannot be separated in the expression that describes energy, therefore they exert an inuence on one another. The components that include mixed products of these displacements are responsible for the interaction of buckling modes (coupled buckling). The meaning of these terms is very crucial for the values of loads that are close to critical values of the modes in question. Thin-walled structures, which consist of plate elements, have many dierent modes of buckling that dier both in the quantitative (i.e. the number of buckling half-waves) and qualitative (i.e. a global and local buckling) aspects. A local buckling is periodic along one or two directions of the thin-walled structure (e.g. for a cylindrical shell). In the up-to-date literature devoted to the stability problem of thin-walled structures, apart from traditionally discussed global modes of buckling (such as exural, torsional, exuraltorsional and lateral buckling) and local modes of buckling, a distortional buckling and a mixed buckling being an arbitrary combination of the above-mentioned modes are considered as well. It is assumed most frequently that a global buckling is the buckling that causes a failure of the thin-walled structure, and the load that corresponds to it is the critical load or the limit load-carrying capacity. Some thin-walled structures built of plate elements can still function properly after local stability loss. Due to the local buckling a decrease in longitudinal stiness of the structure takes place. An interaction between various modes of stability loss is often a decisive factor that determines their limit load capacity in real structures burdened with initial inaccuracies. In the wide

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literature concerning the problems of multi-layer thinwalled structures a lack of thorough analysis of the coupled buckling that accounts for various modes of buckling can be observed. When a single mode corresponds to the minimum critical value and there are no close eigenvalues in its vicinity, then such a buckling is referred to as an independent or one-modal buckling. On the other hand, if critical values (eigenvalues) are identical or very close to one another, the post-critical behaviour can be treated as an interaction of buckling modes, that is to say, a coupled buckling or an interaction of buckling modes. The linear theory, in which a separation of dierent modes of buckling is possible, has exerted a signicant inuence on the understanding of the non-linear theory of stability. If the interaction buckling is not taken into account, then it may lead to an incorrect evaluation of the limit load capacity of the structure. It can be particularly seen in the structures close to the optimum ones, in which the values of critical loads for various modes of buckling are almost the same. Two analytical approaches towards the interactive buckling can be distinguished. The rst approach, which might be called an engineering approach, consists in decreasing the global stiness of the structure (e.g. column) as a result of the local buckling. For the purpose of the analysis in question it has been assumed that the buckling process can be divided into two stages: a local buckling, and then a global one. Such an approach seems to be a rather limited one-sided treatment, i.e. the local buckling aects the global one, and not vice versa, which allows one to consider the global buckling within the linear theory frames, where the changes in the global stiness depending on the load intensity are taken into account. There is no doubt the popularity of this simple and pictorial approach towards interactive buckling is connected with the fact that it leads to a suciently simple generalisation of classical methods of stability analysis. The well-known empirical and quasi-empirical formula describing reduced coecients and the plate eective width that are applied in this approach should be used with much care. These formulas have been obtained for plates characterised by the following boundary conditions: a simply supported, xed or free edge. In case of real structures, one or two edges are elastically restrained. In case of the global bending the reduced coecients do not account for the up-loading and deloading of the part of the cross-section, as an additional compression increases local displacements, whereas an extra tension decreases it. The beginning of the local buckling has a simultaneous eect of expanding the global buckling. It should be emphasised that although the post-critical behaviour of each linear buckling mode is stable for the non-coupled buckling, their interaction can be unstable.

