Experiment No.1 Aim: To study the working of Motherboard.

Date:

Theory:
In personal computers, a motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the system, providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main-board, system board, planar board or, on Apple computers, the logic board.[1] A motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane, it also connects the central processing unit and hosts other subsystems and devices. A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components connected to the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for videodisplay and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself. An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external components. This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.

Modern motherboards include, at a minimum: sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors may be installed[2] slots into which the system's main memory is to be installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips) a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's frontside bus, main memory, and peripheral buses non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset) power connectors, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards. Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example, on the Apple II and

rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC gen. Additional peripherals such as disk controller and serial ports were provided as expansion cards. Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat. CPU sockets A CPU socket or slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including a physical structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most importantly, forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets on the motherboard can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture. A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support the CPU series and speed. Integrated peripherals With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers. For example, the ECS RS485M-M,[5] a typical modern budget motherboard for computers based on AMD processors, has on-board support for a very large range of peripherals: disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 6 SATA drives (including RAID 0/1 support) integrated graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output Fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 12 USB ports IrDA controller for infrared data communication (e.g. with an IrDA-enabled cellular phone or printer) temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components

Peripheral card slots

A typical motherboard of 2009 will have connections depending on its standard.

different

number

of

A standard ATX motherboard will typically have one PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card, two conventional PCI slots for various expansion cards, and one PCI-E 1x (which will eventually supersede PCI). A standard EATX motherboard will have one PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card, and a varying number of PCI and PCIE 1x slots. It can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot. (This varies between brands and models.) Some motherboards have two PCI-E 16x slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware, or use a special graphics technology calledSLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for ATI). These allow 2 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming,video editing etc.

Form factor Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes called computer form factor, some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBMcompatible systems are designed to fit various case sizes. As of 2007, most desktop computer motherboards use one of these[which?] standard form factorseven those found in Macintosh and Sun computers, which have not been built from commodity components. A case's motherboard and PSU form factor must all match, though some smaller form factor motherboards of the same family will fit larger cases. For example, an ATX case will usually accommodate a microATX motherboard.

Conclusion: The study of the working of motherboard was completed

successfully.

Experiment No.2

Date:

Aim: To study the working of Switching Mode Power Supply. Theory:

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (such as a personal computer) while converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually employed to efficiently provide a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from the input voltage. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions (which minimizes wasted energy). Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight.

Interior view of an ATX SMPS: A: input EMI filtering; below A: bridge rectifier; B: input filter capacitors; Between B and C: primary side heat sink; C: transformer; Between C and D: secondary side heat sink; D: output filter coil; E: output filter capacitors. The coil and large yellow capacitor below E are additional input filtering components that are mounted directly on the power input connector and are not part of the main circuit board. Input rectifier stage If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is called rectification. The rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. This is a feature of larger supplies to permit operation from nominally 120 V or 240 V supplies. The rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor. Special control techniques can be employed by the SMPS to force the average input current to follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage, correcting the power factor. An SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage. An SMPS designed for AC input can often be run from a DC supply (for 230 V AC this would be 330 V DC), as the DC passes through the rectifier stage unchanged.

Inverter stage This section diagram. refers to the block marked chopper in the block

The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the rectifier stage described above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz. The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The output voltage is optically coupled to the input and thus very tightly controlled. The switching is implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier. MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on-resistance and a high currenthandling capacity. Voltage converter and output rectifier If the output is required to usually the case in mains power drive the primary winding of converts the voltage up or down secondary winding. The output serves this purpose. be isolated from the input, as is supplies, the inverted AC is used to a high-frequency transformer. This to the required output level on its transformer in the block diagram

If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky diodesare commonly used as the rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster recovery times than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have even lower conducting state voltage drops. The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components with lower capacitance and inductance are needed.

Applications Switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage range switch may be required. Switch-mode power supplies can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies and voltages.

Conclusion:
successfully.

The

study

of

the

working

of

SMPS

was

completed

Experiment No.3

Date:

Aim: To study the working of Hard Disk Drive(HDD). Theory:

A hard disk drive (HDD; also hard drive,hard disk, or disk drive)is a device for storing and retrieving digital information, primarily computer data. It consists of one or more rigid (hence "hard") rapidly rotating discs (often referred to as platters), coated with magnetic material and with magnetic heads arranged to write data to the surfaces and read it from them. Hard drives are classified as non-volatile,random access, digital, magnetic, data storage devices.