This approach, however, is insucient in case of critical load values of the buckling modes under consideration that are close to one another. In the second approach, the global buckling aects the local one. The pre-critical global bending caused by initial imperfections already at low values of deection results in an appearance of additional lateral loads and in a change in the stress distribution with in the structure. This additional load cannot be described within the frames of the linear theory of stability. The pre-critical global bending accelerates the local buckling, and this in turn nally contributes to the expansion of the global buckling that can lead to a structure failure. Local imperfections bring forward an interaction between the local and global buckling, which can be followed by a failure due to a sharp increase in deections which correspond to the global mode. When the local and global modes of buckling occur simultaneously, then the buckling is unstable and very sensitive to imperfections. When the global buckling occurs as the rst one, and the local buckling is a consequence of it, then the phenomenon of buckling tends to be unstable. A decrease in the load capacity in comparison to the values of critical loads, close to one another, obtained in the linear analysis, can even go up as far as 40%, which is consistent with the experimental results. In actual elements that are always burdened with geometrical and structural inaccuracies, bending of walls and global deections of the bar axis occur since the very early stages of the structure loading and thus, in the cross-section of the bar, a redistribution of stresses occurs and the initial homogeneous stress state undergoes signicant changes, and the interaction between stresses increases exponentially with an increase in load. The authors are interested in nding a solution to this problem and in developing both a simple and considerably accurate method for the determination of load capacities of composite thin-walled structures. A fast progress in science and technology and a wide application of CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) of structures allows for designing and building more and more excellent structures that are more and more characterised by a higher order of singularities, as foreseen in the theory of catastrophes. Only a development of theoretical and experimental investigations makes it possible to meet the challenges of stricter and stricter requirements of safety and reliability imposed on thin-walled structures. Due to its generalisation and coverage, the most wellknown approach towards the non-linear theory of stability of thin-walled structures was presented by Koiter [5], whereas Budiansky and Hutchinson [1] worked out a convenient application form of this theory. The theory

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employs the method of disturbances in the analysis of equilibrium states. The expression that describes energy develops into a power series with respect to the amplitudes of linear buckling modes in the vicinity of bifurcation points. This method leads to an iterative method for the determination of coecients of this distribution, and a linear boundary problem is solved in each approximation. In the general asymptotic theory, simple (onemodal) and coupled (multi-modal) bucklings are differentiated. In the one-modal buckling, the solution limited to the second-order non-linear approximation yields the same results as the traditional method. Owing to the above-mentioned reasons nearly all works are limited to the solution, up to the secondorder at most. In particular issues the interaction of the global and the lowest local mode of buckling is most often considered. In order to determine the coecients for the rstorder non-linear approximation, only the elds of displacements and stresses of the rst-order should be known. These in turn are determined on the basis of the critical load values (eigenvalues) and eigenvectors corresponding to them. In linear problems, the most dangerous modes of buckling are described by the values of critical loads, whereas in non-linear problems, the values of the coecients within the rst-order approximation, which dene the sensitivity to imperfections, should be considered. The most dangerous local modes of buckling are selected in such a way as to obtain the lowest values of the theoretical limit load capacity at the assumed level of imperfections, taking into consideration the interactive (coupled) buckling. The authors have employed for years their own computational model, in which a plate model, a full strain tensor and precise geometrical and static conditions of the interaction between adjacent elements are assumed. This in turn enables the consideration of all types of stability loss, a shear-lag phenomenon, a deplanation of cross-sections and a transformation of buckling modes with an increase of external load within the frames of the modal analysis of buckling. It is necessary to take into account the coupled buckling in order to determine the limit load capacity and the sensitivity to imperfections (inaccuracies) of the structure with two or more eigenmodes. The theory of coupled buckling makes it possible to analyse in full post-bifurcation paths of equilibrium along with singular points (that is to say, points of the secondary bifurcation or limit points). This theory also explains the modes of buckling observed during experimental investigations, as well as signicant divergences between the values of limit load capacity of the structure that have been obtained theoretically and experimentally in numerous cases.

2.1. Thin-walled beam-columns characterised by similar values of critical loads In this case, the consideration of the terms up to the third-order in the potential energy expression describes correctly the work of the structure and allows for the determination of the load capacity (limit load) in the analysis. It enables one to limit the solution to the rstorder asymptotic approximation and to avoid complex problems that could arise in the determination of the second-order elds and serious issues of the theoretical and numerical nature. In case of thin-walled structures with one axis of symmetry of the cross-section (e.g. a thin-walled channel), an important simplication lies in a possibility to consider the interaction of the global mode with each local mode of buckling and a selection of the most dangerous local mode in this way. In case of a composite structure made of a material with a high yield point, the determination of load capacity often requires interaction between the buckling modes (mode interaction) to be taken into account. The methods of standard calculations applied to materials with a low yield point can turn out to be insucient when dealing with materials characterised by a high yield point, as they do not always drown the coupled buckling eects. While considering a structure with two axes of symmetry of the cross-section (square and double tee) it should be noted that all terms in the third power in the expression for potential energy are equal to zero. Therefore, when examining only one global and one local mode in the expression describing the system potential energy there is a need to take into account terms in the forth power related to mixed elds of the secondorder. Due to the fact that the conditions of the problem are imposed incorrectly the determination of the mixed mode of the second-order is not only more complex, but not fully correct either. These diculties can be avoided if, apart from the most dangerous basic local mode, the secondary local mode that has the same length of buckling but a dierent nature of symmetry goes under consideration too. The superposition of these two modes leads to the non-symmetrical summing of local deections, and in the expression for potential energy a term in the third power appears that describes the coupled buckling of three modes. When taking into account the primary and secondary local mode in the theoretical analysis, the buckling can be described within the rstorder asymptotic approximation. The secondary local mode is practically identical with the mixed mode of the second-order, and the additional local bending of the thin-walled column caused by the global bending has a mode similar to the secondary local mode. In general, the coupled buckling in columns with two axes of symmetry of the cross-section is less dangerous than in columns with one axis of symmetry.

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For materials characterised by high strength, standard designing of structures does not account for the eect of the interactive buckling. 2.2. Thin-walled beam-columns preceded by the local buckling The scope of application of the problem solution of stability of thin-walled structures only up to the rstorder approximation is limited to the structures for which the eigenvalues of the global and local buckling modes are almost equal. However, structures in which the local buckling precedes the global one, that is to say, where the critical load value of the local buckling mode is lower than the critical value of the global load, are widely used. Such structures can carry the load that much exceeds the load corresponding to the critical value of the local buckling. The analysis of such structures cannot be carried out within the rst-order non-linear approximation. Thus, it is necessary in the analysis to take into consideration the terms of the fourth-order in the structure potential energy. In general, in the analysis of stability with the second-order non-linear approximation, a problem for local, global and mixed modes of the second-order should be solved. However, in case of structures where the local buckling precedes the global one, the main role is played by local modes of the secondorder. Global modes of the second-order for the beam model of the column are equal to zero, and an accurate solution is of little signicance. Neglecting mixed modes of the second-order is possible due to the fact that the proper terms are already considered within the rstorder approximation. The determination of non-linear post-critical coecients and coecients of longitudinal stiness reduction within the non-linear second-order approximation allows for describing the complete behaviour of the thinwalled structure in the elastic range and for taking into consideration the global pre-critical bending as well. Attention should be paid to inaccuracies and imperfections of thin-walled structures, especially the local ones. In order to evaluate properly the load-carrying capacity, the elds of displacements and forces assigned in theoretical calculations as well as actual inaccuracies should be determined. 2.3. Thin-walled girders with one-modal buckling In case of the buckling that can be considered as noncoupled (i.e. one-modal), that is to say when the critical values of the local buckling are signicantly lower than those of the global buckling there are to possibly the most dangerous local modes of buckling. If the structures under consideration has bulkheads or lateral membranes the most dangerous local modes of buckling are the local mode of buckling corresponding to the

lowest value of critical load that has an m 1 half-wave of the buckling mode in the longitudinal direction and the mode that has 3m 3 half-waves of buckling. If the structures under consideration does not have lateral reinforcements the most dangerous local modes of buckling are identical as the above-mentioned local modes and the buckling modes for (m 2), (m 4), as suggested by the results included in [2]. The considerations presented below refer to the theoretical analysis, whereas the individual cases are most frequently solved with analyticalnumerical methods. The application of the nite element method (e.g. ANSYS 5.7) to the calculations seems most appropriate and it will allow to avoid the above-mentioned diculties. In the next section a comparison of the results obtained with the analyticalnumerical method and the FEM (ANSYS) is presented by means of a few examples. The results of critical loads obtained with the analyticalnumerical method are presented in detail in [7], whereas the estimation of the post-critical behaviour of thin-walled structures based on the linear stability analysis [7] proposed in [6] has been approximately determined.

3. Stability and load-carrying capacity in the nite element method The nite element method makes it to possible to determine the structure stability and the analysis of the structure behaviour after stability loss [9]. In order to analyse the stability and the structure performance after its loss, the ANSYS 5.7 package has been used. This software enables the analysis of stability problem in two ways, namely: II. linear analysis of stability (eigenvalues), which allows for determination of the critical load (bifurcation point) and the mode of buckling that corresponds to it (Fig. 1a [10]); II. non-linear analysis of stability that allows for investigation of the post-critical behaviour of the structure and determination of load capacity (Fig. 1b [10]).
F
Bifurcation point Limit load from non-linear buckling analysis

F
Limit load

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1. Force F vs. displacements u for the linear (a) and non-linear (b) analysis of stability.