Technology
Magnetic recording A hard disk drive records data by magnetizing a thin film of ferromagnetic material on a disk. User data is length limited code and the encoded data written as a pattern of sequential magnetic transitions on the disk. The data is represented by the time between transitions. The self-clocking nature of the run-length limited codes used enables the clocking of the data during reads. The data is read from the disk by detecting the transitions and then decoding the written run-length limited data back to the user data. A typical HDD design consists of a spindle that holds flat circular disks, also called platters, which hold the recorded data. The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually aluminum alloy, glass, or ceramic, and are coated with a shallow layer of magnetic material typically 1020 nm in depth, with an outer layer of carbon for protection. For reference, a standard piece of copy paper is 0.070.18 millimeter (70,000180,000 nm).

The platters in contemporary HDDs are spun at speeds varying from 4,200 rpm in energy-efficient portable devices, to 15,000 rpm for high performance servers. Information is written to and read from a platter as it rotates past devices called read and write heads that operate very close (tens of nanometers in new drives) over the magnetic surface. The read-andwrite head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under it. In modern drives there is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is moved using a voice call actuator or in some older designs a stepper motor. The heads are kept from contacting the platter surface by the air that is extremely close to the platter; that air moves at or near the platter speed. The record and playback head are mounted on a block called a slider, and the surface next to the platter is shaped to keep it just barely out of contact. This forms a type of air bearing. In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects. To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers, separated by a 3-atom layer of the non-magnetic element ruthenium, and the two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other.

Components A typical hard disk drive has two electric motors; a disk motor that spins the disks and an actuator (motor) that positions the read/write head assembly across the spinning disks. The disk motor has an external rotor attached to the disks; the stator windings are fixed in place. Opposite the actuator at the end of the head support arm is the read-write head (near center in photo); thin printed-circuit cables connect the read-write heads to amplifier electronics mounted at the pivot of the actuator. A flexible, somewhat U-shaped, ribbon cable, seen edge-on below and to the left of the actuator arm continues the connection to the controller board on the opposite side. Capacity The capacity of an HDD may appear to the end user to be a different amount than the amount stated by a drive or system manufacturer due to amongst other things, different units of measuring capacity, capacity consumed in formatting the drive for use by an operating system and/or redundancy. Units of storage capacity The capacity of hard disk drives is given by manufacturers in megabytes(1 MB=1,000,00bytes),gigabytes(1GB=1,000,000,000bytes) orterabytes(1TB=1,000,000,000,000 bytes).

HDD formatting The presentation of an HDD to its host is determined by its controller. This may differ substantially from the drive's native interface particularly in mainframes or servers. Modern HDDs, such as SAS and SATA drives, appear at their interfaces as a contiguous set of logical blocks; typically 512 bytes long but the industry is in the process of changing to 4,096 byte logical blocks; see Advanced Format. The process of initializing these logical blocks on the physical disk platters is called low level formatting which is usually performed at the factory and is not normally changed in the field. High level formatting then writes the file system structures into selected logical blocks to make the remaining logical blocks available to the host OS and its applications. The operating system file system uses some of the disk space to organize files on the disk, recording their file names and the sequence of disk areas that represent the file.

Performance characteristics
Access time The factors that limit the time to access the data on a hard disk drive (Access time) are mostly related to the mechanical nature of the rotating disks and moving heads. Seek time is a measure of how long it takes the head assembly to travel to the track of the disk that contains data. Rotational latency is incurred because the desired disk sector may not be directly under the head when data transfer is requested. These two delays are on the order of milliseconds each. The bit rate or data transfer rate (once the head is in the right position) creates delay which is a function of the number of blocks transferred; typically relatively small, but can be quite long with the transfer of large contiguous files. Power consumption Power consumption has become increasingly important, not only in mobile devices such as laptops but also in server and desktop markets. Increasing data center machine density has led to problems delivering sufficient power to devices (especially for spin up), and getting rid of the waste heat subsequently produced, as well as environmental and electrical cost concerns (see green computing). Heat dissipation is tied directly to power consumption, and as drives age, disk failure rates increase at higher drive temperatures. Disk interface families used in personal computers Serial ATA (SATA). The SATA data cable has one data pair for differential transmission of data to the device, and one pair for differential receiving from the device, just like EIA-222. That requires that data be transmitted serially. A similar differential signaling system is used in RS485, LocalTalk, USB, Firewire, and differential SCSI. Serial attached SCSI (SAS). The SAS is a new generation serial communication protocol for devices designed to allow for much higher speed data transfers and is compatible with SATA. SAS uses a mechanically identical data and power connector to standard 3.5-inch SATA1/SATA2 HDDs, and many server-oriented SAS RAID controllers are also capable of addressing SATA hard drives. SAS uses serial communication instead of the parallel method found in traditional SCSI devices but still uses SCSI commands.