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arises, which consists in the fact that a model of the model is generated. It would be much easier to compare the results of the FEM and other analytical or analyticalnumerical methods with the real experiment as then boundary conditions would be modelled for the experimental case under consideration in each calculation method. 4. Comparison of the results obtained with the analyticalnumerical method and the nite element method The compared results are presented for multi-layer composite thin-walled structures, in which each layer of the thickness hlayer 0:125 mm is characterised by the following mechanical properties: E1 104 GPa; G 5:15 GPa: E2 10:3 GPa; m12 0:021;

Fig. 2. Multi-layer shell element [3].

The exemplary thin-walled structures under analysis have been discretised using an eight-node, multi-layer shell element with six degrees of freedom in each node (Fig. 2) [4]. The employed element allows one to model a thin-walled multi-layer structure made of maximally 100 layers of various thickness and dierent material properties. In order to analyse the post-critical behaviour of the structure calculations should be made in two stages. The linear analysis of stability should be carried out in the rst step in order to determine a few buckling modes that correspond to the lowest values of critical loads, both for local and global modes. In the second step the non-linear analysis of stability for the model in which the initial shape imperfections corresponding to the lowest modes of buckling are assumed, should be conducted. For the local modes the shape imperfections within the range from 1/100 up to 1/20 of the wall thickness of the thin-walled structure under analysis are assumed, whereas for the global modesfrom 5/1000 up to 1/100 of the girder or beam-column length. In case of the non-linear analysis of the interactive buckling the imperfections in shape corresponding to dierent buckling modes are assumed. Quite a serious problem lies in the determination of the magnitude of imperfections for various modes in such a way that the relation between these imperfections should reect the eect of one buckling mode on the other one. In short, a greater imperfection should be assumed for the mode, which has a stronger eect on stability loss and the modal linear analysis is very helpful here. A very important role in obtaining correct results is played by the proper (as close to reality as possible) modelling of boundary conditions. Modelling of boundary conditions, which correspond to the conditions assumed in other calculation methods (e.g. analytical models or analyticalnumerical ones) is particularly difcult. The nite element method is very often used as a numerical experiment in order to verify the results obtained in the analytical way. And here the main diculty

First, the compressed column with a channel cross-section, made of an eight-layer composite, of the following geometrical dimensions (Fig. 3): b1 50 mm; b2 25 mm; h 8; hlayer 1:0 mm was analysed. In the FEM model assumed in the analysis with the ANSYS 5.7 package only the boundary conditions corresponding to the exural (Euler) global buckling and the local buckling were modelled. Therefore, the global exuraltorsional buckling of the channel is neglected in the comparison of the results. Thin-walled structures for which the values of global and local loads are almost identical are very sensitive to imperfections. The analyticalnumerical method is much easier to apply than the FEM and therefore not competitive in practice. In order to make the values of critical loads that correspond to the global exural buckling mode and the lowest local mode closer to one another, the length of the column under analysis was assumed to be equal to (Fig. 3): L 700 mm. Moreover, the following ply alignment [45/)45/0/0/0/ 0/)45/45]T was assumed. The following values of critical

b2

b1

Fig. 3. Compressed channel section made of an eight-layer composite.

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loads were obtained from the analyticalnumerical method and the FEM: Buckling mode Critical force (kN) Analyticalnumerical ANSYS 5.7 method Global exural Local 7.0 6.74 7.0 6.6

As can be seen, the results obtained with these two methods have been considerably consistent. Next, the limit load capacity for the rst-order approximation was determined by means of the analyticalnumerical method [7] and the FEM. The results of the calculations of the limit load capacity are presented in Fig. 4 for two various variants of the imperfection values:
II. z gl 1=700, zloc 2=100, II. zgl 1=700, z loc 2=10.

The critical global load is destructive as can be easily seen from curve 2 in Fig. 6 where the compression force is presented as a function of the structure shortening. For comparative reasons the original incorrect modelling of the behaviour of the channel section under compression (curve 1) is shown in this gure. Too low a value of the pre-deection corresponding to the global buckling assumed resulted in the fact that during the calculations with the FEM the global mode did not have any inuence, and only the local mode had an eect on the buckling, which is conrmed by the maximum value of the force (curve 1). When the compressive load equal in practice to the local critical load was achieved, then the global buckling mode, to which the descending part of curve 1 corresponds, started to be visible. In Fig. 7 the results obtained only with ANSYS for the compressed channel of the alignment of plies [45/ )45/90/0]S are shown. The following results of critical loads were obtained in the modal analysis: Pgl 8:08 kNglobal exural buckling; Ploc 6:74 kNlocal buckling. Also in this case, the results of the modal analysis suggest the correct modelling of the magnitudes of global imperfections for the channel section (curve 3). The structure performance in the post-critical state shown by means of curves 1 and 2 refers to too low values of global imperfections. This short comparison allows one to state the simple fact that the calculation of the structure with the FEM does not always guarantee correct results. This method is very sensitive to the boundary conditions modelled, the type and size of elements, etc. The next gure (Fig. 8) presents a comparison of the results for the channel section with the following ply alignment [45/)45/0/0]S . The values of critical loads are equal to: Pgl 11:73 kNglobal exural buckling; Ploc 6:71 kNlocal buckling.

When the load-carrying capacity was evaluated a good great consistence was achieved as well. The curves obtained with the analyticalnumerical method break rapidly after reaching the limit load capacity because the method applied describes correctly the rising curve. In Fig. 5, the global exural mode (Fig. 5a), the local buckling mode (Fig. 5b) and the buckling mode corresponding to the limit load capacity are presented. In the further part the buckling of the channel section with the length L 650 mm was analysed. In Fig. 6 only the results of the FEM obtained for the channel section with the following alignment of plies [45/)45/45/)45]S [45/)45/45/)45/)45/45/)45/45]T are shown. In the analyticalnumerical analysis [8] the following values of the critical load were obtained: Pgl 2:77 kNglobal exural buckling; Ploc 6:91 kNlocal buckling.
5 4.5 4 3.5
z*gl=1/700; z*loc=2/100 z*gl=1/700; z*loc=2/10 Approx.1 Approx.2

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 2 4 6

10

12

14

In Fig. 8 curve 1 represents the FEM results, whereas curve 2 shows the results obtained with the approximate method. Curve 2 breaks rapidly, because the applied method describes correctly only a rising curve [8]. A considerable consistence in the evaluation of the loadcarrying capacity of the structure between these two methods was achieved. In the further part of this paper the results for the thin-walled composite box girder with the following geometrical dimensions (Fig. 9):
b 100 mm; L 700 mm; h 10; hlayer 1:25 mm

Force [kN]

Edge shortening [mm]

Fig. 4. Compressive force vs. shortening for the compressed channel section with the ply alignment [45/)45/90/0]S and length L 700 mm.

are presented.

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Fig. 5. (a) Mode of global buckling; (b) local buckling; (c) deformation shape for load equal to carrying capacity and (d) for edge shortening s 8:34 mm.

7.00 6.00

12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 1.loc z*=0.02 2. loc+gl z*=0.05, u/L=0.005

Force [kN]

5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 local + global 2 global

Force [kN]

2000 0 0.0

3. loc+gl z*=0.02, u/L=0.01

1.0

2.0

3 .0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Edge shortening [mm]

Fig. 6. Compressive force vs. shortening for the compressed channel with the ply alignment [45/)45/45/)45]S .

Edge shortening [mm]

Fig. 7. Compressive force vs. shortening for the compressed channel section with the ply alignment [45/)45/90/0]S .

Each girder wall is built of a 10-layer composite. Owing to the length assumed we can speak exclusively about the one-modal (uncoupled) buckling, because the global buckling occurs much above the local one. The next two gures show the results for the box girder under compression, i.e. for the cross-section with two axes of symmetry.

Fig. 10 presents the results for the composite of the ply alignment [15/)15/15/)15/15]S , whereas Fig. 11for the alignment [45/)45/45/)45/45]S . The theoretical local values of critical loads are equal to Ploc 9:06 kN (Fig. 10) and Ploc 17:21 kN (Fig. 11) respectively. The post-critical range in the analytical numerical method was modelled with two local buckling

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14.00 12.00 10.00

425

40.00 35.00 30.00

Force [kN]

8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 FEM Approx. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Force [kN]

25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 0 1 2 3 4 Edge shortening [mm] 5 6

MES Analit

Edge shortening [mm]

Fig. 8. Compressive force vs. shortening for the compressed channel section with the ply alignment [45/)45/0/0]S .