Integrated Drive Electronics(IDE), later renamed to ATA, with the alias P-ATA or PATA ("parallel ATA") retroactively added upon introduction of the new variant Serial ATA. The original name reflected the innovative integration of HDD controller with HDD itself, which was not found in earlier disks. Moving the HDD controller from the interface card to the disk drive helped to standardize interfaces, and to reduce the cost and complexity. The 40-pin IDE/ATA connection transfers 16 bits of data at a time on the data cable. The data cable was originally 40-conductor, but later higher speed requirements for data transfer to and from the hard drive led to an "ultra DMA" mode, known as UDMA. Small Computer System Interface(SCSI), originally named SASI for Shugart Associates System Interface, was an early competitor of ESDI. SCSI disks were standard on servers, workstations,Commodore Amiga, and Apple Macintosh computers through the mid-1990s, by which time most models had been transitioned to IDE (and later, SATA) family disks. Only in 2005 did the capacity of SCSI disks fall behind IDE disk technology, though the highest-performance disks are still available in SCSI, SAS and Fiber Channel only. The range limitations of the data cable allows for external SCSI devices. Originally SCSI data cables used single ended (common mode) data transmission, but server class SCSI could use differential transmission, either low voltage differential(LVD) or high voltage differential(HVD).

Conclusion: The study of the working of Hard Disk Drive(HDD) was

completed successfully.

Experiment No.4

Date:

Aim:To study the components and construction of floppy disk drive. Theory: A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. They are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD). Floppy disks, initially as 8-inch (200 mm) media and later in 5.25-inch (133 mm) and 3.5-inch (90 mm) sizes, were a ubiquitous form of data storage . Parts of the Floppy Disk The floppy disk stores information from computers and has two main parts: the protective components and recording components Protective Components The protective shutter/spring. components consist of the housing and

Housing A square protective outer plastic shell with two halves protects the inner contents of the floppy. Shutter and Spring The shutter and the spring protect the information recorded on the disk. The shutter is a piece of metal over the housing. It slides over when inserted into the floppy drive, allowing access to the floppy and its

contents. The spring closes the shutter once the disk is removed to keep fingerprints and dust off the floppy.

Recording Components Several components recording process inside the floppy relate to the

Magnetic Disk The magnetic disk is a round piece of plastic coated with iron oxide, which can be magnetized. When you save information to a disk, a recording head creates a magnetic pattern on the iron oxide. This pattern stores your words or pictures in a form that the computer can read the next time you put the disk in. However, if the writeprotect tab is open, you cannot save data. Write-Protect Tab This little plastic rectangle is in the upper right corner of most disks. It slides up to reveal a square hole in the housing (or slides down, to cover the hole). When the hole is open, the disk is locked. Your computer won't allow you to add anything to the disk. Hub The center of the magnetic disk contains a metal hub containing holes. These holes fit over spindles inside the computer and hold the disk in place while it spins.

Paper Rings The magnetic disk is sandwiched between two white paper rings. The two rings are glued down to the plastic housing and stay still while the disk spins. They clean the disk by removing microscopic bits of dust.

Plastic Flap Under one of the paper rings is a plastic flap. One end is glued down, and the plastic is bent a little. Like a simple spring, it pushes the paper ring tight against the surface of the magnetic disk.

How a Floppy Disk Works The following six steps explain how these parts of a floppy disk work to record data.

Step 1: Exposing the Recording Surface: When you insert the floppy disk into the drive, the shutter moves to the side to expose the magnetic recording surface on the disk. Step 2: Sending Signals From the Circuit Board Next, levers and gears move two read/write heads until they almost touch the magnetic disk on either side. These heads, which are tiny electromagnets, use magnetic pulses to change the orientation of metallic particles embedded in the disk's coating.

The floppy drive's controller board sends signals to drive's circuit board, including data and instructions writing data to disk. The circuit board then translates instructions into signals to control the movement of disk and the read/write heads. Step 3: Checking for Write Protection

the for the the

Next, the circuit board checks if the disk is write protected. If disk access is a write instruction, the circuit board verifies that light is not visible through the write-protect notch. If the notch is open and a beam from a light emitting diode can be detected, the drive knows the disk is write-protected and refuses to record new data. Step 4: Spinning the Disk Once the circuit board verifies that data can be written, motor located beneath the disk in the drive spins a shaft. The shaft then engages a notch on the disks hub, causing the disk to spin. Step 5: Positioning the Read/Write Heads Signals from the circuit board then direct a stepper motor, which can turn a specific amount in either direction. This motor positions the read/write heads over the correct location on the recording surface of the disk. Step 6: Writing the Data When the heads are in the correct position, electrical impulses create a magnetic field in one of the heads. Data is written to either the top or bottom surface of the disk.

Conclusion: The study of construction and working of floppy disk drive was completed successfully.