Fig. 11. Compressive force vs. shortening for the compressed girder with the ply alignment [45/)45/45/)45/45]S .

h b L

b
Fig. 9. Thin-walled composite girder.

modes, i.e. the so-called primary and secondary local mode with the number of half-waves three times higher in the longitudinal direction. In the whole strongly overcritical range under analysis a good consistence of the results was obtained. In the case where the girder under analysis is loaded with a bending moment we have a cross-section with one axis of symmetry not reinforced with lateral membranes. The calculations were conducted for the following alignment of ten plies [45/)45/45/)45/0]S . The theoretical critical value of the bending moment equals Mloc 725 N m. Fig. 12 presents the results obtained with the FEMcurve 1 and with the approximate analyticalnumerical methodcurves 2 and 3. Curve 2 has been obtained for the local primary buckling mode (the number of half-waves equal to m 9 in the longitudinal direction), the second local mode for the number of half-waves 3m 27 and m 2 7, whereas curve 3 is obtained when one more local mode m 4 5 has been taken into account [2]. A good

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Fig. 10. Compressive force vs. shortening for the compressed girder with the ply alignment [15/)15/15/)15/15]S .

Fig. 12. Bending moment vs. shortening of compression ange for the pure bended girder with the ply alignment [45/)45/45/)45/0]S .

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comparison of the calculations obtained with the nite element method and the approximate method based on the linear analysis of critical loads. A good consistency (up to 20%) of the calculations results obtained with these two methods has been obtained. The attention has been drawn to the advantages that result from the application of the modal analysis of composite structures stability.

References
[1] Budiansky B, Hutchinson JW. Dynamic buckling of imperfectionsensitive structures. In: Goertler H, editor. Applied mechanics Proceedings of the XI International Congress on Applied Mechanics, Munich, 1964. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1964. p. 636 51. [2] Byskov E. Elastic buckling problem with innitely many local modes. Report no. 327. The Danish Center for Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, The Technical University of Denmark; 1986. [3] Carlsson LA, Pipes RB. Experimental characterization of advanced composite materials. Lancaster, Basel: Technomic Publishing Co; 1997. 182 p. [4] Element references for ANSYS rev. 5.7. Houston, USA: Ansys Inc. [5] Koiter WT. General theory of mode interaction in stiened plate and shell structures. WTHD Report 590, Delft; 1976. 41 p. [6] Kolakowski Z. A semi-analytical method of interactive buckling of thin-walled elastic structures in the second-order approximation. Int J Solids Struct 1996;33(25):377990. [7] Kolakowski Z, Krolak M. Modal coupled instabilities of thinwalled composite plate and shell structures. Compos Struct [in press]. [8] Krolak M, editor. Post-critical states and limit load-carrying capacity of thin-walled girders with at walls. Warsaw, Lodz: State Scientic Publishers; 1990. p. 553 [in Polish]. [9] Kubiak T, Kowal-Michalska K. Application of the ANSYS package in the determination of the load-carrying capacity of thin-walled multi-layer orthotropic structures. In: Conference Proceedings of FEM Programs in Computer Aided Analysis, Design and Manufacturing. Warsaw, Rynia; 2001. p. 14958. [10] Structural analysis guide for ANSYS rev. 5.7. Houston, USA: Ansys Inc.

Fig. 13. Buckling mode of the girder under bending with the ply alignment [45/)45/45/)45/0]S .

consistence (up to 20%) of the results obtained with the two methods has also been achieved here. In Fig. 13 the mode of strain of the girder under bending is presented. This mode is not identical for each half-wave of the girder strain, which is explained by the fact that the local modes for m < 9 have been taken into account in the evaluation of the girder load-carrying capacity, as suggested in [68]. The presented comparison of the results has been made for elastic states neglecting a possible failure of individual layers. When one of the failure criteria is assumed it will be possible to evaluate the limit loadcarrying capacity of the structure properly [8].

5. Conclusions The paper ventures to outline the main problems that arise in the calculation of the load-carrying capacity of composite structures as well as to present a